Rembrandt David and Uriah description of the painting. Biblical stories: King David
20.Rembrandt and Dutch
17th century painting
in the Hermitage collection.
The collection of paintings by Rembrandt, stored in the Hermitage, is known throughout the world. It consists of works from different times: the earliest of them is dated 1631, the latest dates back to the end of the artist’s life. These are portraits, paintings on biblical themes and on subjects from ancient mythology. Many of them are recognized masterpieces of the great Dutchman.
The museum has a separate room for Rembrandt's paintings. There are also some works by his Dutch students here.
“Portrait of a Scientist” is the earliest of Rembrandt’s paintings in the Hermitage. It is the portrait genre that occupies an extremely important place in the work of the great master.
"Portrait of a Scientist" is the traditional name of the painting, but who the person represented on the canvas actually was is unknown. The book lying in front of him and the pen in his hand indicate, perhaps, academic pursuits.
Flora"– one of the most famous works in the Hermitage collection. The work was performed by Rembrandt in the year of his marriage to Saskia van Uylenburch. For a long time it was believed that the artist captured his young wife here.
Descent from the Cross
Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606–1669), Holland, 1634
"Abraham's Sacrifice"- a masterpiece of the dynamic, expressive Baroque style in the work of Rembrandt. The violent movement in the picture is determined by the moment captured in it: an angel quickly appears, a knife is depicted falling, which the shocked Abraham dropped, and the father’s palm mercifully covers his son’s face.
"Portrait of Barthier Martens" for a long time mistakenly considered to be a depiction of the artist's mother. Only at the beginning of the 20th century. it was established that the master's model was Barthier Martens (1596–1678), the wife of Herman Domer, a cabinetmaker and frame maker. One of the sons of Barthier and Herman, Lambert Domer, was a student of Rembrandt and later became famous landscape painter. Rembrandt, the most expensive painter in Amsterdam during this period, painted paired portraits of the spouses, which Barthier obviously treasured very much. She bequeathed them to Lambert with the condition that he would make copies of them for his brothers and sisters.
Painting "David's Farewell to Jonathan" represents an episode from the Old Testament (1 Samuel 20:41, 42). King Saul, suspecting his commander David of wanting to seize the throne, decided to kill him. Saul’s son, Prince Jonathan, who loved David “as his own soul,” informed him of his father’s plan. Rembrandt depicted the meeting of friends before David's flight, when they "both wept together, but David wept more."
"Holy Family"- one of Rembrandt’s most famous paintings on this subject, which the master turned to more than once. The scene presented by the artist seems to be an ordinary episode from the life of a modest family, but it contains a deep symbolic meaning.
IN late period The creative master most often painted people of advanced years. Often, residents of the ghetto, an area of Amsterdam inhabited by Jews, posed for him.
Portraits of old people are characterized by a composition with figures presented from the chest to the waist. As a rule, those portrayed are depicted sitting in motionless poses, with their hands calmly folded in front of them. The background of these paintings is neutral, the details are few, and the coloring is dominated by brown and red tones. Models' faces and hands are highlighted bright light. Gradually fading, it flickers in the colors that convey the dark clothes of the characters and the backgrounds of the portraits.
Portrait of an old Jewish man
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn (1606–1669), Holland, 1654
Sometimes Rembrandt painted the same model several times. Thus, the elderly woman depicted in “Portrait of an Old Lady” posed for the master for his other works.
The painting arrived at the Hermitage as "Portrait of Rembrandt's Mother" not by chance: in the 18th and 19th centuries. many of the artist’s works were considered to be images of his relatives.
The outfit of an elderly woman with an unusual headdress is reminiscent of the fictional costumes of the so-called troniers.
The face with senile wrinkles, hands with knobby joints are rendered with dense, energetic brushstrokes, characteristic of the artist’s late manner.
The senile faces in Rembrandt's portraits are usually characterized by an expression of deep spiritual sadness. The images of self-absorbed old people embody both the wisdom and sadness that came with the years of life lived.
However "Portrait of an Old Man in Red" represents a person in whose face and posture one can feel dignity and strength of character.
Young woman trying on earrings» – small painting, which captures an episode from everyday life. However, in the art of the 17th century. Such stories contained an allegorical meaning. Thus, a character admiring his reflection in the mirror served as a reminder of such human vices as vanity and vanity.
At the same time, the artist created a charming female image, accurately conveying the heroine’s relaxed gesture, her natural grace and lively smile. An ordinary scene is painted with a soft mood. A big role in its creation is played by the color, which is made up of light shades of red and brown, permeated with light.
"Haman Discovers His Fate"(“David and Uriah”?) – a picture of the historical genre. Its plot goes back to the Old Testament, but there are two opinions about which biblical episode is presented here (hence the two names).
A version of the story about King David and his general Uriah arose in the 20th century. Having fallen in love with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, David sent her husband to war with a letter to the military commander - an order to send Uriah to certain death (2 Samuel 11:14). In this case, Uriah is depicted in the foreground of the picture, the characters in the background are King David in a crown and the prophet Nathan. However, this interpretation is contradicted by the absence of a letter in the hand of the main
To the masterpieces of the portrait genre in late creativity artist belongs "Portrait of the poet Jeremias de Dekker."
The work was written in Last year the life of Dekker (1606–1666), a friend and admirer of Rembrandt.
The artist depicted a person close to him not in a fictitious attire, but in a strict black suit with a flat white collar. The poet is presented as deeply immersed in himself. The transparent shadow from the brim of the tall hat enhances the mood of sad detachment that can be read on the model’s face (a technique characteristic of Rembrandt).
"Return of the Prodigal Son"– one of the peaks of Rembrandt’s creativity.
The plot of the picture is borrowed from the Gospel parable about prodigal son(Luke 15:11–32) A certain young man, having received his part of the inheritance from his father, “went to a distant place and there squandered his property, living dissolutely. When he had lived through everything, a great famine arose in that country, and he began to be in need.” He herded pigs, begged, and went hungry. Need forced the unfortunate man to return to his father's house.
"Danae"- Rembrandt's recognized masterpiece. The date on the canvas is 1636. However, it is known that around 1643 the artist returned to work on the work, largely changing its concept and pictorial solution. There are many mysteries in the history of "Danae". Probably in 1656 she was in Rembrandt's house, and in 1660 she had not yet left Holland. In 1755, “Danae” appears in the Crozat collection, which contained at least six works by different authors on the same subject. Rembrandt's painting was placed in the Crozat Gallery opposite Titian's "Danae Receiving Jupiter as a Golden Shower."
The history of the collection of Rembrandt paintings in the Hermitage began much earlier than the museum itself arose.
The first of the master’s paintings brought to Russia is "David's farewell to Jonathan." The work was purchased on behalf of Emperor Peter I in Amsterdam at the sale of the famous collection of Jan van Beuningen in Holland, organized in 1717 before its owner left for South America(as ruler of the island of Curacao, at that time a Dutch colony).
At first, the painting decorated one of the interiors of the Monplaisir Palace in Peterhof, and in 1882 it entered the Hermitage.
The main part of the collection was formed during the reign of Catherine II. The Empress, who ruled during the Age of Enlightenment and embraced its spirit, patronized the arts. She decided to create art gallery, which would be famous in Europe.
A lucky chance helped the Russian empress receive in 1764 paintings collected by the Berlin merchant Gotzkowsky for Frederick II, the King of Prussia. The expenses of the war forced the monarch to refuse to purchase works of painting, and the merchant offered to cover his debt to the Russian court with them. The year of this acquisition is considered the founding date of the Hermitage. At the same time, they began to build the Small Hermitage - the building where the paintings were housed.
Dutch painting
Not a single national school of painting has seen such a rapid flowering of still life. Only the ability of the Dutch master to see a particle of existence in the smallest things raised this genre to the level of leading ones.
Expressing new artistic views society and serving a wider consumer than before - the ordinary citizen of the first Western Europe bourgeois republic, Dutch painters found an intelligible, vibrant artistic language.
The achievements of Dutch artists marked a new important stage in the progressive development of realism, significantly enriching and deepening its content and creative method. They had a huge influence on contemporary and future art. TO the best examples Dutch painting all progressive figures addressed art XVII I-XIX centuries. To this day, bold achievements remain in the arsenal of realist artists. Dutch school, and her paintings, imbued with a life-affirming feeling, continue to give the viewer true artistic pleasure.
The Dutch school gave humanity a galaxy of outstanding masters led by Hals, Rembrandt, Ruisdael and Vermeer of Delft. Their works have forever entered the world treasury of art and, as the greatest manifestations of human genius, are carefully preserved in museums and art galleries.
The State Hermitage has one of the world's largest collections of Dutch painting. Its first exhibits appeared on the banks of the Neva in 1716, long before the museum was founded. This year, Osip Solovyov purchased one hundred and twenty-one paintings for Peter I in Holland, and after that Yuri Kologrivov bought another one hundred and seventeen paintings in Brussels and Antwerp. Somewhat later, one hundred and nineteen works were added to this collection, sent to the king by the English merchants Zwan and Elsey. Dutch paintings, along with Flemish ones, prevailed here: according to the biographer of Peter I, Yakov Shtelin, the tsar’s favorite artists were Rubens, van Dyck, Rembrandt, Steen, Wouwerman, Bruegel, van der Werff and van Ostade, and his favorite subjects were scenes from life “ Dutch men and women." This commitment to everything Dutch should not be seen as merely a manifestation of the personal taste of “Skipper Peter,” as Peter was called during his stay in Holland. Dutch burgher democracy, which found vivid expression in national painting, was especially close to the nature of democratic transformations in Russia at that time in the field of culture and everyday life. But, of course, not only artistic interest was aroused in the Russian viewer by the paintings of Dutch painters.
In the second half of the 18th century, many significant works of Dutch painting migrated to St. Petersburg. As part of the collection of G. Brühl, acquired in Dresden (in 1769), the Hermitage received four portraits by Rembrandt, four landscapes by J. Reisdahl, paintings by G. Terborch, F. Miris, A. van Ostade, A. Wouwerman and others. The Crozat collection in Paris, which arrived in 1772, brought to the museum such Rembrandt masterpieces as Danaë and The Holy Family.
The Hermitage collection of the Dutch was further enriched by the collections of Baudouin (Paris), Walpole (England) and the first wife of Napoleon I, Empress Josephine, acquired for the Hermitage in late XVIII - early XIX century. The Hermitage was then able to include in its exhibition “The Sacrifice of Abraham”, “The Descent from the Cross” and a dozen other canvases by Rembrandt, works by the fashionable XVIII century G. Dou, three best paintings by P. Potter (among them the master’s masterpiece - “The Farm”), “A Glass of Lemonade” by G. Terborch, “Breakfast” by G. Metsu, two amazingly subtle executions floral still life J. van Hey-sum and many other equally significant works.
An entertaining plot, small size and relatively low prices made Dutch paintings accessible to a large circle of Russian collectors. They were acquired not only by members of the reigning house and the highest St. Petersburg nobility, but also by representatives of more democratic circles of the population. These collections will subsequently become the main source of replenishment of the Hermitage collection. Thus, in 1915, the museum received a huge collection of “small Dutchmen” acquired back in 1910 by the famous Russian scientist and traveler P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who collected seven hundred and nineteen paintings by three hundred and forty authors. With this collection, one hundred and ninety new names appeared in the museum's catalogue. Thus, if earlier the Dutch collection of the Hermitage stood out among other museums in the world in terms of the number of masterpieces, now it has taken one of the first places in the number of names represented in it, including the rarest ones.
The Hermitage collection of Dutch painting numbers over 1,000 paintings and ranks among the first in the world in terms of the number of masterpieces and names, including the rarest. Paintings by Dutch artists occupy six halls of the New Hermitage, the largest of which is the Tent Hall, where the main exhibition of paintings by the so-called Little Dutch is located. The works of leading masters of various genres that became widespread in the art of Holland in the 17th century are presented: landscape painters Jan van Goyen and Jacob Ruisdael, masters of the everyday genre Jan Steen, Gerard Terborch, Pieter de Hooch, Andrian and Isak van Ostade, animal painter Paul Potter, perhaps the greatest representative of this genre throughout its history, the masters of still life Willem Klass Heda and Willem Kalf.
One of the most outstanding and daring Dutch painters of this period, Frans Hals is represented by two magnificent works - "Portrait of a Young Man with a Glove in His Hand" (c.1659) and " Portrait of a man"(until 1660).
Original taken from marinagra in Bible stories: King David
Lorenzo Monaco. David. 1408
Perhaps in the entire Old Testament we will not find a hero as bright and multifaceted as the Israeli king David. Unlike other Old Testament characters, whose characters are only guessed behind the capacious but laconic biblical text, the image of David is recreated in ancient chronicles carefully, in detail, in relief, and the long and amazing story of his life is retold in detail and slowly (1 Book of Samuel, chapter 16 - 1 Kings, chapter 2). 
Giovanni de Grassi. Miniature depicting King David from the Visconti Book of Hours, Italy. 1389
Who is David? The chosen one of the Lord, the people's favorite, the darling of fate. A young golden-haired shepherd who, secretly from the first Israeli king Saul, who was displeasing to God, was crowned king by the formidable prophet Samuel. Legendary hero, who, without weapons or armor, relying only on help from above, went into battle with the giant Goliath and defeated him. An inspired poet who praised the Lord in his psalms. A brilliant musician who played the harp and cured King Saul, who was tormented by mental illness. A lonely exile, forced to hide in the mountains from the persecution of a maddened king. A man endowed with a fierce power of feelings, be it selfless friendship with Saul's son Jonathan or passionate love to a woman. An irresistible man who easily won the hearts of virgins and married matrons: Saul’s young daughter Michal, the wise Abigail and the beautiful Bathsheba. A criminal ruler who sent the military leader Uriah, the husband of his beloved Bathsheba, to certain death. An inconsolable father mourning his rebel son Absalom. A subtle diplomat and politician who, after the death of King Saul and his sons in the battle with the Philistines, managed to defend his right to the throne, retain it, despite all intrigues, and found a dynasty. Great Sovereign and the military leader who conquered the Philistines, created a powerful power and made the “city of David” Jerusalem the capital of his state.
Psalter of the Duke of Berry. 1386
David is one of the few Old Testament heroes endowed with direct speech, and these are not individual remarks or abstract teachings, but an open lyrical expression of feelings. In touching dialogues with Jonathan, in mournful laments for Saul and Jonathan, for the rebellious son Absalom, and most importantly - in his sublime psalms to the glory of the Lord, David appears before us as a noble, pious, sincere man.
Fra Angelico. King David. 1443-45
Naturally, David attracted the attention of European artists more than other heroes of the Old Testament. But the reasons for this interest are not limited to the literary merits of the biblical chronicles. David owes his popularity not only to the expressive texts of the chronicles, but also to the Psalter. The Psalter (collection of the psalms of David) is the most popular book of the Old Testament in the Christian world. The Psalms are constantly referred to by preachers and authors of theological treatises; prophecies about the coming coming of Christ are sought in them; they are part of church services, have many musical and poetic arrangements. The author of most of the psalms, the biblical king David, became a constant spiritual companion of believers for many centuries. Images of David the psalmist with a harp in his hands often decorated book miniatures (illustrations to the Old Testament and the Psalter), as well as stone carvings and stained glass windows of cathedrals.
Klaas Sluter. Prophet David. Well of the Prophets in the Chanmol Monastery, Dijon. 1395-1406
However, most of all, the respectful attitude towards David is explained by the fact that he is considered the direct ancestor of Christ. The Jewish belief that the coming savior - the Messiah - would come from the house of David was adopted by Christianity. Theologians interpreted the image of David as the previous incarnation of Christ, and episodes from the life of the Israeli king as the saving acts of Jesus. Thus, in the battle between David and the giant Goliath, theologians saw a duel between Christ and the Antichrist.
In addition, ancient legends often acquired a purely modern meaning that was not associated with religious symbolism. This was the case in Renaissance Florence. David became a national hero for the Florentines. In the young winner of Goliath, they saw a symbol of their city, which defended independence in the fight against powerful neighbors. The reader, of course, will immediately remember the main attraction of Florence - the famous statue of Michelangelo, but our conversation will not begin with it. Michelangelo's magnificent David had predecessors, and getting to know them will help us better understand the originality of the great sculptor's plan.
Donatello. David. 1408
The parade of Goliath's conquerors opens with David (1408) by Donatello, Michelangelo's illustrious predecessor. It is significant that marble statue originally intended for the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, but in 1416 it was acquired by the Signoria (city council) and installed in front of their residence Palazzo Vecchio (Palazzo della Signoria). A meaningful inscription was added to the sculpture: “The Gods help the brave fighters for the fatherland against terrible enemies.”
To a modern viewer, however, the statue is unlikely to seem convincing. A somewhat arrogant young man in a smart cape stands in a casual, even mannered, pose. At his feet lies the huge head of the defeated Goliath. This David bears little resemblance to a humble shepherd boy, much less to a fearless warrior who killed a giant with a well-aimed blow from a stone fired from a sling and then beheaded him.
Donatello. David. 1430
The second time Donatello turned to the same subject was in 1430. For the first time in Italian Renaissance sculpture, a completely nude figure was created. The smoothly polished shiny bronze surface of the statue emphasizes the lightness of the figure of young David. His body seems too effeminate, even a little feminine. The winner of Goliath in a wide-brimmed shepherd's hat looks thoughtfully at the terrifying head, as if not realizing the feat he has accomplished. The statue originally belonged to the Medici family, but in 1495 it was installed in one of the courtyards of the Palazzo Vecchio.
Andrea Verrocchio. David. 1473
The sculpture by Andrea Verrocchio (1473) is also close in concept to this work: a slender bronze figure, a sword in his hand, the severed head of Goliath at his feet. Verrocchio's David is perhaps more courageous than Donatell's. And this work was, in turn, bought by the Signoria from the owners, the Medici family. The Palazzo Vecchio has already created a whole collection of works glorifying biblical hero, when in 1504 a marble colossus, Michelangelo’s “David,” commissioned by the Florentine Republic, rose to the square in front of the Palazzo.
Michelangelo. David. 1504
Let us imagine that humanity must choose one single work of art that represents all that is best in the youth of the Earth. Probably Michelangelo's David would have been chosen. It is difficult to imagine a more attractive image: sublime and at the same time completely earthly, spiritual and at the same time sensual, full of nobility and inner strength, mature courage and youthful determination.
Unlike Donatello and Verrocchio, Michelangelo depicted not the winner, but a warrior-defender who is preparing for battle. The sculptor abandoned the spectacular juxtaposition of the handsome young body of David and the terrifying head of Goliath. By rejecting this particular illustrative solution, Michelangelo imbued his work with a deep humanistic meaning.
Lorenzo Bernini. David. 1623
Donatello's David is victorious by the grace of God. In itself, the charming shepherd boy is not so significant; he is only strong as an instrument of the Lord. When looking at the beautiful strong-willed face and powerful figure of Michelangelo’s David, it becomes clear that this athlete will have enough own strength to win any victory. It was precisely this proud image of David the fighter that was in tune with the era High Renaissance with her belief in the limitless possibilities of man and is very close to the young Michelangelo, the heroic nature of his talent.
Andrea del Castagno. Young David. 1430s
Titian Vecellio. David and Goliath. 1542-44
Caravaggio. David with the head of Goliath. 1609-10
Orazio Gentileschi. David with the head of Goliath. 1610
Guido Reni.
David with the head of Goliath. 1605
Domenico Fetti. David with the head of Goliath. 1620
The battle between David and Goliath was a favorite subject not only for sculptors, but also for painters, especially in the 17th century. The Baroque era valued contrasts, and the idea of depicting a blooming young man with the ugly head of an enemy in his hands seemed tempting to artists. Let's name three paintings by Caravaggio, works by Rubens, Bernini, Feti, Reni, Gentileschi, Strozzi, Castagno, not to mention lesser-known works.
Cima da Canegliano. David and Jonathan. 1505-10
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn. David's farewell to Jonathan. 1642
The young Rembrandt also paid tribute to this theme in the multi-figure composition “David Brings the Head of Goliath to King Saul” (1627). But in the later painting “David’s Farewell to Jonathan” (1642), a completely different David appears before us - not a brilliant triumphant, not a glorious winner, but a persecuted man driven to despair. Faithful Jonathan helped David escape the wrath of his vengeful father, King Saul, and now the moment has come when he must leave his friend alone. “And they both wept together, but David wept more” (1 Samuel 20:41). Motionless, as if petrified, Jonathan supports his friend gently and carefully. David hugs Jonathan desperately, earnestly, he is broken by fear and suffering. We do not see his face, but we feel that his body is shaking with sobs.
It is noteworthy that Rembrandt’s painting - a hymn to devotion, fidelity, friendship - is the only one painted on this subject. Although in the 17th century theological interpretations no longer had such an influence on the minds as in more early era, the image of David the triumphant thoroughly eclipsed other aspects of his nature. Showing the glorious king in a difficult moment of his life, when he gave vent to tears, leaning on his friend’s chest... This completely went against tradition, it was not that it was forbidden, but it was not accepted. How it was not customary to sympathize with David’s predecessor, King Saul, rejected by the Lord.
Guercino. Saul attacks David. 1646
Jan de Bray. David playing the harp. 1670
Erasmus Quellinus II. Saul and David. Fragment. 1635
Lucas van Lenden. David plays in front of Saul. 1646
The chronicles tell us that David often played the harp for Saul. Almost all the artists who took on this subject, including the young Rembrandt (painting of 1630), depicted the moment when Saul, in a fit of madness, was about to rush or had already attacked David with a spear. But the mature Rembrandt, who returned to this plot in the 1650s, was inspired by other lines of the chronicle: “And when an evil spirit from God came upon Saul, David took the harp and played, and Saul felt happier and better, and the evil spirit retreated From him". (1 Book of Samuel, 16:23).
A narrow-shouldered boy with sensitive fingers plays with concentration in front of a sobbing king, weakened from mental anguish, and the sounds of the harp transport both of them to some other dimension, where there is no struggle for power, painful suspicion, or cruelty. Tomorrow the persecution will begin again, and David will have to flee to the mountains to save his life. But as long as the harp sounds, nothing threatens the diligent musician. The inspired artist and the touched listener are so absorbed in the music that everything else simply does not exist for them. Rembrandt actually talks not about an episode from the life of David, but about healing power art, about the moment of spiritual enlightenment experienced by the embittered ruler.
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn. Saul and David. 1629-30
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn. Saul and David. 1655-60
Just like “David’s Farewell to Jonathan,” the painting “David and Uriah” (1665) has no analogues, although the story of David’s criminal love for Bathsheba, the wife of the military leader Uriah, often became the theme of painting. Some paintings depict the moment when David, from the high tower of his palace, accidentally saw a bathing beauty and was inflamed with passion for her; in others, we see a naked Bathsheba with a letter from David in her hand. The behind-the-scenes side of this story - the unrighteous act of David, who secretly gave the order to put Uriah in the hottest place of the battle and leave him without help - was of interest only to Rembrandt.
Rembrandt
Harmens van Rijn.
David and Uriah. 1665
The composition of the picture is unusual. Three people stand with their backs to each other, but facing the viewer. On foreground leaving King Uri, David and the prophet Nathan look after him, who in the name of the Lord condemned David and led him to repentance. Neither sees the other's face, neither should hide his feelings. Uriah pressed his hand to his chest, he looked like a doomed man who had just heard the verdict. In David's gaze there is regret and a sense of loss. He is aware of his sinfulness, but is unable to do otherwise.
Ian Masseys. King David sees Bathsheba. Mid 16th century
These three paintings show us how freely Rembrandt treated established traditions in depicting the events of the Old Testament. For him there were only his own impressions and experiences, only personal experience. And this makes him similar to Michelangelo. Both great and so different masters did not deign to make a pictorial commentary on the Bible. The immediate meaning of legends was for them only a reason for generalizations, for mature and original judgments about a person. But paradoxically, it is their creations that most faithfully convey the spirit of the biblical texts, their universal meaning.
Cecino del Salvati. Bathsheba goes to King David. 1552-54
In his novel Pain and Joy, dedicated to Michelangelo, Irving Stone wrote about the statue of David: “Michelangelo sought to show a man in whom many people would be combined, all those who, from the beginning of time, dared to fight for freedom. David personified for him human courage in every walk of life.” The same can be said about Rembrandt's heroes - David, Jonathan, Saul, Uriah. Their images embody many generations of people: those who recklessly devoted themselves to creativity, those who were innocently convicted, those who suffered from oppression by the authorities and those who, at risk to themselves, defended the persecuted, those who sinned out of weakness and those who shed tears of repentance - all of us.
Peter Paul Rubens. Bathsheba at the fountain. 1635
Lara Jäger-Krasselt
Curator of the Leiden Collection
None of the Dutch artists at that time worked on their own, especially in Leiden. Each of these great masters had their own path in painting, but they closely followed each other's work and had a huge influence on each other. Each work presented at the exhibition is unique. But looking at them all together, you can more acutely feel what was the essence of the skill of each of them - and what the panorama was like Dutch art XVII century.
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn
"The Fainting Patient (Allegory of Olfaction)." Around 1624–1625
There are three in the Leiden collection early works Rembrandt. They seem to have nothing in common with the artist we know, but if you take a closer look at them, you will see that here he is already thinking about light, and his characters look very alive. In the “Allegories” series, he talks about the senses: hearing, touch, smell. These works are full of emotion and expression, and in them you can already see echoes of what he will become.
Jan Lievens
"Card Players" Around 1625
At the dawn of Rembrandt's career, his friend Lievens, with whom he came to Leiden and shared a studio, showed great promise. If the early Rembrandt created small works, then Lievens worked on a completely different scale, but these paintings had much in common: both a dense composition and effectively exposed light. Lievens seemed the clearer and stronger artist, and when a man from the Dutch governor went to Leiden to evaluate artistic talents, it was not obvious that Rembrandt would become the greatest artist of his time.
It’s interesting that until recently they didn’t seem to remember about Livens - although he was a wonderful artist. He also studied with Lastman, but chose a different path: when Rembrandt went to Amsterdam, Lievens went to England to work with the British court, he began to paint portraits in the spirit of the Flemings - and never again did he create such large works with dramatic shadows.
Peter Lastman
"David and Uriah". 1619
Rembrandt goes to Amsterdam for six months to study historical scenes from Pieter Lastman, the most important history painter who worked in early XVII century. Rembrandt went to study with him because he wanted to learn how to tell stories.
Looking at Lastman's works, it is completely impossible to understand why Rembrandt was interested in him, what he could find from him. It would seem that this is a completely different style. But Lastman was a great storyteller. Among these figures we see King David, who must give a letter to the soldiers, who will send Uriah (the husband of the woman whom King David wanted to possess. - Note edit.) to war, where he will subsequently die. The gestures of the characters in the picture help to understand what will happen next: it seems as if even the dog is looking into the future and waiting for something.
The details here are amazingly worked out, so that even without knowing the story behind this picture, you can admire many moments - how elegantly the fabric is painted, how well even the king’s socks are designed! So Rembrandt learned to tell stories and realized how much a portrait helps him in this, and it was Lastman who taught him this.
Hendrik Terbruggen
"Allegory of the Christian Faith." Around 1626
And Hendrik Terbruggen greatly influenced Rembrandt’s light: this artist visited Italy and saw the works of Caravaggio. Rembrandt never traveled to Italy, but he was able to understand how light works thanks to other masters.
Hendrik Terbruggen belonged to a group of artists known as the Utrecht Caravaggists: they began to work with light and shadow in the spirit of Caravaggio, but in the Netherlands. They are not alone: Lievens and Rembrandt also begin to think about how light changes the plane of the picture.
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn
"Self-Portrait with Shadowed Eyes." 1634
Rembrandt loved to paint his portraits. This gave him the opportunity not only to try on himself different images, but also play with light. There is in Rembrandt that amazing magic that is difficult to find words for - the way he could convey the feeling of a person’s inner life, show his personality. No other artist has succeeded in this to the same extent as him; his characters seem incredibly alive.
Ferdinand Bol
"Self-portrait at the parapet." 1648
Rembrandt's students were greatly influenced by his interest in self-portraiture: Bol is also dressed in a formal suit with a medallion, painting himself in the same pose. The dialogue with the master is obvious, and even if the same magic as Rembrandt’s is not seen here, it is worth noting that Bol, in turn, was wonderful artist and very successful.
Attributed to Gerrit Dau
"Self-portrait (?) at the easel." Around 1628–1629
Dau is Rembrandt's first student in Leiden. It's amazing that even before he went to Amsterdam, he already had students. Although, it seems as if he chose a completely different path in his works. This work, which is attributed to him, is very important. It depicts an artist sitting at an easel and drawing various objects that are in the studio.
There are many references to Rembrandt in this work - all the objects here could easily appear in paintings historical artist, however, Dau is not like that at all. He is an artist of everyday life and everyday life. In this work he reflects on his future - does he want to become an artist of the same kind as Rembrandt? Interestingly, the wall resembles a wall from a self-portrait by Rembrandt, which was completed quite recently, and on the wall hang sketches reminiscent of paintings by him and other Leiden artists.
Gerrit Dau
"Girl with a parrot and a cage by the window." Around 1660–1665
In the future, Dau's style will be very far from Rembrandt's style: he creates incredibly elegant paintings of a small size, almost cabinet size, and people at that time kept his paintings like jewelry. Notice how realistically the smallest details are worked out - the pages of the book, the texture of the fabric, the hourglass. And in a separate series of his works, he turns paintings into imaginary windows from which characters look out - an incredibly playful format in which he seems to say: look what a great artist I am, I can play with the plane of the canvas so that my characters fall into the real world. He was one of the most highly regarded European artists of his time.
Gabriel Metsu
"Old woman eating in the interior." Around 1654–1657
In his youth, Gabriel Metsu worked in Leiden. He is greatly occupied by everyday life, to which he will not pay as much attention in the future, and will continue to work in a spirit a little reminiscent of Vermeer. It can be said that Metsu and Vermeer were in dialogue with each other. And now Metsyu draws a lot of portraits of ordinary men and women in home environment and in his works there is a lot of psychologism, an understanding of how human life works. Probably, in this portrait we can see a widow: a modest woman who has almost nothing to eat - and there is something about her that does not allow us to remain indifferent. To understand this picture, you don't need to know complex history: There is no fire in the fireplace and it is probably cold in the house, but the woman seems calm and focused on eating. A cat sits nearby, the light falls dimly. This is one of Metsu's beautiful works, which reflects his interest in the simple moments of life.
John Vermeer of Delft
"The Girl Behind the Virginel" (1670–1672)
This type of genre painting then becomes very popular in Leiden: in our collection there are two other works that are a little reminiscent of Vermeer, where a man smokes a pipe and a woman reads a letter. Vermeer manages to overcome this tradition: he knew about genre painting Leiden, knew how Metsu worked in Amsterdam. Vermeer worked in Delft and was also interested in elegant women in interiors who could play music or read letters - just like Metsu. Often the plot of these paintings is the same, but Vermeer raises them above the level of everyday life, removes the signs of everyday life from them and thereby brings the plot closer to a historical painting.
David and Uriah (oil on canvas, Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn - 1665)
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn - Dutchman, greatest artist golden age of painting. His work included engravings, sketches, and drawings, in addition to the famous oil painting. But the main advantage of his rich collection was the versatility of the selected subjects and the rich gradation in storyline. Most thematic collections is compiled by the one written according to the plots biblical parables. This is due to the piety of people living under the yoke of church persecution and blind faith.
Among the tales that aroused the interest of many creators was the sad parable about the Israeli king David, his faithful war warrior Uriah the Hittite and his wife Bathsheba, the daughter of the guard Eliam, who was close to the king.
At the heart of the ties and tragic end history lay a fatal love triangle. Where the main characters were David himself, Uriah and young Bathsheba. The instigator of the secret love affair was David, who spent the night with the beauty. The result of a single night was the woman’s unexpected pregnancy, and, consequently, gossip and a direct path to participation in people’s rumors and discontent. By analogy with similar stories, the powerful David decided on meanness and tried in every possible way to harass his rival, the legal husband of Bathsheba. After Uriah refused to enter his own house, thereby confusing the patron’s plan, David ventured on the only sure way - killing his opponent in battle. Uriah was amazed. The death of the war freed David's hands, and he married Bathsheba, which aroused the wrath of God and curse. Trouble after disaster befell David's house and family, and he repented of his deed. Forgiveness subsequently extended to his wives, his family, and his children.
Despite the happy ending of the story, the authors of the paintings Special attention devoted to the darkest moments. One of them was the conversation between David and Uriah, when the warrior went to certain death. “David and Uriah” is a canvas by Rembrandt with a narrative of the end of the conversation and the departure of the sad and angry Uriah from the chambers of David.
Along with the gloomy plot, the picture itself is also not replete with rainbow colors. The author conveyed the mood of loss and understanding of the betrayal of the soldier’s beloved with rather dark paints, specks and coal soot. Once again, indicating his talent as a master of chiaroscuro, Rembrandt “torn” the gloomy face of Uriah from the darkness of the room. The departure of the war is accompanied by sorrow in the eyes of the old man in the background and the sly gaze of David. These three white spots in the gloom of the interior are stingy in their facial expressions and eloquent at the same time.
Thanks to the artist’s experience, and at that time Harmens van Rijn was 59 years old, the picture turned out to be adult and melancholy, an exact copy of the emotional experiences of the heroes themselves and the elderly author. Unfortunately, this period of the painter’s work marked the beginning of his decline. His canvases were too dark, too sad. The detail shown by the “fresh” young Rembrandt has gone into the distant past. However, today, a true connoisseur - our contemporary - does not rely on fashion in details, he appreciates antiquity, understands the author, perceives his writing as it should, deeply and reverently.
Teacher at the Institute of Foreign Languages
The creation of paintings by Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606-1669) on biblical subjects are so mysterious that they certainly force us to not just turn to the text Holy Scripture, but also read it carefully. One of these mysteries in the collection of the State Hermitage is the painting known today as “Haman Discovers His Fate,” dating back to 1665 (see page 3 of the cover).
It is safe to say that not a single one of Rembrandt’s Hermitage paintings has caused so much lively discussion among art critics throughout the last century. The reason for the controversy was new interpretations and hypotheses proposed by various authoritative Rembrandt experts around the world. Strong arguments were put forward in favor of each of the assumptions. It would be interesting to turn to the history of the disputes: this will shed light on the mystery of the characters depicted in the picture, as well as refer to two of the most striking episodes of the Old Testament.
"DAVID AND URIAH"?
A few decades ago, visitors to the Hermitage next to this painting saw a sign with the name “David and Uriah”. Indeed, this painting can be easily read in the light of the story told in the Second Book of Samuel. King David, captivated by the beauty of Bathsheba, for the sake of love for this woman commits a terrible crime: he sends her lawful husband to certain death. This crime is also recalled in the Third Book of Kings (15:5). The king hands Uriah a letter addressed to the military commander Joab, which contains the command to send Uriah to where the fiercest battle will be, and then suddenly retreat so that “he will be struck and die” (2 Kings 11:15).
If we accept the hypothesis first put forward in 1921 by the remarkable German researcher Wilhelm-Reinhold Valentiner and subsequently supported by other specialists, among whom we can name Jan Belostotsky and our compatriot Irina Vladimirovna Linnik, you can feel how filled Rembrandt is with compassion for the noble and proud Uriah.
So, in the foreground of the picture we see Uriah the Hittite, who remains in the memory of generations as one of the most courageous warriors of King David’s squad (2 Sam. 23:39). Rich red clothes with golden reflections, a cloak thrown over his left shoulder - all this emphasizes his dominant meaning. The huge blood-red spot in the painting contrasts expressively with the cold colors around it. Red or silver, gold or dark olive tones express something more than the beauty of the depicted objects. It doesn’t matter to us whether these clothes are made of silk or velvet. The red color surrounded by dark tones conveys a feeling of the highest tragedy of what is happening. With the help of paints, Rembrandt strives to convey not so much the texture of the material, but internal tension unfolding drama. From this, a secret excitement arises in the viewer’s soul, which makes him think about his experiences and therefore penetrate into inner world heroes of the story.
King David invited Uriah to the palace, ostensibly to talk about the progress of the war. After the meeting, royal dishes are brought to the guest, but Uriah will not go home that evening. Most likely, he does not know that his wife is already pregnant. The noble military leader will never agree to share his beautiful wife with the king. He does not know that the death sentence has already been signed, but he is having a hard time experiencing what is happening. He understands that all this is not without reason.
The image of Uriah takes on colossal proportions and becomes the embodiment of mental turmoil and superhuman tension. His figure is shifted slightly to the left of center, and it seems that it is moving directly towards us. Some instability is felt in the tilt of the head and throughout the entire body. Right hand he presses it to his chest, and one can assume that hidden under his clothes is the very letter that contains his death sentence. The hand gesture is extremely simple, but the combination of complex, shimmering gold colors of the slightly spread fingers of the hand next to the red-hot red color of rich oriental robes creates an amazing tension in the human drama.
The colors of the clothes range from carmine cherry to sparkling bright red, enlivened by yellow and subtle strokes of white. They seem to collide with each other in a combination of rare beauty.
The viewer's gaze cannot help but stop at the pale, motionless face. Barely visible drooping, earthy eyelids deepen the shadow under the eye sockets. Uriah's eyes are closed in horror, we do not see his gaze, and this makes us imbued with his confusion and death throes. On his head he wears a luxurious light brown turban, decorated with a gold hoop and stones, as if pressing on the owner with its excessive weight.
With his left hand, Uriah holds onto his belt, as if afraid of losing consciousness. One gets the impression that, without seeing or noticing anything, he intends to pass by us, like a person who knows that he cannot escape near death. At this moment, no matter how many people are around him, he is infinitely alone, left alone with his thoughts.
The composition is based on a comparison of three people expressing three psychological states. It can be assumed that one of them is David, and the other is his servant who wrote the letter. David seems to look away from what is happening. He suffers from the absurdity of the situation: his idea failed, he here, like no one else, knows about the impending crime. He is guilty, but he cannot do otherwise. The cool colors of David's clothing and his graying beard are colorfully contrasted with the rich, fiery tones of Uriah's clothing.
The face of his scribe is marked with an even more tragic stamp. The servant lowered his eyes, and deep wrinkles of sadness lay on his forehead. Having written a letter from his master under dictation, he became an accomplice in the impending crime. This gray-bearded old man with his head uncovered mourns for Uriah. Some researchers also suggest that the picture depicts not even David’s scribe, but the prophet Nathan, who came to the palace in order to expose the king for murder, having prepared a wonderful parable about the poor man’s only lamb (2 Sam. 12, 1-6 ).
This reading is entirely acceptable, but is not supported historical facts and therefore is not indisputable. Today this painting is listed in the Hermitage catalogs under the title “Haman Discovers His Fate,” and its former title is added in parentheses with a question mark. Let's try to figure out why this happened.
“HAMAN WILL KNOW HIS FATE”?
Already in the 18th century inventories this painting is designated as “The Condemnation of Haman.” Even then it was considered as an illustration famous story, told in the Book of Esther. The special interest of the artist, who worked enthusiastically in historical genre, this Old Testament story is well understood, if only because there is incredible dramatic richness in this story. You can find literally everything in it: mortal dangers awaiting heroes, a notorious villain, and sudden twists and turns of fate.
Esther, whom Artaxerxes married after divorcing the rebellious queen Vashti, is a relative and pupil of old Mordecai, who was expelled to Susa by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. Nobody knows about this. Being a devout Jew, Mordecai refuses, contrary to the royal decree, to prostrate himself before the all-powerful vizier Haman the Vugite. This behavior arouses in Haman a passionate hostility towards all Jews.
Esther, warned by Mordecai that Haman received permission from the king to destroy all her compatriots living in the country, urged by her former teacher to snatch them from the clutches of death, decides to use all her capabilities for the sake of common salvation. Having prepared for three days of fasting and prayer together with all the Jews of Susa, she neglects the prohibition imposed on pain of death on anyone who dares to approach the king without an invitation, and calls Artaxerxes, despite all his confusion, to come with Haman to her for a joint holiday meal. During the meal, when the king offers to fulfill any of her requests, Esther asks the king that he and Haman return to her the next day to continue the feast: it is at this feast that the fate of the Jewish people will be decided.
At night, the Lord takes the king’s sleep, and Artexerxes orders the servant to read aloud to him the book of daily entries, which lists all the benefits shown to him. Then he hears the name of Mordecai, who was not thanked in any way for the fact that he once saved the king’s life by exposing the criminals who were plotting the murder of Artexerxes.
The next morning, Haman, confident that he had already reached the pinnacle of his power and glory, receives orders to show the highest honors to the one whom he hated most in the world and whose death on the gallows on the same day he came to ask Artaxerxes. During the second feast, Esther expresses the wish that none of her compatriots who did not return to their homeland with the permission of the king would be oppressed. Seized with incredible anger at his former favorite, Artaxerxes leaves the meal for a while, and when he returns, he sees him prostrate at the queen’s bed and thinks that he would also like to rape her. This finally decides the fate of Haman - he is immediately sent to the gallows, the same one that was prepared for Mordecai. His family suffers the same fate.
Mordecai receives the ring of power, which was previously in the hands of the vizier, and now, together with his former pupil, he can not only write about the cancellation of the order to persecute the Jews, restore them to all rights, but also provide them with the opportunity to deal with their persecutors.
In Judaism, Esther is revered as one of the greatest women, in Christianity it is often seen as a prototype Mother of God. Esther, who once begged the Persian king for the life of her people, thus becomes a prototype of the Intercessor Queen, interceding for the salvation of Christians at the throne of her Son.
In Rembrandt's time, the Dutch had another reason to remember the famous pupil of Mordecai. The Old Testament Esther for many Jews then became a symbol of their self-identification. Thus, Amalie von Solms, the wife of the Statthouder of Holland, Prince Friedrich-Henry of Orange (1584-1647), was called the “second Esther” by the Dutch, congratulating her in 1626 on the birth of her son Wilhelm. Pamphleteers, writers, and preachers widely resorted to a similar comparison in relation to the Jewish people, whom the kings of Spain and their proteges, associated with Haman, subjected to severe persecution. It’s as if God’s Providence itself is once again saving God’s chosen people, as it already happened once under Artaxerxes.
"THE FALL OF HAMAN"?
Therefore, the assertions of such famous Rembrandt experts as Madlina Kar and Christian Tümpel that this painting by the master is inspired by the Book of Esther seem completely justified. However, both researchers come to the conclusion that in reality the plot for the master was not the dramatic moment when the disgraced vizier is sent to the gallows (Esther 7:9-10), as many of their predecessors believed. In their opinion, the painting depicts a scene when Haman, as it turned out, had to give royal honors to the hated Mordecai (Esther 6:10; see also Josephus, “Antiquities of the Jews” 11:6). At the same time, art historians try to identify the plot as accurately as possible. Madlina Kar suggests calling the painting “The Fall of Haman”, Christian Tümpel - “Haman submits to his fate”. Thus, the figure in the center of the picture depicts Haman, who is cursed by everyone. And on both sides of him are Artaxerxes and Mordecai.
However, this hypothesis was not considered indisputable, because Mordecai was not with the king at the moment when Artaxerxes orders his vizier to give him the highest honors. Therefore, it is quite possible that the film is about the final verdict of Haman. This interpretation is consonant with the bright Jewish midrashim oral traditions based on the story of the Book of Esther. In Jewish tradition, a significant role in this narrative is given to Old Testament prophet Elijah, who acts as a kind of ethereal force, capable of, if necessary, incarnating in the image of a person. Traditions tell, for example, that during the second feast Elijah incarnated himself as the eunuch Harbona. It is Elijah-Harbon who brings the death of the vizier closer, reminding the king that near Haman’s house there is a gallows of fifty cubits, prepared for Mordecai, “who spoke good things for the king” (Esther 7:9).
This legend was very popular in Amsterdam during Rembrandt's time. The artist could get to know her through theatrical performances on the occasion of the holiday of Purim, which recalled the happy ending of the story of Esther. An indirect confirmation of this hypothesis could be the information that the person who commissioned the painting Jewish origin, but regarding this one can only make guesses and assumptions. In addition, the question remains unresolved why Elijah-Harbon is so sad if he so hastened the death of Haman.
Gary Schwartz made another interesting suggestion. Probably the source of inspiration was not the text of the Bible or Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews, but a theatrical play written by the now little-known playwright Joanes Servouters, Esther and the Salvation of the Jews, which was staged in Amsterdam in June 1659. The bloody Jewish pogroms that took place in Poland in 1648-1649 contributed to the resettlement large quantity Ashkenazi Jews, which gave this play a particularly tragic sound. The author of the play dedicated his work to Leonora Huedekoper, the wife of the buyer of Rembrandt paintings, Jan Hinlopen. It was in his collection, apparently, that the painting “Assun and Haman at the Feast of Esther” was located, which is now kept in the Museum fine arts named after A.S. Pushkin in Moscow. (Assun is one of the possible ways to pronounce the name of Artaxerxes). In the third act of the play there was an episode when Artaxerxes, Haman and Charbona appear on stage as a threesome. The vizier tells his master that the Jews are plotting against “the turban and the crown.” Artaxerxes gives him permission to defeat the Jews, and at this moment Haman addresses the audience with the words: “Now all these Jewish little people are in my hands.”
However, this interpretation has raised objections from many experts. Why is Haman not shown triumphant, what is the point of him holding back his joy? And, more importantly, we do not see the ring on the vizier’s hand, which is repeatedly mentioned both in the Bible and in the play itself.
Be that as it may, one can only make assumptions with a certain degree of confidence that Rembrandt depicted one or another episode from the Book of Esther on the canvas. This may be the hour of Haman's temporary triumph, or the moment of his bitter disappointment caused by the command to give royal honors to Mordecai, or his repentance, indicated by the gesture of his hand.
In this regard, the words of art critic Erwin Panofsky (1892-1968) come to mind. One day he noticed that later paintings master, not only does the narrative itself become unclear (which is partly the reason for the bewilderment of art critics who are amazed at the amazing ambiguity of some of Rembrandt’s works), but the very boundaries between good and evil, victory and defeat turn out to be blurred for the sake of “a community of mutual sadness.”
