The author of the letter to Gogol. Tom Stoppard Shore of Utopia dramatic trilogy
The reign of Vasily the Dark's son, Ivan III (1462-1505), was the most important stage in the process of creating the Russian state. This was the time of the formation of the main territory of Russia, the formation of its political foundations. Ivan III was a major statesman, a man of great political plans and decisive undertakings. Smart, far-sighted, prudent and persistent, he was a worthy successor to his father's work.
Highest goal Ivan III was the unification of all Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. In 1463, the Yaroslavl Principality was annexed to Moscow, then the vast Perm region was conquered, and the Rostov Principality passed under the hand of the Grand Duke. In 1471, it was the turn of “Mr. Veliky Novgorod”: the army of the Grand Duke set out from Moscow, and Novgorod, defeated in the battle on the Sheloni River, was brought to obedience. In 1478, the Novgorod Republic was liquidated, and Novgorod itself and its lands became part of the Moscow Principality. To strengthen his power in Novgorod, Ivan III evicted 1000 Novgorod boyars and merchants to Moscow; Moscow service people were resettled in their place. In 1485, Moscow's old rival, Tver, was conquered, and four years later the Vyatka region joined Moscow. Ivan III began to be called the Grand Duke of All Rus'.
By uniting most Russian lands, Ivan III began to behave like an independent sovereign and stopped paying tribute to the Tatars. Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, decided to restore dominance over Russia. Ambitious but cautious, he prepared for several years for a campaign against Russian soil. Victories in Central Asia and in the Caucasus he strengthened his power and again raised the power of the Khanate.
In 1480, Akhmat, having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian king Casimir, raised the Great Horde on a campaign. Danger loomed over Russia. Akhmat's troops approached the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka), which flowed along the border of the Moscow Principality and Lithuania. The Tatars' attempts to cross the river were unsuccessful. The “standing on the Ugra” of the enemy troops began, which ended in favor of the Russians: on November 11, 1480, Akhmat turned away. The failure of the campaign caused a new outbreak of strife in the Horde, and Akhmat was killed by his enemy, the Siberian Khan Ivak. Ivak cut off Akhmat's head and sent it to the Grand Duke; Ivan III warmly greeted Ivak's ambassadors and presented gifts to them and the khan.
Under Ivan III, the basic principles of the foreign policy of the Moscow state were formed, principles that determined this policy for centuries to come. Ivan III put forward the position that the Moscow princes are the heirs of the princes of Kievan Rus, and, therefore, all the lands of Kievan Rus are the patrimony of the Moscow sovereigns. The Grand Duke started a war with the Lithuanian-Russian state and conquered 19 cities and 70 volosts.
After the Golden Horde finally disintegrated into the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, Ivan III declared Muscovite Rus' the heir of the Golden Horde and laid claim to its former lands. Ivan III's successors continued his policies.
At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, a powerful power emerged around the Moscow principality, which became the largest in Europe: “Astonished Europe,” wrote K. Marx, “at the beginning of Ivan’s reign, not even aware of Muscovy, squeezed between Lithuania and the Tatars, was stunned by the sudden appearance huge empire on her eastern borders, and Sultan Bayazet himself, before whom she was in awe, heard arrogant speeches from the Muscovites for the first time.”
As the lands were concentrated under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow, the very nature of power, its organization and ideology changed. In diplomatic correspondence, Ivan III from 1485 called himself: “John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Rus'.”
Mainly the brothers and nephews of the Grand Duke remained appanage princes, but they no longer had the right to mint their own coins, establish diplomatic relations with foreign states and rule over important matters.
In order to increase the prestige of his power, Ivan III, after the death of his first wife (Tver Princess Maria Borisovna), married Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI4. By her marriage, the princess made the Moscow sovereigns as successors to the Byzantine emperors. Following the princess, craftsmen were sent from Italy, where she was educated at the papal court, who built a new Assumption Cathedral, the Palace of Facets and a new stone palace on the site of the previous wooden mansion. In the Kremlin, a complex and strict ceremony began to be introduced at the court. A new, more solemn language appeared in diplomatic papers, and florid terminology developed. During receptions of foreign ambassadors, Ivan III sat on the throne given to him by the Palaiologans. The ambassadors had to bow low to the sovereign, dressed in clothes embroidered with gold and silver. An integral part of them were Byzantine “barmas” (mantles) and the so-called “Monomakh’s hat,” allegedly donated by the Byzantine emperor to Vladimir Monomakh.
Under Ivan III, a new coat of arms of the Russian state appeared5. The old Moscow coat of arms, depicting a horseman slaying a serpent with a spear, was combined with the Byzantine double-headed eagle. On the seal with the coat of arms of the Russian state, the full title of Ivan III was reproduced: “By the grace of God, the sovereign of all Russia, Grand Duke John, Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Ugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria and others.”
As centralization progressed, the organization of government administration also changed. The number of appanage principalities decreased, and former appanage princes joined the ranks of the Moscow boyars. The most notable boyars were members of the Boyar Duma - the highest advisory body; All the most important state issues and issues of palace management were resolved in the Boyar Duma. Gradually, a whole system of palace institutions grew up, in charge of the grand ducal economy and palace lands (Novgorod, Tverskoy and other “palaces”). Along with the system of palaces, at the end of the 15th century, central government institutions began to emerge, which were in charge of individual branches of government in all lands of the state. They were called huts, and later - orders. The huts were usually headed by boyars, but the main work was done by clerks, and from among the serving nobles, office managers and their assistants.
Administratively, the main territory of the state was divided into counties, and the latter into volosts and camps. General local administration was concentrated among governors and volosts. They were judges, collectors of the princes' income. The governors were also the military commanders of cities and districts; according to the old custom, they were supported (“fed”) at the expense of the population. Initially, “feeding” - extortions - was not limited to anything; later, “feeding” standards were established.
The establishment of the local system dates back to the reign of Ivan III. After the annexation of Novgorod, the Grand Duke confiscated the lands of the Novgorod boyars, divided them into estates of 100-300 dessiatinas and distributed them to his horsemen (“landowners”). The landowners had no power over the peasants of their estates; they only collected taxes from them, the amounts of which were recorded in census forms. Ownership of the estate was conditional on service; landowners were regularly called to inspections, and if a warrior displeased the commanders, the estate could be taken away; if the landowner proved himself in battle, then the “manor’s dacha” was increased. Estates could be inherited, but the son entering the service in place of his father was not given the entire father’s allotment, but only what was due to a young warrior, a “novice.”
The local system marked the beginning of the separation of the military service class - the nobility. The main legal feature of this class was the right to own land subject to public service.
Legally, centralization was expressed in the appearance of the first all-Russian Code of Law (1497) with uniform legal norms. Art. 57 of the Code of Law, while formalizing the local system by law, limited the period for peasants to leave the landowner to a week before and a week after St. George’s Day (November 26); the peasant had to pay the elderly.
Ivan III died in 1505 at the age of 67 after 44 years of reign. When he passed away, he clearly outlined a new order of succession to the throne. In his will, the Grand Duke left inheritance for all his sons, but he gave two-thirds of the state and all power to the heir Vasily, the son of Sophia Paleologus. Under Vasily III (1505-1530), the borders of the state continued to expand - Pskov, Ryazan and Smolensk lands were finally annexed.
The formation of the Russian state has become a fact of great international significance. Many Christians, South Slavic patriots and Greeks who were persecuted in their homeland by the Turkish conquerors found refuge in Moscow. The Russian state has established permanent diplomatic ties with many countries in Europe and Asia.
Having won the struggle for the great reign in Rus', the Moscow princes continued their efforts to unite the lands around Moscow. The reign of Ivan the 3rd (1462-1505) accelerated this process. In 1463, pursuing a unification policy, he annexed the Yaroslavl principality.
The Tver Principality and the Novgorod Republic offered active resistance to the unification. To maintain independence, the Novgorod boyars entered into an alliance with Lithuania and found themselves under the partial authority of the Lithuanian prince Casimir 4th.
In 1471, Ivan the 3rd led an army to Novgorod and in the battle on the river. Sheloni achieved victory. To completely conquer Novgorod, a second campaign was needed. In 1478, Ivan the 3rd finally conquered the city (having withstood the siege) and deprived it of independence by abolishing local governments and eliminating symbols of independence (the Novgorod veche bell was taken to Moscow). With the fall of Novgorod, all of its vast territories came into the possession of Moscow.
In 1472 the Perm region was conquered. In 1474, the Rostov Principality was redeemed. In 1485, Ivan the 3rd, at the head of a large army, approached Tver and took the city in two days without losses, taking advantage of the betrayal of the Tver boyars. Grand Duke Mikhailo Borisovich fled to Lithuania.
Having annexed Tver, Ivan the 3rd created a unified state and began to title himself the sovereign of all Rus'.
In the middle of the 15th century. The Golden Horde split into several independent khanates. Ivan the 3rd began to behave towards them as an independent sovereign. He stopped paying the ransom and created an alliance with the enemy of the Golden Horde - the Crimean Khan.
The Golden Horde Khan Akhmat tried to restore his power over Russia. In 1480, having concluded an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the Polish King Casimir 4th, he led his troops to Moscow.
It all ended in a confrontation between Russian and Tatar troops on the river. Eel.
Without waiting for his allies, Akhmat did not dare to start a battle and in November 1480 was forced to retreat. This meant the final fall of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. gravitating over Russia for more than two centuries.
Ivan the 3rd sought to further expand the state. In 1487, Kazan recognized its dependence on Moscow. By the end of the 15th century. The state includes territories in the northeast. Ivan the 3rd conquers a number of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands from Lithuania and Poland.
The unification policy was continued by the son of Ivan the 3rd, Vasily the 3rd. In 1503, having destroyed the Pskov feudal republic, he annexed Pskov. In 1514 he recaptured Smolensk from Lithuania. In 1517-1523 Vasily the 3rd took Chernigov and the Ryazan principality.
The process of formation of a single state involved significant internal socio-economic and political changes. This was expressed in the formation of a regime of class-representative monarchy, in which the autocracy is supported by various classes, primarily the nobility, townspeople and the top of the capital's boyars, interested in the creation of a state and the presence of a strong central government in it.
The years of the reign of Ivan the 3rd are characterized by changes in government bodies. The Boyar Duma becomes the supreme advisory body, institutions in charge of various areas state life, the first orders are issued, governors are engaged in local administration and are supported at the expense of the territory they govern.
In 1497, the Code of Law of Grand Duke Ivan the 3rd was published - a set of laws, the first code of the Russian state, which established a unified system government controlled and regulated the activities of government bodies. The Code of Law set a deadline for peasant transitions (once a year, on St. George’s Day) and payment for the use of the yard. The law limited the freedom of peasants and tied them to the land.
During the reign of Ivan the 3rd and Vasily the 3rd (1505-1533), the process of unification of Russian lands was completed and the strengthening of Russian statehood continued.
1. After the death of Vasily II (1462), his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes Grand Duke. At this time he was 22 years old. It was during his reign that the process of unification of Russian lands was completed. A cautious and prudent man, Ivan III consistently pursued his course towards the conquest of appanage principalities and the return of Russian lands seized by Lithuania. At the same time, he showed determination and iron will.
2. Under Ivan III, Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow Principality. Back in 1471, the pro-Lithuanian part of the Novgorod aristocracy, led by Martha Boretskaya, concluded an agreement with the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV: Novgorod recognized Casimir IV as its prince, accepted his governor, and the king promised help to Novgorod in the fight against the Grand Duke of Moscow. Ivan III organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (approximately 40,000 versus 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. Ivan III brutally dealt with representatives of the pro-Lithuanian party: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned. The independence of the Novgorod Republic was greatly undermined. After 1471, the situation in Novgorod worsened even more. In 1477, Ivan III launched a second campaign against Novgorod. In December the city was blocked on all sides. Negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Novgorod. At the beginning of January 1478, the Novgorod veche was cancelled. Ivan III ordered the veche bell to be removed and sent to Moscow. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist and became part of the Moscow Principality. Many boyars and merchants were taken from Novgorod to the central regions, and 2 thousand Moscow nobles arrived in Novgorod.
3. In 1485, Ivan III made a campaign against Tver, Prince Mikhail Tverskoy fled to Lithuania. The rivalry between the two centers of North-Eastern Rus' ended in favor of Moscow. The son of Ivan III, Ivan Ivanovich, became the prince in Tver. The Moscow principality turned into an all-Russian principality. Since 1485, the Moscow sovereign began to be called “the sovereign of all Rus'.” Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The territory of a single Russian state was formed - the largest in Europe. From the end of the 15th century. it began to be called Russia. The state emblem became a double-headed eagle. During this period, government bodies are formed. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, to whom the princely-boyar power was subordinate. Along with the boyar elite and the princes of the former appanage principalities, the service nobility is gaining strength. It is a support for the Grand Duke in his fight against the boyars. For their service, nobles receive estates, which are not inherited. Naturally, the nobles are interested in supporting the grand ducal power.
Changes are taking place in the army. The feudal squads supplied by the boyars recede into the background. And the first comes out to the noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms (arquebuses) and artillery.
But the Grand Duke is still forced to reckon with the economic and political power of the princes and boyars. Under him there is a permanent council - the Boyar Duma. Members are appointed to this advisory body by the Grand Duke on a local basis. This is the name for the procedure for appointment to a position in accordance with birth, proximity of the family to the Grand Duke and length of service, and not according to personal abilities and merits. The Boyar Duma met daily, deciding all issues of domestic and foreign policy. But often Ivan III made decisions alone, limiting boyar power. Thus, under Ivan III, the formation of an estate-representative monarchy takes place, when the Grand Duke rules with the help of the Boyar Duma.
At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. orders are created - special institutions for managing military, judicial and financial affairs.
The most significant innovation of Ivan III was the judicial reform, promulgated in 1497 in the form of a special legislative collection - the Code of Laws. Until 1497, the governors of the Grand Duke, in exchange for carrying out judicial and administrative functions, received the right to collect “feed” from the subject population for their needs. They were called feeders. These officials abused the power given to them, imposed exorbitant taxes on the population, took bribes, and carried out unfair justice. The Code of Law of Ivan III prohibited bribes for legal proceedings and business management, proclaimed impartial court, and established uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities. This was a major step towards creating a judicial apparatus in the country. The Code of Law in legislative form expressed the interests of the ruling class - boyars, princes and nobles - and reflected the attack of the feudal state on the peasants. Article 57 of the Code of Laws marked the beginning of the legal formalization of serfdom. It limited the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another. From now on, the peasant could leave his feudal lord a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26), i.e. when all rural work ended. At the same time, he had to pay the feudal lord for living on his land “elderly” and all debts. The size of the “elderly” amount ranged from 50 kopecks to 1 ruble (the price of 100 pounds of rye or 7 pounds of honey).
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Public administration in Russia. Strengthening autocracy
1. After the end of the Time of Troubles and the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar, a new political situation developed in the country. A significant role in government was played by Zemsky Sobors, which decided
Armed forces in the 17th century
1. The entire 17th century for Russia passed in difficult and long wars. The noble militia was losing its fighting qualities, the stronger Streltsy army was small in number. Nobles often avoided
Reasons for church reform. Filaret and Patriarch Nikon
1. The Russian Orthodox Church played a significant role in the life of Russia. On the one hand, she supported the royal power, on the other, she often conflicted with it: > the treasury and nobles tortured
Church reforms of Nikon
1. On the instructions of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653, Nikon began to implement church reform. Its main content boiled down to the following: > a uniform ku was established for all churches
Schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. Old Believers
1. In 1667, the Church Council cursed all the defenders of the old rituals - the Old Believers. The Council officially recognized that the reform is not Nikon’s personal business, but the business of the Tsar, the state and the church. Therefore everything
Urban uprisings (1648,1662)
1. In 1645, after the death of Mikhail, his son Alexei Mikhailovich became king (until 1676). At the beginning of his reign, the young tsar was strongly influenced by his former tutor, boyar Boris Morozov.
Revolt of Stepan Razin (1670-1671)
1. But a few years after the “Copper Riot,” a major social uprising began under the leadership of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin. Its cause was the Council Code of 1649, which finally
Urban uprisings failed
But what impact did they have on Russian life at that time? 2. What changes in the life of the country led to the uprising of Stepan Razin? 3M
Russian-Polish (Smolensk) War (1632-1634). Azov
1. After the Time of Troubles, Russia began to establish international relations; Russian embassies were opened in many countries. Tsar Michael's father, Patriarch Filaret, also headed the Ambassadorial Order.
Russian-Polish War 1654-1667 Annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands
1. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, as a result of which the Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands were annexed directly to Poland.
Annexation of Siberia to Russia in the 17th century
1. Russian people began to explore Siberia back in the 16th century, when, on the initiative of the Stroganov merchants, Ermak’s squad organized a campaign to Siberia. Over a vast territory - from Ural mountains to the Pacific Ocean
School and education
1. The development of cities, crafts, trade, manufactories, and connections with foreign parties contributed to the spread of literacy and education. In Moscow in the 80s of the 17th century. about 24% of the townspeople population
Development of scientific knowledge
1. The accumulation and dissemination of scientific knowledge, mainly of an applied, practical nature, continued. Compiled by O. Mikhailov “Charter of military, cannon and other matters relating to military
Painting
1. The process of secularization also affected painting. Russian painters showed interest in the human personality; biblical scenes served only as a pretext for depicting real life. Directed the arts
Architecture. Russian theater
1. New trends in architecture were expressed primarily in a departure from medieval severity and asceticism, in the desire for external elegance, picturesqueness, and decoration. Compared to the previous time
Tsar Fedor Alekseevich. Moscow uprising of 1682
1. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676. his son Fedor ascended the throne. The Miloslavskys came to power, and the Naryshkins (relatives of Tsar Alexei’s second wife) were removed from the throne. New king
Regency of Princess Sophia, her domestic and foreign policy (1682-1689)
1. Sophia's reign lasted 7 years, during which Ivan and Peter were considered kings, but did not play any role in political affairs. 25-year-old Sophia, according to foreigners, was ugly, smart,
The coming to power of Peter 1 Alekseevich
1. The relationship between Sophia and Peter has always been tense. Sophia understood that in the coming years she would have to give up power to her brothers and go to a monastery herself. At the beginning of 1689, Tsarina Natalya married Pet
The first years of the reign of Peter 1 (1689-1695)
1. The reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), or the time of Peter’s reforms, is a turning point in the history of Russia. Reforms began under Tsars Michael and Alexei. But Peter I went much further
Azov campaigns (1695,1696)
1. In 1694, Austria and Poland - allies of Russia in the anti-Turkish coalition - demanded that Peter begin active actions against Turkey. It was decided, in contrast to the previous Crimean campaigns of the prince
Features of the economic development of Russia under Peter I. Manufacturing production
1. During the reign of Peter I, enormous changes occurred in the Russian economy. There are several reasons for this: > The Northern War required the army large quantity armed
All-Russian market. International trade. Policies of protectionism and mercantilism
1. Under Peter I, trade achieved significant development. At the same time, the government pursues a policy of patronage of domestic producers and protects domestic trade from foreign competition
Social policy and its consequences. Results of economic transformations
1. In 1721, there were 336 cities in Russia, in which 170 thousand inhabitants lived (out of 15 million of the country's population). In 1720, the Chief Magistrate, an estate-based body of city government, was established. Regulations
What facts indicate the need
economic reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century? 2. What new features did the economic sphere acquire during the reign of Peter the Great? 3.
Renewal of government. Bureaucratic apparatus. Supreme authorities
1. Under Peter I, a new state apparatus was created. The reform of government bodies was largely dictated by the war, since the old state machine could not cope with the increasingly complex tasks and
Creation of boards. Local authorities
1. In 1718, the cumbersome system of orders was replaced by collegiums that were subordinate to the Senate. Each board was in charge of a specific branch of management, all issues were resolved jointly (collegially)
Church reform
1. Serious changes occurred in the position of the church, which also reflected the trend of bureaucratization and centralization of management. Patriarch Adrian died in 1700. The king's entourage advised him to
Service order. Table of ranks
1. The bureaucratic nature of the state required a change in the procedure for serving. Before Peter I, career advancement depended on origin and nobility. Peter stopped paying attention to the
Military reforms
1. The war with Sweden showed the need to reorganize the army. Its essence consisted in the liquidation of the noble militia and streltsy army and the formation of a regular army with a unified organization,
The case of Tsarevich Alexei
Peter's reforms caused mixed assessment various social groups of the Russian population - from complete rejection to enthusiastic approval. On the one hand, the reforms strengthened the state
Causes of the Northern War
1. Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. was very active and was accompanied by continuous wars. They were aimed at solving the main task - to ensure Russia’s access to the
The beginning of the war. Defeat at Narva
1. Back in the mid-90s, Peter formed 30 infantry regiments from recruits. The colonels and junior officers were exclusively foreigners - Poles, Swedes, Germans, Danes, etc. He was for
First victories in the Baltics. Founding of St. Petersburg (1703)
1. Failures did not suppress Peter; he actively took up the creation of a regular army. Only 23 thousand people survived the battle near Narva, so it was declared new set recruits. Recovery of losses
Battle of Poltava (1709)
1. Another ally of Russia was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Charles XII captured Warsaw and placed his protege Stanislaw Leszczynski on the throne. The Swedish king then occupied Saxony and forced Augustus II to
Naval operations in the Baltic
1. However, after the Battle of Poltava, the war continued for another 12 years. Peter offered Sweden peace on his own terms, but Charles XII refused. Under his pressure, the Turkish Sultan at the end of 1710 declared war on R
Treaty of Nystadt (1721). The meaning of victory
1. In the Finnish city of Nystadt on August 30, 1721, an agreement was signed under which Russia received: > Estland, Livonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and part of Finland with Vyborg;
Science and education
1. During the reign of Peter I, great changes occurred in the field of education, culture, and science. They were due to profound changes in the socio-economic life of the country, expanded communications
Changes in the life of the nobility
1. After the return of the “great embassy” from Europe, Peter I began to introduce European-style clothing. Tsar's decrees prescribed that beards should be shaved and that one should dress not in a long-skirted Russian dress, but in a short one.
Palace coups (1725-1762)
1. From the second quarter of the 18th century. (from 1725 - from the death of Peter I) an era begins in Russia palace coups- a change of reigning persons, which was accompanied by a fierce struggle between various
Russian foreign policy by the middle of the 18th century
1. At the end of Peter I’s life, Russia’s relations with England, Denmark, Turkey worsened, and after his death - with France and Sweden. In the 30s of the XVIII century. The War of the Polish Succession began. The French are under
Russian participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
1. In the 50s of the 18th century, having abandoned the alliance with England, Russia entered into an agreement with Austria and France. The Prussian king Frederick II the Great hoped to capture Saxony, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Kurlan
Peter III. Coup of June 28, 1762
1. Peter III arrived in Russia back in 1742, shortly after Elizabeth’s accession, and was appointed heir. But the choice turned out to be unsuccessful. Peter III was uneducated, cruel, demonstratively despised everything
Reforms of Catherine II. Public administration. Stacked commission
1. Catherine's reign lasted 34 years (1762-1796). Contemporaries called this period “the golden age of Catherine the Great,” “the era of enlightened absolutism.” Ekaterina wanted to implement
Local reforms
“Certificate granted to the nobility” 1. Peasants' War under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775) showed the need for further reforms, primarily local
Personality of Catherine II the Great
1. Catherine II lived for 67 years, of which she ruled Russia for 34 years. At the very beginning of her unhappy marriage, she believed that she would become an empress. She wanted to become Russian, loved by Russians
Territory, population of Russia. Agriculture
1. The territory of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. has expanded significantly. It included Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, Crimea, the Azov region, the Black Sea region, and Lithuania. 2. Population
Development of industry, manufacturing
1. In Russian industry in the second half of the 18th century. great changes took place, the number of manufactories doubled (from 600 to 1200). Russia took 1st place in the world in iron smelting, etc.
Trade and finance
1. Specialization of individual regions in the production of grain, industrial crops, vegetable gardening, and the development of commercial livestock farming is emerging. The growth of cities and industry requires further development
Social contradictions and state legislation
1. At the end of the 18th century. Russia's population numbered 37 million people. The structure of the population was based on the class principle. Estates were divided into privileged and unprivileged. K is privileged
The movement of peasants and working people in the 30-60s of the 18th century
1. The continuous strengthening of serfdom, the increase in taxes and duties caused fierce resistance from the peasants. Its main form remained flight; from 1727 to 1742, 327 thousand people fled
The course of the peasant war
1. At the beginning of 1773, another Peter III appeared in the Yaitsky Cossack army, in fact, the Don Cossack of the Zimoveyskaya village, Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Thirty years old, illiterate, but very brave
The meaning of the peasant war, its features
1. Peasant War 1773-1775 markedly different from the movements of Bolotnikov, Razin, Bulavin, primarily in that it was the most powerful, covered a huge territory, and huge forces took part in it
The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century
1. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia was solving several foreign policy problems: > access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, development and settlement of the southern black soil steppes, establishment
War with Poland. Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774
1. In 1763, the Polish king Augustus III died, and a struggle immediately began between candidates for the throne. With the support of Russia, Stanislav Poniatowski (formerly Catherine’s favorite) became King of Poland, although
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791
1. Turkey did not want to accept the loss of its dominance in the Black Sea and was preparing for a new war. In 1777, Russian troops invaded Crimea and installed Shagin-Girey as Crimean Khan. However, his hair
What are the main tasks of Russia's foreign policy under Catherine II?
2. What assessment could you give to the results of Catherine II’s foreign policy? Question 35. Russia at the end of the 18th century. Paul I ANSWER PLAN:
Foreign policy (1796-1801)
1. Even as an heir, Pavel sought to prove to his mother that offensive wars are harmful to Russia and it is necessary to wage defensive wars. In 1796, in a special note to the European powers, he
Conspiracy of March 11, 1801 Murder of Paul 1
1. In the winter of 1801, dissatisfaction with the tsar’s policies reached highest point. A conspiracy arose, headed by St. Petersburg Governor-General Count P.A. Palen. He managed to convince the heir Alexander
Enlightenment and science
1. In Russian culture of the 18th century. Significant changes are taking place, which are determined by fundamental changes in the socio-economic sphere, in the life and way of life of the people. The main influence is t
Age of Enlightenment. Social and political life
1. The 18th century is called the era of European Enlightenment. The great philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Kant believed that social life is not subject to God, but to natural laws. Historical progress -
Architecture. Painting. Theater
1. B mid-18th century V. The Baroque style still predominates in Russian architecture. St. Petersburg becomes a city of palaces. V. Rastrelli erects his masterpieces in the Baroque style: Grand Palace
Social class and national composition of the population of Russia
1. By the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian Empire was the largest power in the world by territory: from the Baltic Sea to Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic to the Caucasus and the Black Sea. Information sent from St. Petersburg to
Industry, trade, communications
1. The basis of the country's economy was still the feudal-serf system of economy. But at the beginning of the 19th century. it has entered the stage of decomposition. This was evidenced by the following facts:
Political system of the Russian Empire
1. Russia was an autocratic monarchy. The highest legislative, executive and judicial power belonged to the emperor (king). He was also the actual head of the church. The Emperor claimed
Determine the national and class composition of the population of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century
2. What slowed things down economic development Russia? 3. What is an “autocratic-bureaucratic system”? What influence did he have on the life and development of the country?
Reforms of the early 19th century
1. April 2, 1801 Alexander I issued five important decrees: > the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was restored in full; > the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was restored
Speransky's reform projects
1. But Alexander I saw that the actions of the “Unofficial Committee” did not lead to serious changes. A new person was needed who would decisively and consistently carry out reforms. It became the state
The Eastern Question in Russian foreign policy at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries
1. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. were determined by two circumstances: > firstly, the alliance of Paul I with Napoleon did not limit France’s aggression in Europe and at the same time worsened relations
Russian participation in coalition wars
1. In 1806, the war in Europe resumed, the 4th coalition took shape consisting of England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, and Sweden. In response, Napoleon declared a continental blockade of England. He demanded from him
What are the reasons for Russia's active foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century?
3. How did its accession to the continental blockade affect the development of Russia? Question 39. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaign of the Russian army
Causes of the war; plans and strengths of the parties
1. The main direction of Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a struggle with Napoleonic France. A significant part of Europe was occupied by French troops. In 1807, after a series of times, it was time
The beginning of the war (June 12(24), 1812). Battle of Borodino (August 26, 1812)
1. Let us trace the course of military events from the beginning of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia (June 1812) to the end of the Battle of Borodino (August 1812). On the night of June 12, 1812, the French army crossed the rivers
Tarutino maneuver. Guerrilla warfare. Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia
1. Leaving Moscow, Kutuzov made a remarkable maneuver: creating the appearance of retreat along the Ryazan road, he moved with the main forces to the Kaluga road, where he stopped in the village of Tarutino (80 km
Foreign campaign of the Russian army. Congress of Vienna. Holy Alliance
1. After the enemy was expelled from the country, the people and the army believed that the war was over. But Alexander I understood that Napoleon could quickly assemble a new army and start the war again. Poeto
The historical significance of Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812
1. The Patriotic War of 1812 ended with the victory of the Russian people, who waged a just, liberation struggle. The Napoleonic invasion caused enormous damage to the country's economy and brought
Socio-economic development of Russia. Military settlements
1. The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army (1813-1815) had a heavy impact on the Russian economy. Material losses amounted to 1 billion rubles (annual treasury income - 100 million).
Domestic policy of Alexander I. The question of the constitution. Increasing political reaction
1. After the end of the war with Napoleon, many in Russia expected reforms: the nobles dreamed of a constitution, the peasants hoped for the abolition of serfdom, non-Russian peoples expected relaxation in the nation
Decembrist movement
1. After the war of 1812 For the first time in Russia, an organized social movement arose, the basis of whose ideology was proclaimed the priority of the individual and his freedoms over everything else. This would
Strengthening the role of the state apparatus under Nicholas I. The essence of bureaucracy
1. In the first years of his reign, Nicholas I independently resolved many state issues and personally controlled ministries and departments. In his work he relied on the bureaucracy, many
Codification of laws. Reforms of Kiselev and Kankrin
1. Since 1649, a huge number of manifestos and decrees have accumulated that contradict each other. It was necessary to draw up a single Code of Laws, i.e., carry out codification. For this purpose it was involved
Results of the domestic policy of Nicholas I
1. So, the codification of laws, the reform of the management of state peasants, and monetary reform are the main achievements of the reign of Nicholas I. With their help, Nicholas I managed to strengthen his imp.
Features and directions of the social movement of the 30-50s of the XIX century
1. The social movement of the 30s-50s had characteristics: > it developed in conditions of political reaction (after the defeat of the Decembrists); > revolutionary and rights
Mugs from the 20s and 30s
1. In the conditions of political reaction that came after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, a new form social struggle in Russia began the creation of circles of advanced, mainly student, youth
Conservative direction. Liberal direction. Westerners and Slavophiles
1. After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the question arises about the further paths of development of Russia, around which a long struggle of various currents ensues. In resolving this issue, the main
Petrashevtsy. Revolutionary-democratic direction
1. At the turn of the 30-40s of the XIX century. A revolutionary-democratic direction of Russian social thought is emerging. Representatives of this direction are V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P
Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev
1. A peculiar response to the Nikolaev reaction on the part of the older generation of the noble intelligentsia was the first of the series “Telescope”, published in 1836 in the Moscow magazine “Telescope”.
Wars with Turkey and Iran (1826-1829). Exacerbation of Russian-English contradictions
1. In 1825, the Shah of Iran received news of an uprising in St. Petersburg. It was perceived by the Shah's government as the right moment to unleash military action against Russia. The Shah decided once
Caucasian War
1. The military conflict in the Caucasus had an ancient history and its own reasons. The main reason for the Great Caucasian War (1817-1864) was the attempts of the tsarist government to extend its power to the peoples
Crimean War (1853-1856)
1. By the beginning of the 50s, the Eastern question had intensified. The emergence of the so-called Eastern Question was facilitated by 3 main points: > the decline of the once powerful Ottoman Empire
Education in the first half of the 19th century
1. Beginning of the 19th century. - a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people, its consolidation, which greatly increased
Science and technology in Russia
1. Russian science has achieved great success in these years. Naturalists I.A. Dvigubsky and I.E. Dyadkovsky argued that living beings inhabiting the Earth change over time, that everything
Russian travelers
1. Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and new tasks arose for geographers. In 1803-1806. two Russian ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansko
Theater and music
1. As in literature, in the theater in the 20-30s, classicism and sentimentalism were pushed aside by romanticism. The romantic actor P. S. Mochalov played Hamlet very emotionally. On the stage of the same Alexandriysk
Painting. Architecture
1. In painting, artists’ interest in the personality of man, in the life of ordinary people, and not just gods and kings, is growing. There is a gradual shift away from academicism, the center of which was the Academy of Arts.
Reasons for the abolition of serfdom
1. With the end of the Crimean War (1856), the era of liberation, or the era of Great Reforms, began in the history of Russia, as contemporaries called it. The demand for the abolition of serfdom was put forward to
Preparation of peasant reform
1. Preparation for the reform began immediately after the end of the Crimean War. In 1857, a Secret Committee was formed “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants,” which secretly began
Reform of local government (zemstvo and city)
1. The abolition of serfdom led to the need to carry out bourgeois reforms in other areas of public life. The autocratic monarchy turned into a bourgeois monarchy. 2.
Judicial and military reforms. The meaning and implementation of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century
1. At the insistence of the public, in 1864 the government carried out judicial reform, which was developed by progressive lawyers. Before the reform, the court in Russia was class-based, secret, without the participation of the parties, shi
Industrial development of Russia in the 60-80s of the XIX century
1. The abolition of serfdom (1861) led to rapid growth of the country’s productive forces, the development of the domestic market, railway construction, and urban growth. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s
Railway construction
1. An important condition for economic development is the creation of a powerful infrastructure - highways and railways, canals, ports, warehouses, transport, communications. Construction of railways began
Industrial revolution. Russian entrepreneurs
1. The industrial revolution in Russia began in the late 30s of the 19th century, it had 2 sides: > technical - the transition from manufactory to factory, the replacement of manual labor with machine labor; >
Cities, population in the second half of the 19th century
1. Evidence of the capitalist development of Russia after the reform of 1861 was the growth of the urban population. According to official statistics, at the end of the century there were 932 cities in Russia in which people lived
Features of the development of landowner farming. Two paths of agricultural development in Russia
1. Unlike industry, the development of agriculture in post-reform times was not quite successful. True, over 20 years, bread exports from Russia have increased 3 times (1st place in the world). Prices
Peasant community
1. After the reform, intensive stratification of the village began. Rich peasants stood out (20% of families), who had a significant amount of land, livestock (less than 4 horses), cars, and farm laborers. This
Features of Russian liberalism in the 50s and 60s of the 19th century. Conservatives
1. In the social movement of Russia in the 60-80s of the XIX century. Several areas can be identified that received particular development in specific decades: > the liberal movement of the early 6
The emergence of populism. Three currents in populism
1. The ideas of communal socialism of Herzen and Chernyshevsky became the basis of the political movement of the radical intelligentsia - populism. The populists considered the people - the peasantry - as a real political force.
International position of Russia after the Crimean War (1856-1875)
1. In 1856, Russia suffered a heavy defeat in the Crimean War, and its international position worsened. After the war, Alexander II began to carry out fundamental reforms in the country. Their success is largely
Annexation of Central Asia and Kazakhstan to Russia
1. The territory of Central Asia was inhabited by numerous peoples - Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, who were at a relatively low stage of historical development, many of them moved
Siberia and the Far East. Treaties with China (1858 and 1860)
1. In the 19th century. development continued Far East. At the end of the 50s, the Russian government received newest maps area of the Amur and Ussuri rivers, the question arose about clarifying the border between Russia and Ki
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878
1. In the mid-70s, contradictions in the Balkans between Russia and Turkey intensified, and the rivalry between European powers intensified. 2. In the 70s, national liberation movements grew in the Balkans
The position of the main strata of Russian society in post-reform times
1. In 1897, the first general population census was carried out in the Russian Empire. According to the census, the total population of the country was about 126 million people (excluding Finland); own
Industrial boom in the 90s of the XIX century
1. By the beginning of the 80s, the industrial revolution was completed in Russia. The creation of a powerful economic base began, the modernization of industry was carried out, its organization on capitalist principles
Counter-reforms of Alexander III
1. Alexander III reigned from 1881 to 1894. He was not prepared for kingship, he received a military education, was modest, hardworking, attached to his family, had a will of steel, was not stupid, but his mentality
Foreign policy of Alexander III
1. Alexander III himself led the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. In 1882, the old diplomat official P.K. was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gire, who strictly followed the instructions of the emperor.
Labor movement at the end of the 19th century. Morozov strike (1885)
1. At the end of the 19th century. with the development of capitalist relations in post-reform Russia, the number of workers tripled; in 1900 it was 3 million people (most of them were immigrants
Liberal movement in Russia at the end of the 19th century
1. After the assassination of Alexander II, the Executive Committee of Narodnaya Volya addressed Alexander III with a letter, promising to end the terror in exchange for a constitution. But the wave of repression that followed the murder of Ale
Liberal populism
1. After the defeat of Narodnaya Volya (1881-1885), reformist liberal populism began to play a significant role. It preached the peaceful path of social transformation, the theory of small deeds in the sf
Conservatives
1. At the end of the 19th century. Conservatism becomes the leading direction of government policy. Its main ideologists were the former mentor of Alexander III, Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev and re
Development of education
1. Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century. developed in conditions when new, capitalist relations were established in the country and various reforms were carried out. But at the same time, experiences remained
Russian science
1. Russian science in the second half of the 19th century. achieved great success. The Russian physiologist I. N. Sechenov published the work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863, where he proved the conditionality of mental
Painting
1. In the fine arts of the second half of the nineteenth century. the dominant trend was critical realism. The ideologist and organizer of artists of this movement was I. P. Kramskoy.
Sculpture, architecture
1. The architecture and sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles; modernity, determined by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and antique stylization. Great popularity
Music. Theater
1. Second half of the 19th century. - this is the flowering of Russian musical art. In 1862, the “Balakirev circle” of musicians was formed, called the “Mighty Handful” by critic V.V. Stasov. It's in
COURSE WORK
Reign of Ivan III. Formation of a unified Russian state. Domestic and foreign policy.
Plan.
Introduction
I . Rise of the Moscow Principality (end XIII end of XIV centuries).
1.2. The first successes of the Moscow princes
1.4. Feudal War
II III
2.1.Completion of the political unification of Russian lands around Moscow
2.3. Fight with Novgorod
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In the course work I would like to pay special attention to the issue of the formation of a single centralized state. It is advisable to begin the consideration of this issue with the definition of the concept of “centralization” and the characteristics of the features of this process in Rus'.
Centralization is the process of unifying lands, the result of which is the formation of a single supreme power, establishing a single administrative apparatus controlled by the center, uniform laws, common armed forces, etc. A natural and progressive stage in the economic and socio-political development of society.
The history of the emergence of unified states is one of the central themes of historical science.Coursework topic o you are directly connected with the o the end of feudal fragmentation and the emergence of a centralized state - Russia. One of the brightest options for centralization is the formation of the Russian state based on the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. The versatility of the topic in historical science requires a wide variety of approaches to its study.
This topic has been the subject of in-depth study by a wide range of historians and jurists. The works of such authors as: Cherepnin L.V., Karamzin N.M., Klyuchevsky V.O., Grekov I.B., Shakhmagonov F.F., Bushuev S.V., Mironov G.E., Sharov V., Soloviev S.M. et al.
Considering the reasons for the rise of Moscow, one can pay attention to the different points of view that exist in historiography on this issue. For example, S. F. Platonov associated the strengthening of Moscow primarily with the revision of the previous order of succession to the throne, left over from Kievan Rus. Then he highlighted the advantageous geographical location, since Moscow was located at the intersection of transport routes.
A. A. Zimin believed that the advantageous geographical position of Moscow cannot be considered the reason for the political unification of Russian lands.
B. A. Rybakov, V. A. Fedorov and other scientists explain the role of Moscow mainly by its geographically advantageous position in relation to other Russian lands, which gave it the importance of the most important junction of trade routes.
Despite different points of view, most modern historians see the decisive role in the rise of Moscow in such factors as the personal qualities of the Moscow princes and their skillful policies, which allowed Moscow to gain the support of the church and become the center of the liberation struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
The Russian centralized state developed gradually and became such only after freeing itself from the dependence of the Horde. The process of centralization captured individual lands and principalities at different stages of its development. Some of them were annexed quite early to a stronger principality, while others submitted already at the final stage of the formation of a single centralized state. Such unevenness ensured the uniqueness of the path traversed by each region and the long-term preservation of significant local differences.
Studying this topic helps to understand the importance and significance of creating a single centralized state.
The purpose of the course work: is research historical process formation of a centralized Russian state.
Tasks:
study the factors that contributed to the formation of a centralized Russian state;
consider the main stages of the formation of a centralized Russian state.
show the significance of the unification of Russian lands for domestic science.
I . Rise of the Moscow Principality
1.1. Reasons for the rise of the Moscow principality
One of the traditional topics in Russian historiography is the explanation of the increased role of Moscow, for a long time who did not have her own prince. In search of an answer to this question, historians turn to clarifying the benefits that Moscow received from its geographical location.
Moscow and the lands adjacent to it occupied a small territory along the middle course of the Moscow River. Located on the western outskirts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the principality was intensively populated. First of all, I was attracted by the relative safety of the territory. Fenced off to the east from the Golden Horde by rich neighboring principalities, which were hit by the Horde’s raids, covered by dense forests and swamps, Moscow became a place of attraction for popular forces.
The thesis about relative security is not an empty fantasy of historians. Chronicles indicate that after Batu’s invasion, subsequent Horde armies bypassed Moscow for a long time. Only in 1293 did Tatar troops ravage the future capital of the Russian state.
Trade routes did not bypass Moscow either. But for a long time they were of a transit nature, which made it very difficult to control them and obtain rich duties. This factor forced the Moscow rulers to speed up the process of expanding their principality.
It must be admitted that the superiority of Moscow's favorable location is not enough to explain its rise. Moscow's rivals, primarily the Tver Principality, were not inferior to it in these parameters and even surpassed it in some ways. Nevertheless, it was the Moscow principality that became the center of gathering Russian lands. We can conclude that the main reason for the rise of Moscow is the policy of the Moscow princes, which turned out to be more effective, more effective in comparison with what their opponents were able to offer.
The Moscow princes had little chance of occupying the grand-ducal table. Deprived of the opportunity to get ahead of their rivals, relying on law and customs, Moscow rulers were more often than others ready to violate generally accepted norms.
Since the time of N.M. Karamzin, researchers have been talking about the tenacity, the “incredible” will of Moscow rulers, the consistency of their political course, and the ability not only to preserve, but to increase what they had accumulated.
1.2. The first successes of the Moscow princes.
By the middle of the 13th century. Moscow had its own prince, Mikhail Yaroslavich, nicknamed Horobrit, the son of Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. This fact indirectly indicates the growth of Moscow, which became the capital of the appanage principality. Little is known about the reign of Khorobrit. In 1247 he died in a battle with the Lithuanians. Such a short reign prompts us to begin counting the history of the rise of Moscow with another reign Daniil Alexandrovich.
Daniil Alexandrovich received the Principality of Moscow as an inheritance according to the will of his father, Alexander Yaroslavich. 1 Daniel was the first prince to raise the importance of Moscow, which was until now an insignificant suburb of Vladimir. Participating in the civil strife of his brothers, Daniel, by cunning, captured the Ryazan prince Konstantin. This event was the first manifestation of self-empowerment techniques. At the same time, Daniel laid the foundation for the expansion of his possessions, which was so consistently carried out by all his successors. 2
Important changes occurred at the end of Daniel's reign. It was then that Daniil managed to lay the first stones in the foundation of the growing power of Moscow. The capture of Kolomna opened up control over the middle course of the Oka.
No less important in its consequences was the expansion of Moscow at the expense of the Pereyaslav Principality. Its last owner, the childless Prince Ivan Dmitrievich, before his death in 1302, blessed “his place” to Prince Daniil “of Moscow”. The acquisition of the Pereyaslav principality made Moscow one of the largest principalities in the Vladimir-Suzdal land and raised its political importance.
1.3. The struggle for the grand ducal throne
In 1303, Daniil's eldest son, Yuri (13031325), became the prince of Moscow. Having recaptured Mozhaisk from the Smolensk principality, he felt so strong that he decided to join the fight for the grand-ducal table.
Possession of the great table promised benefits in the struggle for leadership among the northeastern princes, for example, the opportunity to communicate with the ruler of the Horde. The Mongol Empire had a political system of unconditional vertical subordination. By demanding slavish obedience from the Grand Duke, the khan involuntarily raised his importance as the main representative of the khan's power in Rus'. The Grand Duke thus received power, became the owner of the Grand Duke's domain, and his boyars could receive profitable governorships here. In the XIV century. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality included the Kostroma and Yuryev principalities.
In addition to power, the prince received the right to collect “exit” from almost the entire territory of the Zalesskaya Horde (Russian lands as part of the Golden Horde). This made it possible to collect large amounts of money.
Yuri Danilovich began to challenge the rights to the reign of Vladimir from his cousin, Prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich. But the fate of the great reign also depended on the will of the khan. Yuri Danilovich, having suffered defeat in an open clash with the Tver prince, began to look for luck in the Horde. Circumstances favored him, he received the long-awaited great table.
But Mikhail Yaroslavich resisted the khan’s will. A war began between Moscow and Tver. In 1318, the princes went to the Horde for the khan's court. By order of Khan Uzbek, the prince of Tver was given a painful execution.
Having got rid of a dangerous rival, Yuri Danilovich went to Novgorod. Here he had to wage war with the Swedes, who attacked the northwestern borders of the Novgorod land.
Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich of Tver again acted as Yuri Danilovich's rival. He managed to seize the initiative, accusing the Moscow prince of concealing the “exit”. The denunciation was recognized as justified and the Tver prince received a label for the great reign. During a meeting in the Horde, Dmitry Mikhailovich dealt with the Moscow prince, considering him the main culprit in the death of his father. Because Dmitry Mikhailovich killed Yuri “without a word from the Tsar,” he was executed. The label for the great reign went to the brother of the deceased Tver prince Alexander Mikhailovich.
The Moscow table was occupied by Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325 1340). His role in the rise of the Moscow principality turned out to be so significant that the Moscow Grand Dukes, descendants of Ivan Kalita, began to be called Kalitovichs.
Ivan inherited his father’s entire expanded “fatherland.” By this time, the rivalry between single princes for leadership in North-Eastern Rus' was becoming a thing of the past; now the struggle was waged by princely dynasties, which relied primarily on the resources of their hereditary estates. A cautious and prudent politician, Ivan Kalita accumulated strength gradually, trying to enlist the support of two powerful forces - the Horde and the Orthodox Church. 3
During the reign of Ivan I, the struggle between Moscow and Tver flared up with renewed vigor. The Tver prince Alexander Mikhailovich surpassed the Moscow prince in power and authority. Taking into account tradition, the Horde returned the label to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir Tver. At the same time, the khan decided to achieve complete submission from the Tver prince Alexander and for this purpose in 1327 he sent Tsarevich Cholkhan with an armed detachment to Rus'. Having appeared in Tver, he expelled the Tver prince from his court and himself settled in the palace. The violence of the Tatars caused a popular uprising. Cholkhan and his squad were killed. Ivan I brought Tatar armies to Rus', and the Tatars destroyed the Tver land. Alexander Mikhailovich went to bow to the Horde and regained the Tver throne. But here Moscow intervened again. According to Ivan Kalita's denunciation of Alexander Tverskoy, Khan in 1339. executed him. Ivan Danilovich received the label for the great reign and acquired a reputation as a devoted and obedient tributary of the khan. The right to collect the “Horde exit” was approved for him. Moscow collectors began to dispose cash flow, directed towards the Horde.
With the growth of the treasury, the Moscow prince was able to expand his possessions in such a way as purchasing land. Kalita’s “purchase” gave V. O. Klyuchevsky a reason to note that the Moscow prince “beat his opponents not so much with a sword as with a ruble.” Perhaps Ivan Kalita managed to buy labels for Uglich and Beloozero in the Horde. The Kostroma lands with rich salt deposits in the Galich region came under the control of the Moscow prince.
Relations with the church also developed successfully for the Moscow prince. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, the successor of Kyiv Metropolitan Cyril III (1243 - 1280), Metropolitan Maxim, a Greek by birth, arrived in Rus' in 1283 with the rank of metropolitan. In 1301, Metropolitan Maximus arrived in Constantinople for the Patriarchal Council, where, by the will of the saint, Bishop Theognostus proposed solutions to questions about the needs of the Russian Church. Concerned about strengthening the forces of enslaved Rus', the saint convinced the Moscow Prince Yuri Danilovich to reconcile with the Tver Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich and did not advise Yuri to go to the Horde to receive the grand-ducal throne. In 1304, the saint in Vladimir placed Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver on the grand-ducal throne. Metropolitan Maxim established a rule about fasts, appointing, in addition to Great Lent, the Apostolic, Dormition and Nativity fasts. The special care of the holy metropolitan was the approval of legal marriage. Maxim died on December 6, 1305; his body was buried in the Assumption Vladimir Cathedral. 4
In fact, the Metropolitan's move was a recognition that the center of political and religious life in Orthodox Russian lands had moved to the northeast.
Metropolitan Maxim's successor, Peter (13081326), established friendly relations with the Moscow princes Yuri and Ivan Danilovich.
In 1312, the saint made a trip to the Horde, where he received from Uzbek Khan a charter protecting the rights of the Russian clergy. In 1325, Saint Peter, at the request of Grand Duke Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1328 - 1340), transferred the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow. This event was important for the entire Russian land. Saint Peter prophetically predicted liberation from the Tatar yoke and the future rise of Moscow as the center of all Russia.
With his blessing, a cathedral in honor of the Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary was founded in the Moscow Kremlin in August 1326. 5
Peter's successor was Metropolitan Theognostus (13281353), who received initiation in Constantinople in 1328 and settled in Moscow.
In 1329, he visited Novgorod and from there declared a curse on the Pskovites, who accepted the disgraced Prince of Tver Alexander Mikhailovich. Pskov's old desire to gain church independence intensified: the Pskovites chose a certain Arseny as their bishop and sent him to be consecrated to the metropolitan, but Theognost refused them this.
Like his predecessors, Theognostus undertook travels throughout his metropolis. Theognost traveled to the Horde twice. On the second trip (1342) someone told Khan Janibek that the metropolitan was collecting large incomes from the clergy and that he had a lot of money. Khan demanded payment from him from all the clergy. Theognost endured all sorts of tortures in the Horde, gave away up to 600 rubles to various strong people and insisted that the khan approved for the church all its previous benefits with a new label. 6
For contemporaries this was a significant event. Moscow, long before becoming the political capital of the united Russian state, became the religious center of the country. This raised the authority of the Moscow princes and opened up the opportunity for them to act in concert with the metropolitan, relying on the power of the church.
Throughout his reign, Kalita visited the Horde several times, repelling the intrigues of his rivals and strengthening his ties with the “king”. At the end of the 1330s, princes dissatisfied with Moscow's policies, led by Prince of Tver Alexander Mikhailovich, tried to undermine Kalita's position in the Horde. Ivan Danilovich managed to avert the threat. Apparently, he took advantage of the khan’s suspicion regarding Alexander Mikhailovich’s connections with Lithuania, whose growing power worried the Horde. The accusations turned out to be so serious that in 1338, on the orders of Khan Uzbek, Alexander Mikhailovich was killed.
The policy of appeasement allowed Kalita to avoid the devastating Tatar raids on Russian soil. To the credit of the Moscow prince, the chroniclers wrote: “The silence is great” “the abomination has ceased to wage war on the Russian land.” Realizing that the strength of the prince was in the number and wealth of the grand ducal servants, Ivan Danilovich began to grant land for temporary use on the terms of service. While emphasizing the merits of the Moscow prince, one must not idealize him and forget that he built his well-being on seeking before the Horde rulers. 7
The Moscow rulers spared no effort and did not hesitate to use bribery, deception, and violence to expand their domains. These princes, devoid of talent and distinguished by persistent mediocrity, behaved like petty predators and hoarders (V. O. Klyuchevsky).
The rapid rise of Moscow delayed the process of fragmentation of North-Eastern Rus' and made it possible to collect “the fragmented parts into something whole.” (V. O. Klyuchevsky). In his study of the Moscow state, A.E. Presnyakov paid attention to the formation of the foundations of a new statehood under the immediate successors of Ivan Kalita, and to the gathering of power by the Moscow Grand Dukes. 8
The sons of Ivan Kalita, Semyon Ivanovich the Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan Ivanovich the Red (1353-1359), retained the grand-ducal table and continued the work of their father, gathering new lands under their own hands. During these years, the Yuriev Principality, whose territory was famous for its fertility and rich salt springs, became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The strength of the Moscow princes was their unity. The title “Grand Duke of All Rus'” appeared for the first time on Semyon Ivanovich’s seal.
In 1352, a plague epidemic claimed the lives of the Grand Duke and his two sons. The throne passed to the brother of Semyon the Proud, Ivan Ivanovich the Red. Chroniclers described this prince, adding the definitions “meek” and “merciful,” but in November 1359 he died. 9
In 1359, John of Moscow died, 33 years old, leaving young sons Dmitry and Ivan and a young nephew, Vladimir Andreevich.
It seemed that John’s early death would be disastrous for Moscow, because his little son could not fight other princes. And, indeed, when all the princes appeared in the Horde and only one Moscow one was missing, the khan gave the great reign of Vladimir to the Suzdal prince Dmitry Konstantinovich.
But Moscow was already so strong that even such an unfavorable circumstance as the prince’s minority could not harm it. The Moscow boyars did not want to descend to a lower level or go to the new Grand Duke, to a new principality, where nothing was known or secured to them; They began to try to get a label for their prince. 10
The Great Table was transferred to the Suzdal and Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich. Then the results of the activities of the first Moscow princes made themselves known in full. It was not so much the personal qualities of the ruler that came to the fore, but rather the accumulated potential of the principality and the interest of the secular and spiritual elites in supporting their prince. The change in the status of the Moscow prince also did not suit Metropolitan Alexei (1353-1378), a consistent supporter of the union of the church with the Moscow princes. Having headed the government during Dmitry Ivanovich’s childhood, Metropolitan Alexei began to vigorously defend the supremacy of Moscow.
Taking advantage of the civil strife in the Horde, the Moscow boyars already in 1362 achieved the expulsion of Dmitry Konstantinovich from Vladimir. Several more years passed and the Nizhny Novgorod prince was forced to abandon the Vladimir table himself.
With the growing power of the Moscow principality, its rulers increasingly resorted to violence. In the early 1360s, Dmitrov was captured and annexed. This was followed by the expulsion of princes hostile to Moscow from the Rostov, Galich and Starodub lands.
Having matured, Dmitry Ivanovich began to interfere in the affairs of the great Tver Principality. He entered into a protracted struggle with Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, whose ally was the powerful Lithuanian Prince Olgerd. Olgerd approached Moscow twice (1368, 1370), but on the eve of the war, Dmitry Ivanovich was not in vain in his haste to build the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin walls, erected from white stone in an incredibly short time, turned out to be impregnable for the Lithuanian troops. The last, third, campaign (1372), like the previous two, ended in failure. The Lithuanian guard regiment was defeated, after which Prince Olgerd chose to make another peace with Dmitry Ivanovich.
In 1371, Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy managed to receive a label for the great reign. However, the residents of Vladimir, at the call of the Moscow prince, did not allow the governors of the Tver prince to enter. The weakening of the Horde opened up the possibility of maneuver between the warring factions of the Horde nobility and their proteges to the khan's throne. At the same time, Moscow, which had solid material resources, had advantages over its rivals. The envoys of the Moscow prince in the Horde settled the conflict with generous gifts. As a result, the great table was left to Kalita’s grandson.
Many Russian princes went over to the side of Dmitry Ivanovich in his fight with Mikhail Alexandrovich. In 1375, in addition to the Moscow regiments, armies from Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Smolensk and even Kashin, an appanage principality of the Tver land, moved to Tver - a total of 22 squads. In fact, this was the first all-Russian campaign led by Dmitry Ivanovich. The Tver prince, weakened in the struggle, was forced to recognize the supremacy of Moscow.
Under Dmitry Ivanovich, the former quest in the Horde is gradually being replaced by the desire for greater independence. The church played a major role in this transformation, actively supporting the unification process. Kalita's descendant stood at the head of the national struggle for independence, and this gave him a huge advantage over his rivals: the latter, speaking against the Moscow princes, unwittingly found themselves in the camp of opponents of the faith. 11
The Principality of Moscow was constantly strengthening, while the Horde was apparently weakening due to internal unrest and strife, and the khans were losing more and more of their importance and ceased to inspire fear. 12
Dmitry Ivanovich's disobedience to the Horde Khan led to an increase in the number of Horde raids on Rus'. The Nizhny Novgorod principality especially suffered from them. The allied princes came to the aid of the Nizhny Novgorod residents. In 1377, taking advantage of the carelessness of the Russian governors, the Tatars defeated the army on the Pyana River. The next year, Dmitry Ivanovich met the Horde army on the Vozha River, a tributary of the Oka. The brutal battle ended in victory for the Moscow prince. But this success was the beginning of a decisive battle.
In preparation for it, Mamai mobilized all his strength. Russian chronicles, clearly exaggerating, determined their number at almost a quarter of a million. Modern researchers call a more modest figure - about 60 thousand. For that time, this was a huge army. Mamai's ally was the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello, who was interested in the mutual weakening of Rus' and the Horde.
Russian army hardly inferior in number to Mamai. In addition to the Moscow regiments, troops from Beloozero, Serpukhov, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir, Murom, Yaroslavl and other destinies came to the gathering place. It is fashionable to conclude that almost all of Rus' came together under the banners of the Moscow prince.
The battle took place on September 8, 1380 and ended with the defeat of Mamai. The dead were buried for six days after the battle. 13 The historical assessment of the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo is ambiguous. The following main points of view can be distinguished:
According to the traditional point of view, dating back to Karamzin and generally accepted by most historians, the Battle of Kulikovo was the first step towards the liberation of Russian lands from Horde dependence.
Supporters of the Orthodox approach, following the unknown author of the Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev, see in the Battle of Kulikovo a confrontation between Christian Rus' and the steppe infidels.
The largest Russian historian of the 19th century, S. M. Solovyov, believed that the Battle of Kulikovo, which stopped another invasion from Asia, had the same significance for Eastern Europe that the battle on the Catalaunian fields in 451 and the Battle of Poitiers in 732 had for Western Europe. 14
Gumilyov and his followers see in Mamai a representative of the trade and political interests of hostile Europe; Moscow troops objectively came out to defend the legitimate ruler of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh. In this interpretation, the Battle of Kulikovo appears as just an intermediate stage in the struggle for power within the Golden Horde.
Some modern historians, who do not at all share Gumilyov’s views, still agree that the significance of the battle is greatly exaggerated in the historiographical tradition. In the realities of 1380, there could still be no talk of liberating Russian lands from the power of the Golden Horde. The tasks of the Moscow government included: changing the balance of power in the region in its favor and rising among other Russian principalities, taking advantage of the protracted internal political conflict in the Horde. 15
The first victory over the Tatars accelerated the process of formation of self-awareness and instilled confidence in the liberation of Rus' from the khan's power. The position of the Moscow prince was strengthened, who, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, finally acquired “the importance of the national leader of Northern Rus' in the fight against external enemies.” The status of Moscow also rose - it turned into a national capital.
The defeat of Mamai allowed Khan Tokhtamysh to seize power in the Horde and even restore its unity for a short time. 16 Hostile activity against Moscow reigned in the Horde. For almost two years, Tokhtamysh, in deep secret, was preparing to deal a crushing blow to Rus' in order to bring it to its knees.
Taking advantage of the strife between the Russians, the khan won over the Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod grand dukes to his side. The Tatar invasion in 1382 was like a flood. The cavalry poured into the Russian borders, sweeping away everything in its path. The border princes tried to save their lands from the pogrom and spread to the enemy’s camp. 17
Dmitry Ivanovich went to Kostroma, probably to gather an army. There is another version: he tried to avoid a collision with Tokhtamysh. At the end of August, the khan besieged Moscow. Muscovites greeted the Horde with stones, arrows and even shots from mattresses (small-caliber guns). Unable to break the resistance, Tokhtamysh resorted to deception. He promised to lift the siege after an expression of submission. When the city gates were open, the enemy broke into the Kremlin. The pogrom was terrible.
Dmitry Ivanovich was forced to recognize the power of the khan and resume payment of the “exit”. But the military-political potential of the Horde was so undermined that the restoration of Horde rule in full was impossible. Tokhtamysh not only retained the great table for the Moscow prince, but in fact approved the transformation of the Vladimir reign into a Moscow fiefdom.
Dmitry Donskoy reigned for thirty years. The first victories over the Horde speak of the military leadership talent of Dmitry Donskoy. But he also proved himself to be a big statesman, strong-willed and independent ruler.
The territorial results of Dmitry Ivanovich’s reign are also impressive: he not only finally secured the great reign for Moscow, but also made large acquisitions in the Volga region, in the Klyazma and Oka basins. Thus, the basis for the unification of Great Russian lands around Moscow expanded materially and territorially. Before his death, Dmitry divided the principality between his sons. He “blessed” his eldest son Vasily with “his fatherland with a great reign.” Vasily received most of the Moscow principality and Moscow, fifteen-year-old Yuri Galich and Zvenigorod, seven-year-old Andrei Mozhaisk and Beloozero, four-year-old Peter Dmitrov and Uglich. The Grand Duke acted in the spirit of appanage ideas and, although he sought to prevent clashes between his sons, punishing them to obey “the eldest brother in my place of his father,” he unwittingly created the basis for a future internecine war.
1.4. Feudal War
From the end of the 14th century. Moscow's unification policy acquires a number of new features. Moscow rulers are increasingly resorting to violence, sanctioning their actions by the will of the khan. The Horde itself is experiencing a deep crisis, breaking up into warring parts, each of which lays claim to the “Russian ulus”. In connection with this, the number of robber campaigns against Rus' is increasing. The need for a prince capable of organizing a general effective defense became an urgent need at the end of the 14th century.
Lithuania had a huge influence on the political processes of Rus'. The Lithuanian princes took full advantage of the weakening of the Horde and gathered the main ancient Russian lands under their control. At the same time, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania there was a process of rapprochement with Poland, which led to the growth of Polish and Catholic influence in Lithuania. The Orthodox elite faced difficult political, religious and cultural choice, which prompted many to turn their eyes to Moscow.
Vasily I (13891425) successfully continued the work of his father. In his youth, he spent four years in Horde captivity. When the prince reached adulthood, well-wishers helped him escape from the Horde to Lithuania. Apparently, there he was engaged to the daughter of the ruler of Lithuania, Prince Vytautas. Having ascended the throne, Vasily I pursued a policy of submission to the Horde and tried to use its power to expand Moscow's possessions. 18
Taking advantage of the complications in the Horde, he did not miss the opportunity to expand the borders of his possessions. Basil I received labels for the Murom and Tarusa principalities; the Nizhny Novgorod principality was an important acquisition.
Finding himself isolated, the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh and his supporters began to seek refuge in Lithuania. Here he concluded an agreement with Vitovt, according to which the Lithuanian prince was to contribute to the return of Tokhtamysh to the Horde throne, and Tokhtamysh to the installation of Vitovt “in all Russian land.” This was a dangerous alliance for Moscow. However, in August 1400, in the battle on the river. Vorskla, the left tributary of the Dnieper, Vitovt and Tokhtamysh were defeated by the new Horde khan Timur.
The Lithuanian prince was forced to abandon his extensive plans, but this did not prevent him from conquering the Smolensk principality in 1404. Basil I , avoiding aggravation with Lithuania, did not protest this accession. But when Vitovt tried to strengthen his positions in the Novgorod and Pskov lands, Moscow resolutely opposed it. In 1390, Vasily married Sofya Vitovtovna, daughter of Vitovt. The dynastic marriage undoubtedly influenced Vasily's relationship with the powerful Lithuanian prince. Nevertheless, Vasily Dmitrievich did not abandon his independent policy. The war that broke out between Moscow and Vilna in 1406-1408. did not reveal the winner. On the eve of the clash with the Teutonic Order, Vytautas agreed to make peace.
The overthrow of Tokhtamysh by the Horde khan Timur allowed Vasily I to stop paying the “exit”. Another Horde ruler who aspired to power, Edigei, did not want to put up with this. In December 1408, his army invaded Moscow. 19 Vasily I he was not careful, hoping that the Horde had weakened, and did not take measures in advance against the cunning enemy. Like his father, Vasily Dmitrievich fled to Kostroma, but he managed the defense of Moscow better than his father, entrusting it to his brave uncle, Prince Vladimir Andreevich of Serpukhov. Muscovites themselves burned down their settlement. Edigei could not take the Kremlin, but the Horde devastated many Russian cities and villages. Moscow experienced that if the Horde was not able to keep Rus' under its control, as before, it could still be terrible for a long time with its sudden raids, devastation and captivity of the inhabitants. 20 The news of another turmoil in the Horde changed the plans of the Horde protege. He moved back, having previously taken a huge “payback of 3,000 rubles” from the Muscovites. The scale of the devastation was such that contemporaries compared it with the invasion of Batu. But the main thing Vasily I was forced to resume paying the “exit”.
By the end of his life, Vasily Dmitrievich was the undisputed leader among the northeastern princes. He strengthened his positions along the border of the Novgorod land, putting Volok Damsky, Torzhok, Vologda, etc. under control. His major success was the capture of Veliky Ustyug. Most of the appanage princes who retained their independence were in the position of “young brothers” in relation to the Grand Duke. A considerable number of princes turned into “helpers” of the Grand Duke. Usually they were sent as governors to their former appanages. Such feudal lords began to be called service or service princes. However, the question of the center for the unification of Russian lands was not finally resolved. It seemed that the Lithuanian Prince Vytautas took the lead in this process.
He united not only Central and Southern Rus', the Tver and Ryazan princes became dependent on him. Vasily Dmitrievich was forced to reckon with this circumstance.
The process of political unification was interrupted by the feudal war, which broke out during the reign of Vasily II Vasilyevich (1425-1462). The reason was a dynastic conflict between the Moscow princes. In 1425, after the death of Vasily I, Prince Yuri of Zvenigorod refused to swear allegiance to his nine-year-old nephew. He justified his rights to the Moscow throne with references to “seniority” and to the will of Dmitry Donskoy, according to which, in the event of the death of Vasily I, his next brother became his successor.
The collision was avoided thanks to the mediation of Metropolitan Photius and the pressure of Vytautas, who, as the grandfather of Vasily II, acted as his patron. Yuri retreated. However, Vytautas defended not so much the rights of his grandson as he sought to take advantage of the situation and strengthen his position.
The death of Vytautas in 1430 changed the situation in North-Eastern Rus'. The Lithuanian princes found themselves drawn into an internecine struggle, which freed the hands of the rivals of Vasily II. The dispute over seniority was transferred to the Horde. The Khan of the Golden Horde again received the functions of the supreme arbiter. Vasily II won the fight for the label in the Horde. Yuri Dmitrievich did not accept this decision and went into open conflict.
The war, which began in 1433, continued intermittently until the mid-50s. It is surprising that Vasily II, who won it, was inferior to his opponents in experience, talent, and even luck: he experienced several defeats, lost the Moscow table many times and nevertheless won. Thus, the outcome of the struggle depended not so much on the personal qualities of the rival Moscow princes, but on the power of those social strata and government institutions that supported them.
The Zvenigorod prince, Yuri Dmitrievich, twice occupied the grand-ducal table and faced the opposition of the Moscow princes, but two months later after his second ascension to the grand-ducal table, he died (1434).
At the new stage of the feudal war, Vasily II encountered the sons of Yuri Dmitrievich, Vasily and Dmitry. At the same time, Dmitry Yurievich (Shemyaka) acted in alliance with Vasily II against his older brother Vasily Yuryevich, who declared himself Grand Duke. The fight ended with the capture of Vasily Yuryevich, who was blinded by order of Vasily II.
Taking advantage of the strife between the Russian princes, Tatar troops often appeared on the borders of the Russian state. Tokhtamysh's grandson Ulu-Mukhammed captured Kazan in 1438 and became the founder of a new dynasty of Kazan khans. In 1445 he ravaged Nizhny Novgorod. In a battle near Suzdal, the sons of Ulu-Muhammad inflicted a crushing defeat on the grand ducal army, capturing Vasily II himself.
Dmitry Shemyaka’s plans to take advantage of the situation and occupy the grand-ducal table were prevented by the return of Vasily II from captivity. However, the conditions of liberation turned out to be so difficult that they caused strong discontent on the part of the population: it was necessary to pay a huge ransom, and the Horde was given cities and volosts as collateral. This allowed the conspirators to accuse Vasily of “leading” the Horde to Rus'. In February 1446, supporters of Dmitry Shemyaka captured Moscow, he became the Grand Duke. Vasily II (Dark) was blinded and sent to prison in Uglich. 21 It is noteworthy that the nature of Vasily’s reign II Since then it has completely changed. Using his sight, Vasily was the most insignificant sovereign, but since he lost his eyes, the rest of his reign was distinguished by firmness, intelligence and determination. 22
The Moscow boyars did not want the rulers of other principalities to be strengthened on the grand ducal table. This threatened the elite with serious changes in the established system of service-parochial hierarchy, pushing it away from the helm of power. The land policy of Vasily II, who united the Moscow boyars around himself with generous distributions of estates, ensured the stability and strength of his power. The support of the church was of great importance for Vasily II. Condemning the actions of Dmitry Shemyaka, the hierarchs unanimously spoke out for the release of Vasily from Uglich imprisonment.
In mid-1446, Vasily the Dark appeared in Tver. The alliance with the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich was sealed by the betrothal of the children of the future Ivan III and Maria. With the help of supporters, Vasily the Dark returns to his great reign and brings charges against Shemyaka, who helped him remove Vasily from power two years earlier II and that Shemyaka brought detachments of Tatars to Rus'. The dramatic struggle continued until 1453, in which Dmitry Shemyaka died.
The war undoubtedly slowed down the unification processes. Nevertheless, its outcome is indisputable - the strengthening of the position of the grand ducal power. As a result of military campaigns, other lands hostile to the Grand Duke, Novgorod and Vyatka, were brought into submission. Having drawn conclusions from what was happening, Vasily II distributed the lands among the heirs in such a way that the eldest son received a decisive advantage over his brothers. Ivan, who ascended the throne, owned 16 large cities, while his four brothers together owned 12. This became a serious guarantee against new strife.
It is characteristic that even during civil strife, the Moscow principality continued to expand. The size of the new acquisitions was not impressive, but important from a strategic point of view. Strengthening the Oka outskirts, the Moscow prince acquired Venev and Tula in the south. An important defensive measure was the creation of a special “kingdom” - the Kasimov kingdom, which was headed by Kashima and his horde, whose responsibility was attributed to the protection of Russian borders. Kashima's son Mahmud, having seized power, completed the process of formation of the Kazan kingdom, independent from the Horde, begun by his father. The creation of the Kasimov kingdom is a new phenomenon in Russian-Horde relations: for the first time, Horde princes appear among the service people of the Moscow prince. From the end of the 14th century. Numerous “departures” of Tatars for Russian service began. They converted to Orthodoxy, many of them became the founders of noble noble families.
At the end of the reign of Vasily II, the conflict with Novgorod was resolved. In 1456, the defeat at Russa forced the Novgorod boyars to begin peace negotiations. The Peace of Yazhelbitsa preserved the political system of Novgorod, but the positions of the Moscow prince and his governors strengthened. The power of Vasily the Dark was also strengthened in Pskov, where a grand-ducal governor appeared.
Thus, by the end of the reign of Vasily II, important prerequisites were created for overcoming specific fragmentation and creating a unified state. The unification of Rus' was still on the agenda, but this process was already moving towards its logical conclusion. Largely thanks to the policies of the Moscow princes, including the acquisition of territory, the purchase of lands or even principalities, the religious factor that united the people, the formation of Moscow not only as a political, but also a religious center - everything was heading towards the fact that Moscow would become the capital of the future state, with centralized control system in all areas of life, all that remained was to put in a little more effort. But the main thing has already been done - the unification process has begun...
II . Formation of a unified Russian state during the reign of Ivan III
2.1. Completion of the political unification of Russian lands around Moscow
The reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (14621505) the final stage of the formation of the Russian centralized state. At the beginning of his reign, his principality was surrounded almost everywhere by Russian possessions: Novgorod the Great, the princes of Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ryazan. Ivan III subjugated all these lands thanks to successful foreign political and diplomatic qualities . At the end of his reign, he had only heterodox and foreign neighbors: Swedes, Germans, Lithuania, Tatars. 23 Three stood before the prince the most important tasks. Firstly, to unite the lands around Moscow that still retained their independence, secondly, to put an end to the position of the khan’s “ulusnik” and become an independent sovereign, thirdly, qualitative changes in society and the state entailed corresponding changes in the power itself and its institutions. If in the first two cases Ivan III to a certain extent acted as a continuator of the work of his predecessors, then the last task required innovation and courage. 24
The events of civil strife could not but affect little Ivan and further on his policies. He felt an irreconcilable hatred for the remnants of the old appanage freedom. He was a man of a harsh disposition, cold, reasonable, with a hard heart, power-hungry, adamant in the pursuit of his chosen goal, secretive, extremely cautious; gradualness is visible in all his actions; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to make excellent use of circumstances; he never got carried away, but acted decisively when he saw that the matter had matured to the point where success was undoubted. 25
Ivan III revealed himself as a statesman in his ability to accurately and clearly understand his goals and find the optimal means to achieve them. Despite the resources that Ivan Vasilyevich inherited and increased, the problem of leadership under him acquired enormous importance. This was due to the fact that an external threat pushed for a high rate of unification. The fate of Ivan III's father showed how important a talented ruler is in such a historical situation and how dangerous mediocrity is. 26
… The local societies themselves, for various reasons, began to openly gravitate toward Moscow. Thus, in Novgorod the Great, the people took the side of Moscow as opposed to the local aristocracy; on the contrary, in the principalities of northern Rus', the upper service class gravitated towards Moscow, tempted by the benefits of Moscow service; finally, in Chernigov, which depended on Lithuania, princes and societies joined Moscow in the fight against Catholic propaganda, which began in Western Rus' from the 14th century with the intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. Thanks to the desire of local authorities to become part of the Moscow principality, the gathering of the Russian land by Moscow became a national-religious movement and accelerated. 27
By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, the Tver, Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities did not enter the Moscow patrimony from the Upper Volga principalities (or were included in separate volosts and destinies). In 1463, the Yaroslavl prince ceded his principality with volosts to Ivan III. The loss of independence was accompanied by political reorganization, which in turn emphasized the dependence of local feudal lords on the Grand Duke. Thus, according to researchers of the era of Ivan III, methods were approved for including the territories of appanage principalities into a single state. In 1474, the Moscow prince acquired the remaining half of the Rostov principality from local princes. 28
For a century and a half, Moscow tried to undermine the independence and prosperity of Novgorod: Novgorod suffered frequent extortion of money, land seizures, and the destruction of Novgorod volosts, and therefore it was clear that Novgorod had long been intolerant of Moscow’s supremacy. Discontent with Moscow reached a high degree during the reign of Vasily the Dark. The independence of Veliky Novgorod caused concern among the Novgorodians. Then, having united in the name of a common cause, they decided to repel the Moscow princes at all costs. Since it seemed to the Novgorodians that they were unable to protect Veliky Novgorod from Moscow, which could advance against it beyond the strength of the lands already subordinate to it, the patriots of Novgorod came to the conclusion that it was best to surrender under the protection of the Lithuanian Grand Duke and King of Poland Casimir.
Ivan Vasilyevich, having learned about the decision of the Novgorodians, sent ambassadors with an appeal that Novgorod is the fatherland of the Grand Duke.
At the end of 1470, the Novgorodians invited the prince from Kyiv, Mikhail Olelkovich.
The Novgorodians entered into an agreement with Casimir: Novgorod came under the supreme authority of Casimir, retreated from Moscow, and Casimir undertook to protect it from the attacks of the Moscow Grand Duke. 29
Having learned about this, Prince Ivan Vasilyevich tried to peacefully resolve the escalating struggle for independence; he sent his ambassadors to Novgorod to negotiate.
This was heard by the Novgorod people, their boyars, and mayors, and thousands, and wealthy people who did not want to break their ancient custom and the kiss of the cross. 30
After the unsuccessful return of the ambassadors from Novgorod, Ivan Vasilyevich decided to use weapons. On May 31, 1471, he sent his troops under the command of Voivode Sample to the Dvina to take this important volost from Novgorod; On June 6, the second army was advanced under the leadership of Prince Danil Dmitrievich Kholmsky to Ilmen, and on June 13 the third detachment was sent under the command of Prince Vasily Obolensky-Striga to the coast of the Meta River. The Grand Duke gave the order to burn all Novgorod suburbs and villages and kill indiscriminately. His goal was to weaken the Novgorod land to the extreme. At the same time, the forces of Pskov and Tver were involved in the campaign against Novgorod.
Moscow troops, carrying out the orders of Ivan Vasilyevich, behaved inhumanly; Having defeated the Novgorod detachment at Korostin, on the banks of the Ilmen, Moscow military leaders ordered the captives’ noses and lips to be cut off and in this form sent them to show themselves to their brothers. The main Novgorod army consisted mostly of people unaccustomed to battle: artisans, farmers, laborers. There was no agreement among this army. On July 13, 1471, on the banks of the Sheloni River, the Novgorodians were completely defeated. Ivan Vasilyevich, having arrived with the main army following the detachments he had sent, stopped in Yazhelbitsy and ordered the heads of the four captured leaders of the Novgorod army to be cut off.
The defeat of the Novgorod army produced a revolution in minds. The people in Novgorod were sure that Casimir would appear or send an army to help Novgorod; but there was no help from Lithuania. The people sent their archbishop to ask the Grand Duke for mercy. Novgorod renounced its connection with the Lithuanian sovereign and ceded to the Grand Duke part of the Dvina land, where the Novgorod army was defeated by the Moscow one. In general, the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which Novgorod considered its property, has long been disunited. Among the Novgorod possessions there were inhabited lands to which other princes, especially those of Rostov, laid claim. The Grand Duke of Moscow, as the supreme head of all appanage princes and the owner of their possessions, considered all such disputed lands to be his fatherland and took them away from Novgorod. Novgorod, in addition, undertook to pay a “kopeck” (indemnity). The amount of a penny was indicated at fifteen and a half thousand. In all other respects, this agreement was a repetition of the one concluded under Vasily the Dark. “Eternal” letters were also destroyed. 31
In the first year after the subjugation of Novgorod, Grand Duke Ivan did not impose his disgrace on the Novgorodians and did not take drastic measures against them. 32
And the last page of Novgorod freedom was turned at the end of the 70s. In the spring of 1477, the Novgorod embassy, supposedly sent from the archbishop and “all of Veliky Novgorod,” named Ivan III not lord, but sovereign. The difference was significant: if the address “master” expressed the attitude of feudal equality or, in extreme cases,unequal status vassalage, then the concept of “sovereign” meant recognition of citizenship. 33
Achieving the complete subjugation of Novgorod, Ivan III set out to liquidate the Novgorod court, replacing it with the grand ducal one. The question of eliminating the veche system was postponed to the future.
The emergence of a second government in Novgorod had important consequences. Residents who failed in the court of the “republic” immediately turned their claims to Ivan III. By the spring of 1477, a whole crowd of Novgorod complainants, belonging to various strata of society, had gathered in Moscow. 34
However, this pacification did not stop with the removal of the bell and the prohibition of the veche: the townspeople tried to rebel. So, in order to completely dispel the spirit of resistance to the new order, “in 1487, 50 of the best merchant families were transferred from Novagorod to Vladimir. In 1488, the Governor of Novgorod, Yakov Zakharyevich, executed and hanged many living people who wanted to kill him, and sent to Moscow more than eight thousand Boyars, eminent citizens and merchants who received lands in Vladimir, Murom, Nizhny, Pereslavl, Yuryev, Rostov, Kostroma; and to their lands, to Novgorod, they sent Muscovites, service people and guests. With this resettlement Novgorod was pacified forever.” 35
Surrounded on almost all sides by Moscow possessions, the Grand Duchy of Tver stood on the verge of its collapse. 36 Tver Prince Mikhail Borisovich was in peace and alliance with John until the end of 1484. In Moscow they learned that the Tver prince began to maintain friendship with Casimir of Lithuania and married his granddaughter; In the agreement with the king, Michael pledged to stand with him against everyone without exception.
This circumstance was a clear violation of the obligations previously concluded with the Moscow prince, and therefore the latter declared war on Mikhail, which began with the devastation of the Tver region; Tver alone could not fight with Moscow, Lithuanian help did not come, and Mikhail was forced to ask for peace. Mikhail Borisovich re-entered an alliance with Lithuania; in Moscow, having learned about this, they began to gather an army; the frightened Mikhail in vain sent to beat John with his forehead, he did not want to hear anything and besieged Tver; Mikhail fled to Lithuania at night, and Tver swore allegiance to John in 1485. 37
In the spring of June 11, 1489. The great of all Rus', Ivan Vasilyevich, sent military detachments to Vyatka. Under the leadership of Prince Daniil Vasilyevich Shchen and Grigory Vasilyevich Morozov, the cities were taken, and the Vyatchyans themselves were led to a kiss, and the Aryans were led to an oath; and the Vyatchans carried away the great people with their wives and children, and even the Aryan princes, and so they returned. And the Great Prince planted the Vyatchan zemstvo people in Borovets and Klemenets and gave them land, and planted the Vyatchan trading people in Dmitrov; and the great prince granted favor to the Arsky princes, released them to his land, and executed the seditionists by death.. 38
An integral part of the history of collecting lands around Moscow under Ivan III was his desire to reduce the number of appanage principalities. After almost all independent principalities disappeared from the political map of Rus', a glance was cast at the destinies of the members of the Moscow ruling house. Some of the estates passed into the possession of the Moscow prince after the death of their owners. It is important to emphasize that under Ivan III, all territorial acquisitions of the Grand Duke were not subject to kinship division. Thus, the space reproducing specific antiquity was gradually reduced. By the beginning of the reign of Vasily III Ivanovich (1505–1533), only Pskov and the Ryazan principality remained not annexed to Moscow.
2.2. The end of Horde rule. Rus' and Lithuania at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries.
The creation of a unified state was impossible without liberation from Horde rule. The latter implied not only the mobilization of all military resources, but also the intensification of foreign policy aimed at finding allies and disrupting the plans of hostile neighboring states, primarily the Great Horde and Lithuania. Thanks to the diplomatic efforts of Ivan III, the capabilities of the Moscow Principality increased. Foreign policy contacts have increased, which have allowed Moscow to influence the course of affairs not only in its region, but throughout Eastern Europe.
The end of the 80s became a time of difficult trials for Ivan III. The growing power of the Moscow principality, just confirmed by the annexation of Novgorod, led to serious complications. Khan of the Great Horde Akhmet and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir created a military alliance directed against Moscow. In turn, Ivan III entered into an agreement with Akhmet’s worst enemy, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. This far-sighted diplomatic move somewhat balanced the forces. 39
Khan of the Golden Horde Akhmet was not pleased with John because he did not go to him with a bow and did not satisfy his demands for tribute. Akhmet in 1472 attacked the Moscow borders from the Oka and, having burned Aleksin, retreated back. 40
On the eve of the invasion, the position of the Grand Duke was complicated by a conflict with his brothers, appanage princes Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Vasilyevich. The clash with the brothers was caused by Ivan III’s reluctance to share the newly annexed regions. The brothers of the Grand Duke did not get anything even after the conquest of the Novgorod land. Such a policy reflected the desire of Ivan III to expand his possessions. The brothers who rebelled proceeded from traditional ideas, according to which they became co-owners of annexed or inherited territories.
Andrei and Boris with their specific regiments moved to Velikiye Luki, which gave them the opportunity, if necessary, to seek help from Casimir. At the height of the conflict, news came about the performance of Khan Akhmet. Resolving the internal political crisis became a top priority for Ivan III.
The Moscow prince did not allow the conflict to deepen further. He made concessions, while at the same time relying on the mediation and authority of the church during negotiations. For this purpose, the Rostov archbishop, the confessor of the Grand Duke Vassian Rylo, was sent to the rebels, announcing Ivan III’s readiness to yield to the brothers Aleksin and Kaluga. A compromise was found, and in the fall, on the eve of the decisive clash, the brothers' specific regiments stood next to the grand ducal detachments.
The appearance of Akhmet's hordes in the spring of 1480 did not come as a surprise to Ivan III. 41 The time has long passed when the Horde could field up to a hundred thousand horsemen. Akhmet Khan could hardly muster more than 30-40 thousand soldiers. Ivan III had approximately the same forces. The troops of the Tver prince came to his aid. Pskov, which was attacked by knights, did not participate in the war with the Tatars. 42 At the Oka line, the Khan’s troops met Russian regiments. Convinced of the reliability of the defense, Akhmet in early September headed to the left tributary of the Oka, the Ugra River. The maneuver pursued two goals: a connection with Casimir’s troops and a crossing to the flank of the Russian troops through the shallow Ugra. Thanks tosuccessful military tacticsThe Moscow governors and grand ducal regiments reached the river bank before the Tatars and prevented the crossing. The “great stand on the Ugra” began.
In the circle of Ivan III there were heated debates regarding the prospects of Horde politics. Some boyars insisted on negotiations with the khan, which meant maintaining dependence in one form or another. Ivan Vasilyevich himself experienced certain hesitations: as a politician, he did not like risk in cases where the outcome of the struggle was not clear. Residents of Moscow, prominent church figures, and military men led by the heir Ivan the Young were in favor of a decisive clash.
The onset of cold weather forced the khan to make a choice: either decide on a general battle or retreat to the steppe. At the beginning of November, the Horde turned its horses. On the way, the khan, for violating the treaty Casimir never came to his aid ruined the Lithuanian possessions.
The stand on the Ugra ended the centuries-old history of Horde rule. The almost bloodless victory was partly achieved thanks to the diplomatic skill of Ivan III and his closest assistants. After liberation from Horde dependence, Ivan III strove for peaceful relations with Crimea and Turkey. 43
Another important direction of Ivan's foreign policy III is to resolve the issue with Lithuania. The Moscow prince begins an offensive movement and expresses the idea that all Western Russian volosts should belong to him as a descendant of St. Vladimir, and not to the Lithuanian princes.
Lacking the means to wage an open war with Moscow, King Casimir forced a search for Ivan III allies against Lithuania: thus, sending his ambassadors to the Crimea, he ordered them to try to prevent Mengli-Girey from making peace with Casimir. The reason for hostile clashes between Lithuania and Moscow was given by petty border princes, continuing old family strife, they constantly quarreled among themselves, transferred from Lithuanian citizenship to Moscow.
In 1492, Casimir died and Poland and Lithuania were divided between his sons: Jan Albrecht got Poland, Alexander - Lithuania. Ivan Vasilyevich immediately sent his governors to Lithuania and insisted that Mengli-Girey send his troops there too. It was difficult for Lithuania to fight off the joint actions of John Mengli-Girey; the nobles began to think about peace with Moscow. They tried to persuade John to make concessions and decided to offer him a marriage alliance of one of his daughters with Grand Duke Alexander.
But John replied that he did not want to hear about matchmaking until peace was concluded, and for this, Lithuania must cede to him all his acquisitions. The Lithuanian prince will send great ambassadors to Moscow to conclude peace according to the will of John. According to the peace treaty, the city of Vyazma, the princes of Novosilsk, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky and Belevsky went to Moscow with estates; Also in the contract document the Moscow prince was written as the sovereign of all Rus'.
In 1495, Alexander married Elena, daughter of John, and promised his father-in-law not to force his wife to accept the Roman Catholic confession; John also demanded that Alexander build a home Orthodox church for Elena in the palace itself, but Alexander did not want to fulfill this demand, he also stopped calling his father-in-law the sovereign of all Rus' and did not want the Moscow boyars to remain with Elena. All this led to a quarrel between father-in-law and son-in-law, and the renewed transfer of princes from Lithuanian citizenship to Moscow led to open war.
The war started successfully for Moscow. On July 14, 1500, the Moscow army under the command of Prince Daniil Shchenya met at Dorogobuzh, on the Vedrosha River, with the Lithuanian army, which was under the command of Hetman Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky; thanks to a secret ambush, the Moscow governors won a decisive victory: Hetman Prince Ostrozhsky and other Lithuanian governors were captured; The Vedrosh victory was followed by the victory at Mstislavl, where the Lithuanians also lost many people. After this, the war continued for several more years; The Livonian master Walter von Plettenberg took part in it, who, thanks to his artillery, defeated the Pskov and Moscow army near Izborsk, but then the Russians marked him with a strong defeat near Telmed. In the third battle, on the shores of Lake Smolina, the Germans, despite their small numbers compared to the Russians, fought desperately, stood their ground, and Plettenberg retreated to their borders.
Alexander of Lithuania, who became King of Poland after the death of his brother, John Albrecht, had to ask for peace from Ivan III . Through the mediation of the Hungarian ambassador, a truce was concluded for six years - from March 25, 1503 to March 25, 1509; Alexander ceded to the Moscow prince the lands of all the princes who had succumbed to Moscow - Starodubsky, Shemyachich and others. At the same time, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Order. 44
The completion of the unification of the Great Russian lands around the Moscow Principality significantly changed the nature of the entire foreign policy of the heirs of Ivan Kalita. From the task of national liberation, Muscovite Rus' moved on to solving problems related to ensuring the security of its borders and territorial expansion, both in the West and in the East. The rapid rise of Moscow meant not only the emergence of a new independent sector of the diplomatic game; the entire system of international relations in Eastern Europe, the entire balance of forces, interests, and traditional alliances was changing. 45
Conclusion
Territorial expansion had a powerful effect on the political position of the Moscow principality and its prince. Having imagined the new borders of the Moscow principality, created by the listed territorial acquisitions, it is easy to see that this principality has now absorbed an entire nation. In specific centuries, through colonization in central and northern Rus', a new tribe was formed within the Russian population, the Great Russian nationality was formed. But until the half of the 15th century. this nation remained only an ethnographic fact, and not a political one: it was divided into several independent political parts; National unity was not expressed in state unity. Now all this nation has united under one state authority. 46 As a result, this was an important historical significance of the reign of Ivan III, and also imparted a new character to the Moscow principality.
The Moscow principality turned into a Russian state. The combination of many factors and coincidences led to the fact that Moscow gradually, with careful steps, not only became a leader among the Russian principalities, but also became the center of the unification of lands.
The creation of the Russian state took place in bloody battles of internal strife, in harsh confrontation with the majority of its neighbors. Russia found its place in the world in a grueling struggle with the Golden Horde, the Kazan, and from the beginning of the 16th century, the Crimean khanates, the Principality of Lithuania, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.
The emergence of a unified Russian state had a great impact historical meaning.
Undoubtedly, the historical significance of the formation of a centralized Russian state is great:
- the period of feudal fragmentation ends;
- feudal strife ceased;
- favorable conditions for the development of the economy and culture have appeared;
- the Golden Horde yoke was overthrown and the defense capability of the state was strengthened (a permanent military army was created);
- joining Russia saved the peoples from the attacks of warlike neighbors;
- the process of enslaving the peasants accelerated;
- international authority has grown.
Thus, the centralization of the Russian state was reflected in the apparatus of government, which contributed to its development in a progressive direction.
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39 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. M., 2004. P. 147.
40 Soloviev S. M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 25.
41 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. M., 2004. P. 148.
42 Skrynnikov R. G. Russian History IX-XVII centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. M., 1997. Chapter 5. Part 2.
43 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. M., 2004. P. 149.
44 Soloviev S. M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 25.
45 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. M., 2004.
46 Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history: Course of Russian history in one volume / V. O. Klyuchevsky. M., 2005. P. 59.
The feudal fragmentation of Russian lands was a pan-European phenomenon and had a number of reasons. Name them. As a result of fragmentation, 15 independent principalities were formed. What role did the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097 play in this process? Name the largest government centers that were formed in Rus'. It is necessary to find out their geographical location, as well as the most important factors that contributed to their power and influence. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality – North-Eastern Rus'. Note the active colonization of lands, the growth of cities, crafts and trade in the 12th century. Give a description of the reigns of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, and Vsevolod the Big Nest. There is a tendency here to become strong princely power , which caused resistance from the boyars . Galicia-Volynskoe principality was the strongest in the south of Rus'. The proximity of European countries contributed to the prosperity of crafts and trade, and the mild climate and fertile lands contributed to the development of agriculture. It happened here strong boyars , which fought with the prince for power . Novgorodskaya boyar republic – Northwestern Rus' developed in a special way. Novgorod was one of the ten largest trading cities in Europe and was a major craft center. Power in Novgorod belonged to veche , which elected prince, mayor, thousand, archbishop . Find out their functions. Please note that virtually all the main issues were resolved here boyars . What's it like meaning of feudal fragmentation? Find in the educational literature data indicating the flourishing of cities, crafts and trade, and the further development of culture during this period.
Features of political fragmentation in individual principalities and lands of Kievan Rus
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Criteria |
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality |
Galicia-Volyn Principality |
Principality of Novgorod |
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Natural-geographical conditions | |||
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Main occupation | |||
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Presence/absence of connections with neighboring areas | |||
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Possibility of population influx from other territories | |||
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Level of development of urban centers | |||
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Political talents of princes | |||
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Form of government in each individual principality |
Lesson 2.
1. Expansion into northern and northwestern Rus'. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and its influence on the further development of Ancient Rus'.
2. Reasons for the rise of Moscow. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the 14th century - beginning. XVI centuries
Question 1. In the 13th century. Russian lands experienced blows from conquerors both from the north-west - Swedish feudal lords and German knights, and from the east - Mongol-Tatars. Tell us about the struggle of Northwestern Rus' against the conquerors. What role did he play in this fight? Alexander Nevskiy?
The student needs to find out where they settled mongol tribes at the end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th century, their social system, main occupation, characterize the Mongol-Tatar army. Tell us about invasion Mongols to North-Eastern Rus' in 1237-1238. and Southern Rus' in 1239-1241. What are the reasons for the military successes of the conquerors? Where and when did the Golden Horde state arise?
Question about consequences The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russian lands is debatable. Recommended educational literature will help you clarify existing points of view. It is necessary to separate concepts "invasion" and "domination". In the first case, we are talking about the devastation of Russian lands, the death of people, material and spiritual values. In the second - about the system of relations between Rus' and the Horde. Rus' became part of the Golden Horde with the rights autonomy. Political dependence Russian lands consisted of the Horde issuing labels (letters) to the princes for the right to reign. Economic dependence consisted of paying tribute (Horde exit). What was the attitude of the Mongol-Tatars to the Russian Church?
Question 2. In the XIV – XV centuries. a unified Russian state is being formed. Should find out preconditions this process. Unlike Western Europe, where they prevailed socio-economic factors V state formation , dominated in Russian lands political factor - the need to unite the Russian principalities to overthrow Mongol-Tatar rule. However, economic conditions for unification were also developing. Read what changes are taking place in agriculture, engineering and technology, pay attention to the growth of cities. The possibility of unification also means a common faith, language, and the foundations of culture.
Next, it is necessary to take into account that the role center Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod, Lithuania, and Moscow claimed the unification of Russian lands. Moreover, Moscow, as the youngest principality, had the least chance of success. Consider reasons for the rise Moscow. The most important among them is policy Moscow princes. Being flexible allowed them to get ahead of their less fortunate rivals.
In the unification of Russian lands we can distinguish several stages. Give them a description. First covers almost the entire XIV century. Tell us about the board Ivan Kalita. Why did he manage to receive a label for a great reign from the Horde? What did this give to the Russian lands? Dmitry Donskoy the first of the Moscow princes began open struggle with the Mongol-Tatars. What is the meaning Battle of Kulikovo? Second period - from 1389 to 1462. At this time it happens feudal war. Indicate its causes and consequences. Third period – 1462-1533. – reign IvanaIIIand VasilyIII, When Union Russian lands was completed. Ivan III was already called “the sovereign of all Rus'”, and not the Moscow prince. Find in the text of the textbook facts confirming the formation of a single state.
The state cannot exist without governing bodies. Tell us about their formation. What role did they play under the Grand Duke? Boyar Duma, Castle And Coffers. The first began to appear orders. What questions did they deal with? The country was divided into volosts, headed by governors. Define their responsibilities. What's happened feeding? In 1497, the first set of all-Russian laws was adopted - Code of Law. What was its content?
Lesson 3.
1. Ivan IV. Search for alternative ways of socio-political development of Russia: reforms and oprichnina.
2. Time of Troubles, its causes and results. The accession of the Romanov dynasty.
3. The evolution of the state-political and class system in the 17th century. Split of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Question 1. By the 16th century. the centralization of the state was not completed; large-scale transformations were necessary to solve this problem. Their implementation is associated with the name IvanaIV, describe his personality, note that he is the first of the rulers of Russia married to the kingdom. In the reign of Ivan IV, two periods are clearly visible - reforms late 40's - 50's. and about reason 60's - early 80's In carrying out reforms, the tsar relied on the support Zemsky Sobor. Representatives of what strata of society were part of it? What issues did he solve? What is an estate-representative monarchy? The unofficial government under Ivan IV became Elected Rada(to please - to take care). Who were its members? In 1550, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code of Law. Tell us about its contents. Created system of specialized orders. Name the most important of them. Changes are taking place in local government system. The governorship turned out to be ineffective. In those areas of the country where nobles lived, the population chose labial headman. Where there were no nobles, the peasants chose zemstvo elder. What duties did they perform? To conduct an active foreign policy, the state needed armed forces. Military reform approved the “domestic” and “recruitment” service. What's happened estate? To whom and under what conditions was it provided? Who was recruiting? In 1551, at a church council it was adopted Stoglav. What changes in religious sphere did he fix it? Was limited localism. Define it. What was the significance of the reforms of Ivan IV?
Oprichnina(1564 – 1572). Tell us about the circumstances of its introduction. Which lands were included in the oprichnina? How were the oprichnina lands governed? What policy was pursued in relation to those areas of the country that were not included in the oprichnina lands? Causes transition to oprichnina - complex issue, on which there are lively discussions in historical science. Find different points of view on this issue in the educational literature. In general, we can highlight objective contradictions(political and social) internal structure of the state and personal motives Ivan IV. What were the consequences of the oprichnina policy? Give overall assessment reign of Ivan IV.
Question 2 . In historical literature, the events of the late 16th and early 17th centuries are usually called the Time of Troubles. It was structural crisis, which covered all areas of life. Without going into details of scientific discussions about reasons The Troubles, it should be said that the ruinous consequences of the oprichnina policy increased tension in society, which was already high. The formation of a state required enormous material costs, which placed a heavy burden on all segments of the population. The situation became even more complicated as a result dynastic crisis. What are its reasons?
Time of Troubles begins accession to the throne of Boris Godunov in 1598 and ends the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne in 1613. Next, it is necessary to consider the main events of the Time of Troubles. Why was he elected to the kingdom? Boris Godunov? Describe his reign. Pay attention to his policy on the peasant issue. What's happened “lesson summer”? The fragility of Godunov’s position on the throne can be explained by the fact that in the perception of people of that time, he was not real, “unnatural,” but a chosen king. Hence the phenomenon of imposture, the search for a real king. Tell us about False DmitryI. On what terms did he receive Polish support? Why was he able to take the Russian throne? What was the reason for the overthrow of False Dmitry? He was then elected to the throne Vasily Shuisky(1606 – 1610), “boyar king”. During this period the Troubles reached their climax. Tell us about the uprising I. Bolotnikova. The defeat of this uprising did not lead to the strengthening of Shuisky’s power, because a new False Dmitry appeared near Moscow. Why was he called the “Tushino thief”? Influence False DmitryII spread over a large area of the country. In fact, a dual power arose - two sovereigns, two capitals, two patriarchs. Vasily Shuisky concludes an agreement with Sweden for help in fighting the impostor. How did this agreement turn out for Russia? These events led to open intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. What were Poland's plans for the Russian throne? When did the Poles occupy Moscow? Since the autumn of 1610, the Troubles took on the character of a national struggle against the Polish invaders. 4 November 1612 d. second militia liberated Moscow from foreigners. Who led it? In February 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected king Michael Romanov. The time of troubles is over. What were the consequences of the Troubles? Please note that statehood was restored only thanks to the selfless struggle of the Russian people.
Question 3. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty became the time heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Its main elements were Boyar Duma And Zemsky Sobor. Who was part of the Boyar Duma? What role did she play in governing the country? After the end of the Time of Troubles, it was necessary to restore the state, therefore, in the person of the Zemsky Sobor, the government received the support of the entire society. From 1613 to 1619 he met almost continuously. From the middle of the 17th century. begins in Russia formation of absolutism. Define absolutism. Firstly, is changingappearance and meaning Boyar Duma. Its numbers are growing due to the nobles appointed by the Tsar. Why does power seek to rely not on the boyars, but on the nobles? Later, the Near or Indoor Duma was separated from the Duma. Secondly, by the middle of the century The activities of Zemsky Sobors ceased. To resolve what issue was he going to in full force last time? Thirdly, it begins heyday of the order systems. At this time, the formation of a bureaucracy occurs. Its characteristic feature was numerous abuses. Why? IN local government Changes are also taking place indicating increased centralization. Elected elders are being replaced by governors, appointed by the authorities.
In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted Cathedral Code. Tell us about its contents. Please note that its provisions, in particular, contributed to the strengthening of autocracy.
Split of the Russian Orthodox Church. Began in the 17th century. the formation of absolutism changed the relationship between government and the church and, inevitably, should have led to its deprivation of feudal privileges and subordination to the state. Tell us about the conflict between Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. What caused this conflict? Why was there a need? church reforms. What role did Patriarch Nikon play in its implementation? Tell us about the most significant changes adopted in 1654 by the church council, which became cause of the church split. Who began to be called Old Believers?
In the 17th century regulation and unification of estates continues. How did this find expression? Boyars remains the upper class. Further happening strengthening the position of the nobility and his rapprochement with the boyars. Support with facts. In 1682, localism was abolished, which also contributed to “reducing the distance” between the boyars and nobles. The influential class remains clergy, formerly a major feudal lord. More and more try to differentiate between different categories of peasants, which were divided into owner's, palace and black sowing. The urban population was represented merchants and townspeople. Give them a description. Until the beginning of the 18th century. remained in the structure of Russian society slaves and “walking” (free) people.
Lesson 4
Transformations of Peter the Great in the 1st quarter of the 18th century.
The Age of Catherine II: “enlightened absolutism” and its contradictions.
Attempts to reform the political system during the reign of Alexander I. Domestic policy Nicholas I.
Question 1. During the reign of Peter I (1682–1725) in Russia, major reforms. What are their premises? What is the meaning? By the end of the 17th century. the country lagged significantly behind Western European countries: science and education, industry and navy were absent, the organization of the army and the state apparatus were hopelessly outdated. The transformations of Peter I covered the most diverse spheres of public life (which ones?), their essence was “Europeanization” Russia.
The implementation of reforms was associated with Northern War. Who did Russia fight with? What goals did she pursue? Failures at the beginning of the war required military reform. Tell us about its contents. Why regular army more combat-ready? Great importance Peter I gave construction navy. What are the results of military reform? underwent a radical restructuring organs central and local government. In 1711 it was created Governing Senate, which replaced the Boyar Duma. What is the difference between them? What functions did the Senate perform? The outdated order system has been replaced collegiums. Name the most important of them. Was created Chief Magistrate, to which all city magistrates were subordinate. Regional reform changed the territorial division of the country. Governorates were formed. What powers did the governor have? Peter I completed the process of subordinating the church to the state, transferring its management Synod. Thus, during the reign of Peter I formation completed absolutism. IN social sphere the introduction was of great importance Table of ranks, because it provided the opportunity for career advancement thanks to personal qualities, and not origin. Decree on unified inheritance Peter I equated estates with estates, thereby the line between boyars and nobles ceased to exist. Summing up Peter's transformations, it should be emphasized that there are positive and negative points of view in assessing their significance. Consider the arguments of the opposing sides, whose assessment seems to you the most justified.
Question 2 . When studying the domestic policy of Catherine II (1762–1796), a number of circumstances should be taken into account. Firstly, being an ardent admirer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the empress sought to rule in the spirit of “ enlightened absolutism." Secondly, the peasant war of E. Pugachev, the bourgeois revolution in France, and the “rebel worse than Pugachev” A. Radishchev forced her to be careful in carrying out reforms. Thirdly, caution was also required because Catherine illegally took the throne and had to take into account the sentiments of the nobility. Therefore, the empress's policy was contradictory. You need to familiarize yourself with the basic ideas of the Enlightenment and “enlightened absolutism”. In accordance with them, Catherine sought to transform Russia on the basis of the principles of freedom and legality, but not to allow the weakening of the autocratic foundations of her power. Tell us why Catherine called Stacked commission. What ideas did she present in "Nakaze"? Why was she forced to dissolve the commission? In accordance with the theory of separation of powers, Catherine did attempt to create an independent judiciary, transferring judicial powers Senate. A system of estate courts was created. E. Pugachev's Peasant War showed the need to shift the center of gravity in public administration from the center to the localities. In 1775 it was carried out provincial reform. What changes have occurred in local government? During the reign of Empress Catherine, secularization church lands, i.e. they were transferred to the state. One of the largest transformations in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism” was “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility” 1785. Check out its contents. In accordance with the theory of the “regular state,” Peter I obliged the nobles be in public service for life. By decree of Catherine, the first free estate. At the same time, the empress tried to create another free class - the urban one. “Certificate of Commitment to Cities” Elected governing bodies were introduced, but they came under strict control of the central authorities. At the same time, Catherine's reign was marked tightening serfdom, the nobles received, in fact, an unlimited right to dispose of serfs. Support this point with examples. The educational initiatives of the Empress had a significant influence on the spiritual development of Russian society. Tell us about them. Under the influence of the French bourgeois revolution, Catherine persecutes A. Radishchev, N. Novikov, and introduces strict censorship. Assess the transformations of Catherine II.
Question 3 . Alexander I considered one of his most important responsibilities as an “enlightened” monarch reform of the government system. He took an active part in the development of reform projects at the beginning of his reign. Secret committee. Since 1807 this work was entrusted MM. Speransky. His project for the reorganization of public administration was based on principle of separation of powers. Legislative power was concentrated in the State Duma. Who received voting rights under this project? Executive power belonged to the ministries. The Senate became supreme judicial organ. The State Council was created under the emperor. What functions was he supposed to perform? Laws were to be adopted by the Duma, and presented by the emperor, the government and the State Council. The emperor himself could pass laws apart from the Duma. Could such a reform, if implemented, limit the autocracy? Why didn't the emperor sign this project? In 1810 there was the State Council was established, which existed until 1917. In 1802 there were ministries created. Tell us about the significance of these reforms. In 1815 Alexander signed constitution of Poland. After Patriotic War 1812 The Tsar again orders the development of a draft constitution for Russia N.N. Novosiltsev. Tell us about its contents. Why did Alexander withdraw from government affairs in the 1920s? What role did he play at this time? A.A. Arakcheev? What's happened military settlements? Why were plans to reform the political system not implemented?
Beginning with Peter, Russian emperors looked to Europe as a role model. NikolayI(1825-1855) ascended the throne when bourgeois revolutions were taking place in the West, and the Decembrist nobles rebelled in Russia. These circumstances determined conservative-protective nature his reign. At the same time, the king was convinced of the need to resolve the most pressing issues. In general, his domestic policy was aimed at strengthening the power of Russia. Considering that all state affairs should be led personally by the emperor, Nicholas turns His Imperial Majesty's Own Office to the highest body that controlled all government agencies. Tell me what you were doing IIdepartment Offices? Tell us about your work codification of Russian laws. Who was it assigned to? What tasks were set for IIIdepartment? Emphasize that first and foremost it was supposed to monitor public attitudes. Nikolai considered one of the most important internal political tasks strengthening police-bureaucratic apparatus on the principles of centralization and bureaucratization, which, in his opinion, should have made it possible to effectively combat revolutionary sentiments in society and strengthen the autocracy. To achieve this goal, a huge army of officials was required, the main quality of which should be diligence. What is the meaning of the expression “the uniform defeated the tailcoat”? To prevent a repetition of the events of December 14, 1825, measures were taken in the field of public education. Tell us about the content school And university reforms? What goal did they pursue? The press was subjected to strict control by the state. Why censorship regulations called "cast iron"?
Lesson 5.
Political reforms of Alexander II and Alexander III.
The peasant question in the 19th century. and the main stages of its solution (from Alexander I to Alexander III).
Social movements in Russia in the 19th century (Decembrists, liberals, conservatives, revolutionaries).
Question 1. The abolition of serfdom required changes in political and spiritual sphere. In the 60s - 70s followed series of reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the state system and administration into conformity with the new situation of the peasantry. In 1864 it was held zemstvo reform, a little bit later - urban. Zemstvos became local government bodies. How did they form? Which classes participated in the elections? What issues were under the jurisdiction of zemstvos? In the same year it is held judicial reform. It was based on the following principles: lack of authority of the court; its independence from the administration; adversarial legal process; openness and transparency of the judicial process; creation of the institution of jurors. Please evaluate this reform. In 1865 the preliminary censorship. In 1874, transformations were carried out into army. Tell us about the content of the military reform. Universal conscription made it possible to maintain a relatively small army in peacetime, and during war to increase its number at the expense of reserves. How has your military service changed? The series of reforms was to be completed by the implementation project M.T. Loris-Melikova to involve elected officials from local self-government bodies in resolving state issues, which, in fact, would mean limitation of autocracy. The signing of this document by Alexander II was scheduled for March 1, 1881. Why was it not signed? What happened on this day? Assessing the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century, emphasize that they marked Russia’s entry onto the path bourgeois development and beginning of formation civil society and right states. Describe the reign of Alexander III, the peacemaker.
