What is the Golden Horde? Years of the Golden Horde

In the middle of the 13th century. As a result of aggressive campaigns on the territory of Eurasia, one of the Mongolian states was formed - Ulus Jochi. It included the steppe spaces of Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, Eastern Europe to the Danube. These areas were called Desht-i-Kypchak (Kypchak steppe). In addition, the state included a number of settled regions with old urban centers: the North Caucasus, Crimea, Moldova, Volga Bulgaria, Central Asian regions to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, part of Khorezm. Rus' was in a dependent position.

Later, the state of Ulus Jochi began to be called the Golden Horde by the Russians. This name is fixed in historical literature. Originally it meant “golden tent” (khan’s headquarters).

In its development, the Golden Horde went through several stages: formation (1242-1266); heyday (1267-1359); decline (from the 60s to the 80s of the 14th century), when the Horde ruled only within the Volga region.

One of the remarkable features of the Horde from its very foundation is that it was the bearer of two economic systems - nomadic steppe and urban craft and trade. This determined the uniqueness of the Golden Horde social system. At the first stage of its existence, the Horde considered areas with a settled population and urban centers as the object of periodic predatory campaigns. Only in the second half of the 13th century. The Mongol aristocracy began to lean towards a policy of patronage of settled lands and cities, contributed to the restoration of the economy and the transformation of conquered territories into objects of systematic taxation. The change in the policy of the Golden Horde aristocracy was to a certain extent facilitated by the liberation of Ulus Jochi from the power of the head of the Genghisid Empire - the great Kaan. It is noteworthy that it was the Jochid khans in the 1270s. the first of the rulers of the Mongol states began to mint coins in their own name. Freed by the end of the 13th century. from the highest imperial power, the Golden Horde rulers reduced the payment of tribute to Mongolia, the funds remained in their own treasury. From this time on, the intensive growth of cities began in the main region of the Golden Horde - in the steppe lower reaches of the Volga. If in the middle of the 13th century. The main cities of the Horde were Bolgar, Khorezm (Urgench), Crimean cities, i.e. centers in the outlying settled lands, then in the 14th century. This is how Sarai becomes in the Itil (Volga) delta, practically in the center of the huge possessions of the Ulus of Jochi.

In the Lower Volga, where new cities were built, there was a favorable combination of floodplain lowlands, convenient for agriculture, and steppe expanses - for nomads and pastures. The weak population made it possible to develop them more quickly than the traditional territory of the nomadic Kipchak population. Here, the most important Eastern European trade route, the Volga, crossed with caravan routes from the Black Sea region. Central Asia and Mongolia. The control of the Golden Horde power was established over trade routes.

The Golden Horde cities were built on the sites of the nomadic camps of the Khan's headquarters - the "horde" itself. A vestige of the old nomadic way of life, it was the most characteristic element of the Golden Horde social system. The Khan's horde was the main capital and political center of the Ulus of Jochi. Even in the 14th century, when the Golden Horde had many large and rich cities, the Khan could often be found wandering in the horde. Sarai also served as the capital, the political center of the state, but shared it with the horde, while being the main economic, cultural and religious center of the country.

The Golden Horde cities were built primarily as administrative centers - outposts of the khan's power in the conquered territory. Cities arose at the behest of the khans. The cities flourished during the period of strong khan's power, and their decline coincided with the time of its weakening. Cities were built in historically fast times. This was facilitated by the fact that the grandiose conquests of the Mongols caused a massive flow of captive slaves. Slaves were used initially as builders of new cities, and later as their population, as forced citizens. Gradually, slave artisans freed themselves from slavery, turning into feudally dependent people living under the tutelage of their masters, but in their own home. Slave labor was transformed into the labor of a feudally dependent population.

The Golden Horde cities did not appear as a result of long-term economic development in places of traditional settlement, but arose “instantly” in areas deprived of long-term settlement. In a short period of time - the second half of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. - along the banks of the Volga and its tributaries, from the middle reaches to the delta, a whole chain of Golden Horde settlements grew. Archaeological materials record at least 75 ancient settlements. Most of them have been little studied, so there is no reason to classify all places with Golden Horde layers as urban centers, but the scale of construction is impressive, especially since in addition to the Volga region, Golden Horde settlements appear in Western Siberia, the North Caucasus, the Don region, Crimea, the Dnieper region, and Moldova . It is noteworthy that everywhere, even in old settlement areas, near pre-Mongol cities, Golden Horde settlements do not have previous cultural layers.

Urban centers in the Lower Volga region were Sarai - the capital of the Ulus Juchi (now Selitrennoe fortified settlement, 100 km above Astrakhan on the Volga channel - Akhtuba), New Sarai (Tsarevskoe fortified settlement near Volgograd), which in the 40s. XIV century the capital was moved, Vodyanskoe settlement (40 km above Volgograd), Uvek (near Saratov), ​​Hadji Tarkhan (Astrakhan), etc.

The Golden Horde cities, even the capital centers, from the moment of their inception were deprived of defensive fortifications. Only in the 1360s, during a period of unrest and civil strife, a ditch was dug around the cities and a rampart was built. However, they can hardly be called fortifications in the full sense of the word: there were no structures on the ramparts. Consequently, the Golden Horde cities initially and deliberately excluded one of the most important (if not the main) functions - defensive, which was a consequence of the confidence of the khan's power in its strength.

The early Horde cities probably consisted of a group of castle-estates, to which were attached courtyards of slaves and semi-slaves - builders and artisans driven from the occupied lands. During the heyday of the Horde, individual castles turned into city estates with adjoining artisan quarters. Public places appeared in these cities - mosques and minarets, baths, state craft workshops, mints, etc. Cities and individual estates are being improved, provided with water, sewerage, and roads.

Residential buildings in the Golden Horde cities clearly demonstrate the social ranking of residents.
The lowest rung of the social ladder was occupied by slaves and semi-slaves. They lived together in large rectangular or oval dugouts. These dwellings had earthen beds (sufas) along two or three walls and an entrance in the form of a narrow staircase. They were heated by braziers. The area of ​​the dugouts is 11-32 square meters. m.

Cases have been recorded of the reconstruction of large dugouts into houses with elements of improvement, when chimneys-kanas were laid in the sufas, connected to a furnace-stove, round tandoor ovens were installed for baking flat cakes, and a toshnau was made - a device for washing.

Such rebuilt or originally furnished dugouts of a smaller size (9-15 sq. m) served as dwellings for individual families of semi-free or poor free townspeople. The poor also lived in one-room houses, partially buried in the ground. These houses had wooden walls coated with clay.

Architectural decor

Ground-based, one-room, square houses with an area of ​​10 to 50 square meters. m with wooden or mud brick walls could be the dwellings of poor families, servants or dependent people. The buildings were often part of a complex of rich estates. They had all the elements of improvement inside the premises. Double or triple lines of chimneys were installed in sufs. Sometimes several one-room buildings were combined into multi-room houses. This trend led to the fact that later they began to immediately erect multi-room buildings, brick and wooden, formed by several interconnected houses, usually with individual entrances.

The dwellings of the Golden Horde aristocracy were large multi-room houses, which often represented real palace complexes. Huge buildings up to 570-580 sq. m were built from wood, mud or burnt brick. The floor was lined with baked bricks, sometimes glazed. The sofa beds in the central hall had multi-channel canals. There was a swimming pool in the center. The walls of the central halls were painted on white plaster and decorated with tiled panels. On the sides of the hall there were residential, storage, and utility rooms, and there were special children's rooms. Sometimes the house had up to 10 or more rooms. The living quarters were whitewashed and sometimes painted. Special rooms were allocated for toshnau, usually with a brick floor, tandoors, and a home mill. There were patios. The central entrances were architecturally decorated. For glazing, plaster bars were inserted into the windows. The doors were decorated with alabaster ornamented platbands. The roofs of such houses may have been covered with tiles.

Near the palace there was a bathhouse, houses for servants and guards, and artisans' workshops. The area of ​​the estates reached 10,000 square meters. m, perhaps more. Inside the estates there was always a well, and sometimes a swimming pool. In front of the palace, open platforms with walls made of baked bricks were sometimes made. In the courtyards of houses there were tandoors, open or under awnings. There are utility pits, including grain pits. On large estates, gardens were fenced off. The estates were surrounded by walls of houses, blank facades facing the street, and adobe fences. In the summer, light tents - yurts - were placed in the courtyard.

Stationary yurt-shaped buildings are found in urban areas. The yurts were lined with fragments of burnt brick (they are preserved). In yurts, accumulations of coals from open fires are found and the floors are partially paved with burnt bricks.

Elements of improvement have been identified in cities. Along the city streets, ditches were dug - ditches with running water. In the neighborhoods of the ordinary part of the population there were public wells and large quarterly reservoirs were installed in the squares. Used water was drained through wooden drainage pipes.

Religious buildings and public baths occupied an important place in the development of Golden Horde cities. According to written data, there were 13 cathedrals and many other mosques in Sarai, built in conjunction with minarets.

One of the cathedral mosques was explored during excavations. The building was a large rectangular building with an area of ​​1700 square meters. m, made of burnt bricks. Columns divided the central hall into nine naves. The entrance to the mosque was decorated with a powerful portal. At the entrance, inside the building, there was a brick-paved courtyard. To the west of the main portal stood a small room with two columns, a brick floor and walls richly decorated with gilded mosaics. An L-shaped house with several isolated living rooms with kanas and stoves was excavated next to the mosque. One room was empty, with a small niche: probably a small mosque. The entire building may have been a hospitable house (honako). The ruins of mosques were also explored in other Golden Horde cities.

Public baths consisted of several rooms: a large heated dressing room with an adobe floor and a sufa, washrooms with underfloor heating and water supply through ceramic pipes. Water was drained through an underground drain. In the rest rooms the visitor could cool down after washing. Such baths were intended for ordinary townspeople. In buildings for the more privileged, they were larger in area (up to 200 or more square meters) - a fountain was installed in the dressing room, additional rooms were equipped. In addition to public baths, there were manor baths; their main structural elements were similar.

Funeral buildings - mausoleums were of different types, single-chamber and double-chamber. They were often decorated, including with mosaics. Along with the above-ground ones, there were underground mausoleums.

The Golden Horde cities were major centers of crafts. The forms of organization of handicraft production were varied: individual workshops with narrow specialization and a small volume of products; estate workshops, in which work was carried out for the owner; large productions in which dozens of craftsmen were united into one manufactory owned by a noble owner; finally, of course, there were state-owned manufactories, such as mints. The most developed craft was pottery.

Glazed or glazed ceramics are the brightest and most characteristic manifestation of the civilization and culture of the Golden Horde city. Irrigation vessels were made of clay and kashin (siliceous mass mixed with glue, which was used to fill a special mold). The syncretism and multicomponent nature inherent in the Golden Horde urban culture were well demonstrated in ceramics. The technology of glazed ceramics in the Golden Horde developed under the influence of three powerful currents: Iranian-Central Asian, Byzantine-East Caucasian and Far Eastern.

The forms of glazed ceramics are varied, but limited in terms of species. Most of the bowls come in different variants with a ring tray. There are also plates, pot-shaped vessels, one-handled jugs, bottles, lamps, flasks, and inkwells. The limited type of glazed pottery is many times compensated for by its ornamental diversity. The polychrome range of painting was ensured by applying a green, blue or brown outline of the design to a white, or less often light turquoise background, and coloring the details of the ornament with blue dots and turquoise spots. The ornamentation was extremely diverse, combining plant (most often a lotus flower or trefoil), geometric, less often zoomorphic (waterfowl or winged centaur) elements, complemented in some cases by ornaments in the form of Arabic script.

Glazed ceramics. Bowl and painting options

Red clay and, less commonly, gray clay ceramics are very diverse: kitchen tableware (jugs, plates, bowls, pots, pans, cups), household items (lamps, piggy banks, whistles, toys), containers (amphoras, hums), technical products (pipes, tiles , jugs for water-lifting wheels). To decorate red clay and gray clay tableware, a stamp, cut, and sometimes molded ornaments were used.

A special type of production of the Golden Horde ceramists is the production of mosaics and majolica, which were widely used in architectural decoration. The outer surfaces of buildings were covered with mosaics, panels were made from them, friezes, cornices, etc. were decorated. The basis of the mosaics was formed by carved individual ornamental elements from ceramic tiles, which were usually covered with an opaque glaze - ultraviolet, white, blue, red, yellow. The uniqueness of the Golden Horde mosaics was that the mosaic elements were additionally decorated with patterns of gold foil on a red base. Majolicas are ceramic tiles with a full floral or geometric pattern on the surface.

Ceramic products

The architectural decor was complemented by terracotta elements with stamped ornaments, carved plaster window grilles, and overlays on individual building parts. Golden Horde architectural decor developed under the influence of Iranian and East Caucasian (Azerbaijani) impulses.

Vessels with stamped ornaments:
1 - jug; 2 - flask

Glassmaking, complex in technology, is represented by numerous finds - vessels, decorations, window glass - and traces of production. A workshop for the production of beads, pendants, rings and bracelets was discovered in Sarai, which indicates local production and the narrow specialization of artisans. The shapes of glass vessels are varied: bottles, jugs, glasses, glasses, bowls. The bluish or greenish window glass looked like flat disks. The products of the Golden Horde glassmakers and the composition of glass find broad analogies in the workshops of different countries, mainly Central Asian.

The iron-making craft in the Lower Volga cities has not been specifically studied, but its products are known from archaeological materials. Golden Horde blacksmiths produced various tools - axes, chisels, adzes, sickles, shovels, saws, anvils, hoes; weapons - swords and sabers, daggers, darts, arrowheads of various types, including Mongolian arrows with a slot (“whistling”); items of horse equipment - arched stirrups, bits, horseshoes; household items - locks and keys, chairs, nails, crutches, staples, etc.

Bone products:
1 - steelyard for weighing coins; 2 - buckle; 3 - overlay; 4 - archer's ring; 5 - handle
knife; 6 - pommel of the staff.

Just like in Volga Bulgaria, in the Golden Horde cities from the 14th century. produced cast iron, from which boilers and axle bushings for carts were made. An iron foundry forge with 79 holes for nozzles was discovered in Novy Sarai. This amount was necessary to constantly supply air and reach the melting point of iron.
In New Saray, bone-carving workshops were opened on two estates. The assortment of bone-cutting products was limited - mainly knife handles, linings, pommels; also rings for pulling bowstrings, bone arrows, piercings, coping hooks, and plate-like ornamented overlays for quivers and caskets were also produced.

Workshops of artisans processing non-ferrous metals and jewelers who worked with gold and silver were excavated in several Golden Horde cities. Craftsmen mastered all technological techniques - casting, including the splash casting method, soldering, stamping, chasing, engraving.

From non-ferrous metals, including silver and gold, they made a lot of jewelry (earrings, bracelets, rings and rings), clothing parts (buckles, belt plaques, overlays and bells), household items (dishes, mirrors, buttons, bronze locks in the form animal figures, candlesticks and lamps, miniature vessels). The shapes of objects (especially jewelry) were varied. They were often decorated, most often with engraving. The cast bracelets with lion faces at the ends, bronze and gold, are magnificent. In most cases, the outer side of the mirrors was decorated with geometric and floral patterns; images of animals running in a circle; scenes of a lion hunt; images of a fox and grapes - the plot of an ancient fable.

Toreutics, along with glazed ceramics, is an area of ​​artistic craft where the highest skill and degree of culture of the Golden Horde artisans were most clearly demonstrated. Silver vessels - cups, bowls, jugs - were covered with the finest engraving. An interesting group of gold and silver vessels with handles in the shape of dolphins and dragons, sometimes with rings in the mouth, almost always with fine wire decoration along the ridge.

Non-ferrous metal products:
1,2 - mirrors; 3 - sulgama; 4 - buckle; 5 - earring; 6 - ring; 7 - bracelet; 8 - vessel (type
top), 9 - pendant; 10 - spoon; 11 - mace

Golden Horde jewelers borrowed Chinese motifs for the ornamentation of their products. Similar stories were popular among nomadic hordes. For products that were probably in great demand among the townspeople, the Golden Horde craftsmen used a different style of toreutics, combining Muslim, Middle Eastern, partly Byzantine and Western European influences. In this regard, an indicative find in the mausoleum of the city of Uvek is a silver cup with a flat bottom, on the inside of which an engraving depicts a lion with a tail bent upward, which ends with a plant shoot. There are six medallions on the side walls of the vessel. Three of them depict birds, and the others - floral designs.

Products of the Golden Horde torevts: cup and dish

The highest skill of the Golden Horde torevts is clearly manifested in one of the masterpieces of jewelry art, the so-called “Monomakh's cap” - the throne regalia of the Russian tsars. Golden headdress of the 14th century. covered with the finest filigree and grain so that a complex weave is formed on the surface. Its filigree patterns are made in the traditions of Central Asian masters.

The Golden Horde cities were created by the Khan's authority on trade routes, which initially turned them into the most important centers of international trade and places of lively internal trade. Khans and aristocrats patronized trade, which brought great profits. There were merchant associations with the participation of aristocrats who organized large caravan trade. State authorities ensured postal services and road safety.

International trade in the Golden Horde cities was largely transit and consumer. Imports were larger than exports. Goods from the east and west, north and south flocked to the cities of the Lower Volga region: porcelain and jewelry, glass and metal dishes, jewelry and weapons, silk and brocade, wood, spices and incense. All these goods either went to meet the needs of the Golden Horde nobility, or were supplied in wholesale quantities to other countries, thereby ensuring extensive medieval trade. There is evidence of the existence of permanent merchant offices in the Golden Horde cities.

Finds of trade instruments are ubiquitous and numerous: “pharmacy” type scales and parts from them, steelyards, weighing weights. Golden Horde weights - bronze, prismatic six- and octagonal or multi-sided. Cylinders or rosette-shaped thick plates also served as weights. Typically, Golden Horde weights did not have a multiplicity designation.

The intensity of market relations was facilitated by the Golden Horde coinage, organized by the first khans in Bolgar, and later transferred to the cities of the Lower Volga region and other Horde centers. The Golden Horde coin was in circulation in many countries and primarily in the controlled territories.

A large number of coin hoards are known to have been found both at settlements and far from them. The latter were probably buried by merchants near the road route in moments of danger. There are very large treasures - up to 30 thousand silver coins. A huge number of coins, mainly copper, are found in the cultural layer of the Golden Horde settlements. In addition to silver and copper coins, stick-shaped “boat-shaped” silver bars were in circulation in the Golden Horde, and there were also gold coins.

The interdependence of the khan's power and international trade was determined in subsequent history. During the years of civil strife of the 1360-1370s. and the campaign of Timur (1395-1396), the routes of the Great Silk Road were moved south and followed a route through Central Asia, Iran and the Levant. As a result, the trade of the Golden Horde cities suffered, the central power of the Golden Horde khans weakened, and the cities fell into decay.

The voluminous material from excavations of Golden Horde settlements makes it possible to reconstruct in sufficient detail the life of the townspeople. To illuminate houses, they used oil lamps - clay and metal, as well as candles inserted into ceramic and bronze candlesticks. Rich homes and public buildings were illuminated by hanging Arabic glass lamps and multi-bulb chandeliers. Sufa beds were covered with felts and mats. Reed mats were laid on the floor.

The food was prepared right there. There are no separate kitchens even in rich houses. Bread cakes were baked in tandoors. The meat was fried on braziers.

They played dice, checkers, and chess. They find children's toys - figurines of birds and animals, whistles. A fairly complex game called “Babylon” was widespread. For her, the playing field was drawn out on tiles, bricks or sufa coating.

The food was horse meat, lamb, and beef. Pork was prohibited by the Koran. Plant foods - rye, wheat, nuts, raisins, prunes, peaches, beans, grapes, watermelons. They used spices. They drank coffee, kumiss, an intoxicating drink - buza, wine, often honey, rarely - imported grape.

Clothes - trousers, shirts, caftans, for the rich - from expensive silk and brocade fabrics. Fur and leather clothing was used. They wore leather shoes. The head was covered with caps. Noble women wore high headdresses on a bocca frame. They were girded with leather belts, sashes, belts with metal overlays, sometimes gold with stones. Belts were a sign of power and belonging to the elite. Women's and sometimes men's jewelry includes earrings, rings, rings, bracelets, and stripes on clothes. Wooden combs were commonly used; for women, mirrors, toilet tweezers, and glass bottles were used.

The life of the townspeople provides additional evidence of the high level of culture of the Golden Horde urban civilization.

L. F. Nedashkovsky

CRAFT OF THE GOLDEN HORDE*

The uniqueness of the products of the Golden Horde craft allows us to distinguish them from the products of production centers of other medieval states. Among all types of crafts, pottery should be noted first: unglazed red clay pottery is the defining material for the Golden Horde monuments; in the Golden Horde, kashin and red clay glazed ceramics were produced in significant quantities. In the Golden Horde there were developed glassmaking, bone carving, and processing of ornamental and precious stones. Non-ferrous metallurgy, forging and iron-making production were well established; The emergence of cast iron production in Europe is associated precisely with the Golden Horde craft. Urban centers supplied the villages with products of high-tech crafts (glazed ceramics, glassware, cast iron, many types of non-ferrous metal products), the existence of which was not recorded in small urban and rural settlements. A number of crafts (pottery, glassmaking, cast iron production, developed forms of processing non-ferrous metals) could not exist in a nomadic life, therefore, all their products in the funerary monuments of nomads should be considered imported, coming from the settlements.

Key words: Golden Horde, craft, trade

No special archaeological work has yet been devoted to the question of the degree of development of handicraft production in the Ulus of Jochi. This article attempts to characterize the technologies, product range and development of individual crafts.

Some historians have expressed an opinion about the insufficient development of the Golden Horde craft1. However, even for the 15th century, when the main urban centers of the Jochi Ulus had already fallen into decay or ceased to exist, we have the following message from Josaphat Barbaro about the Golden Horde army: “In their army there are artisans - weavers, blacksmiths, gunsmiths and others, and in general there is everything necessary crafts"2. Archaeological data allows us to characterize in detail the craft of the Golden Horde.

Despite the syncretism of material culture (which has separate parallels in almost all neighboring territories) and craft traditions in the state of the Jochids3, the originality of the products of the Golden Horde craft is such that it can be distinguished from the products of production centers of other medieval states. Craftsmen in the cities of the Jochi Ulus lived in quarters, and estate crafts were also developed.

Nedashkovsky Leonard Fedorovich - Associate Professor of the Department of Archeology and Ethnology at the Institute of History of Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University. Email: [email protected]

*This work was supported by a grant from Gerda Henkel Stiftung, Düsseldorf No. AZ 19/SR/08. The research was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation within the framework of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation expedition project (“Comprehensive study of the Bagaevsky settlement”), project No. 12-01-18005e.

1 Safargaliev 1960, 76-78.

2 Barbaro, Contarini 1971, 147.

3 The heterogeneous components of the Golden Horde culture were quickly fused into a single material culture of the Golden Horde.

We do not plan to give a detailed analysis of the material culture of the cities of the Lower Volga region. Many works have already been written on individual Lower Volga cities and on individual types of Golden Horde crafts, and many special studies have been published. Below we will try to briefly characterize the main types of handicraft industries and their products.

Among all types of crafts developed in the Golden Horde, pottery should be noted first. Unglazed red clay pottery is the defining material for the monuments of the Golden Horde circle. “Unglazed ceramics are characterized by greater standardization, clarity of forms and simplicity of ornamentation, which is reduced mainly to a linear-wavy ornament”4. Ceramic products of various shapes and sizes were widely used (Fig. 1, 2, 1): cauldrons, pots, jugs (Fig. 1, 1), bowls, bowls, plates, basins, flasks (Fig. 1, 5), " pits" ("tagora"), amphoras, khumas, khumchi (Fig. 1, 4), spherocones (Fig. 2, 1), piggy banks, tuvaki (sunaki) (Fig. 1, 1, 3), lids (Fig. 1, 2), lamps, candlesticks, devices for installing and carrying lamps, digiri, whistles, rattles and other toys, tiles, water pipes (cuburs), vessels in the form of a truncated cone, fishing weights, spinning rods, balls, “vessels” with mesh”, “corks”, “discs with holes”, pottery wheels, “sippy” jugs5. As a rule, they did not have artistic design or complex ornamentation, but were distinguished by high technical characteristics. Stamped gray clay ceramics were also used (Fig. 1, 6), stamped piece by piece in segmented ceramic forms (kalypas), known from the materials of the Tsarevskoye and Selitrennoye settlements.

I.V. Volkov made an attempt to highlight the characteristic features of ceramics produced in various Golden Horde regions: Azak, Volga region, Majar, Khorezm, Eastern (Kaffe, Sudak, Solkhat) and Southwestern Crimea6. In any case, the standard nature of unglazed Golden Horde ceramics does not allow us at this stage to distinguish among them the products of individual centers of the Lower Volga region.

Furnaces of various types, which were used for firing unglazed ceramics, are known at Vodyansky, Selitrenny, Tsarevsky7, Bolgarsky, Narovchatsky and Uvek settlements, as well as in other settlements of the Volga region (Bolshoi Shikhan, Zubovka, Krasny Yar, Lapas, Russian Urmat, Sukhorechenskoye, Tatar Bashmakovka, Shareny Bugor, etc.) and peripheral regions of the Ulus of Jochi. At the Selitrennoe settlement, the complex of ceramic forges and auxiliary structures “represented a large craft workshop of the “karkhana” type, occupying an entire block”8. The Golden Horde period as a whole is characterized by “rapid progress in the development of high-tech pottery furnaces”9. There are also numerous finds of objects related to ceramic production - stove supplies (various forms, including sepai) and polishes.

4 Fedorov-Davydov 1981, 235.

5 Fedorov-Davydov 2001, 7-199.

6 Volkov 1992, 4-14, 20-21.

7 Fedorov-Davydov 2001, 6-7.

8 Fedorov-Davydov 1981, 232.

9 Piotrovsky 2005, 137.

Rice. 1. Non-glazed ceramics: jugs (1), tuvaki (1, 3), vessel lids (2), khumcha with handles (4), red clay (5) and gray clay stamped (6) flasks, handicraft lamp (7).

1 - Khmelevskoe I settlement, excavation 1-1999, pit 1. (Saratov Regional Museum of Local History); 2-6 - Uvek settlement (National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan, No. 5365-38, Art. No./No. 12770-12770a, 12770e, OASh-78, No. 5365-50, Art. No. 12774, No. 5365-55 , local school; Saratov Regional Museum of Local History, No./No. AO 235, SMK 57925/A-2974); 7 - Konstantinovskoe settlement, excavation 1-2006, cultural layer (Saratov Regional Museum of Local History).

Rice. 2. Non-irrigated spherocone (1), red clay irrigation jug (2) and a kashina vessel for rose water (gulabdan) (3) from the Uvek settlement.

1, 3 - Saratov Regional Museum of Local History, No./No. SMK 54802/A-2664, AO 1544; 2 - National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan, No. 5365-44, art. No. 12771, community school-69.

In the Golden Horde, ceremonial kashin-naya (with a white or pinkish base) and red-clay glazed ceramics were produced in significant quantities (Fig. 2, 2-3). The range of kashin products is represented by bowls, dishes, albarello, vessels (Fig. 2, 3) for rose water (gulabdans), bottles, jugs, kalam utensils and inkwells. Red clay watering bowls, albarellos, vessels for rose water (gulabdans), tu-wakis, lamps, jugs (Fig. 2, 2) and toys were produced. “The comparative poverty of glazed ceramic forms is combined with the incredible variegation and variety of its ornamentation. ... Glazed ceramics appears before us as a sea of ​​colors, bright, varied, and an abundance of patterns and compositions”10.

Furnaces for firing glazed ceramics (both vessels and architectural decoration) are known in the Lower Volga region at the Selitrennoye, Tsarevskoye and Uvek settlements.

In addition to other products, ceramists made bricks, as well as glazed mosaics and majolica on a kashin and red clay base, carved terracotta tiles, window grilles-frames, carved and stamped ganch plates - details of the decorative decoration of buildings.

In the Golden Horde there was a developed glass-making industry. Single-color and polychrome beads (Fig. 3), pendants, rings, bracelets, ring inserts, vessels (glasses, bottles, jugs, bowls, lamps and tuvaki), as well as window discs were widely used. The most common finds are glass jewelry, primarily beads. In terms of chemical composition, the largest number of glass items is represented by the class of sodium alkali glasses: of the materials we studied from Ukek and its surroundings, 77% of items belong to it11. Glass-making workshops in the Volga region are known at the Bolgarskoye and Selitrennoye settlements; a frit (a semi-finished product for making glass products) was found at the Tsarevskoye settlement12. In the workshop of the Selitrennoe settlement, jewelry was produced - beads, pendants, rings and bracelets - which, along with the chemical composition of the products, is evidenced by the finds of slag, melted glass, defective beads and rods for applying eyes on beads.

Blacksmithing and ironworking production was well established. The emergence of cast iron production in Europe is associated precisely with the Golden Horde craft. Structures associated with iron processing were discovered not only in cities (Bolgarskoe13, Tsarevskoe and Vodyanskoe settlements), but also in rural settlements of the Golden Horde period; There is even a known discovery of a set of blacksmith tools in the embankment of one of the mounds (Malyaevka VI, mound 4). The blacksmiths of the Jochi Ulus used iron anvils, hammers, hammers, blacksmith's tongs, tongs, metal shears, punches (bits), files, nails and chisels. Codex Cumanicus mentions in the Polovtsian version14 the concepts of forge (“chura”), blacksmith (“temirzi”), jeweler (“altunci”), bellows (“curuc”), coal (“comur”), hammer (“Sachet”), anvil (“ors”), pliers (“cheschac”), file (“egau”), knife (“bicao>”) and spring (“masa”). He was famous in the Golden Horde

10 Fedorov-Davydov 1994, 137.

11 Valiulina, Nedashkovsky 2005, 263, 265.

12 Piotrovsky 2005, 239.

13 Forges of various types have been excavated.

14 Kuun 1981, 96-97; Drimba 2000, 90.

I||||||||||||||ы1||||||,|||| || ,.,_:. |1||I|||.|1||||1||||1|I|1||.||||

Rice. 3. Glass, cashew and carnelian beads from the Uvek settlement. 1 - State Historical Museum, No. 34162, op. 952, No. 22; 2 - Saratov Regional Museum of Local History, No. SMK 42003 (AO 207)).

a whole range of forging technologies: products were made not only from cast iron, but also from raw and solid steel, from packaged metal, forge welding techniques were also used, welding a steel plate into the base of the blade, end, side and V-shaped welding of a steel plate onto the blade , carburizing, hardening and soldering with copper.

The range of blacksmiths' products was extremely wide: blades, ploughshares, openers, policemen, hoes, ketmen, shovel forgings, picks, sickles, scythes, axes, adzes, chisels, knives, scissors, drills, cutters, punches, awls, needles, tweezers, kochedyki, chapelniks (“frying pans”), devices for branding livestock, fishhooks, bits, stirrups, horseshoes, harness rings, saddle coverings, ice spikes, armchairs, chain mail, plate armor, helmets, arrowheads, spears and darts, threads , sabers, maces, flails, daggers, quiver hooks, buckles, sulgams, linings, stripes, plaques, clips, tips

belts, bucket arms, candlesticks, lights, boxes, chains, wire, wedges, nails, staples, holes, latches, handles, door linings, locks and keys. Boilers, bowls, and bushings for cart axles were cast from cast iron.

Non-ferrous metallurgy was also highly developed: numerous foundry molds (Fig. 4, 1-2), crucibles, crucibles, jewelry anvils and hammers, chisels, bench scissors, dies, production waste, and defective products were found. Waste from bronze foundry production was found not only in cities (Tsarevskoye and Vodyanskoye settlements), but also in rural settlements of the Golden Horde. The techniques of casting, chasing, stamping, engraving, and soldering were used.

Rice. 4. Stone casting molds (1-2) and bronze mirrors (3-4). 1-3 - Uvek settlement, collections of F.V. Dukhovnikov 1893 (State Historical Museum, No. 34162, op. 952, No./No. 10-12, 35-38, 40); 4 - Tsarevskoye ancient settlement, collections in 1899 (IIMK photo archive, No. II 26524).

Non-ferrous metalworking products are represented by a large number of different types of products: buckles, overlays, stripes, belt rings, tips and distributors of belts, plaques, clips, pendants, medallions, bells, bells (a large bronze bell is also known from the Tsarevskoe settlement (Fig. 5, 2 )), buttons, clasps, cap tops, beads, chains, temple rings, earrings, studs, rings, caps, tweezers, bow rings, bracelets, hairpins, sulgams, mirrors (Fig. 4, 3-4, 6) , “iltakhans”, mace heads, cauldrons, basins, ladles (Fig. 5, 1), bowls, jugs, lids, bottles, mortars, pestles, spoons, lamps, lamps, pencil cases, inkwells, kalams (writing sticks), clasps from horse fetters, wheels from blocks, tensions, thimbles, needles, scales, weights, weights-seals, crosshairs of sabers, couplings and linings of knife handles, handles of chairs, linings of whetstones, door handles, fittings, wire, decorative nails, locks and keys.

The chemical composition of individual categories of objects varies; sometimes it helps to identify different places of production of even morphologically similar products. It is interesting to compare the number of studied Golden Horde products according to the types of alloys identified by A. A. Konovalov with materials from Novgorod in the 13th-18th centuries: in the Lower Volga materials there are much fewer products made of lead-tin bronzes (6.7%) and much more from tin bronzes ( 46.9%; the predominance of this group is explained by the fact that the majority of the studied bronze mirrors, completely uncharacteristic of Ancient Rus', belong to it); There are slightly fewer brass items in the Golden Horde sample (2.4%), more items made of multi-component alloys (copper, tin, zinc and lead - 17.7%) and “pure” lead (5.3%). In the materials of Pskov of the 13th-18th centuries, in comparison with those from the Lower Volga, there are much fewer objects made of “pure” copper, and much more (even in comparison with Novgorod materials) objects made of brass and multi-component alloys. These data allow us to assume the possibility of importing brass into the territory of the Golden Horde, as well as into Rus', from Western Europe through the Baltic states15.

At the Tsarevskoe settlement, in addition to the bronze foundry, a jewelry workshop was also explored, which over time moved from one estate to another and was represented by a mountain, crucibles, bottles, punches, an anvil, miniature spoons, numerous drops of gold, scraps of gold sheets and gold wire, and samples of finished products (gold plate and belt tip); Jewelers' workshops have also been studied in Old Orhei and Cheboksary. The goldsmith Shahidullah is mentioned in the text of a tombstone dated 1317, discovered at the Bolgar settlement. The techniques of granulation, filigree and filigree were widely used in jewelry.

From silver and gold, Golden Horde jewelers made bowls, goblets, ladles (including waist ones), dishes, trays, spherical vessels, spoons, parts of belt sets, cap tops, amulets, phylacteries, paizi, buttons, beads, temple rings, earrings, rings, bracelets, hairpins, hairpins, chains, combs and their cases, plates, nails, foil, wire, metal

15 Nedashkovsky 2002, 335-347; 2010, 147-151; E^Y^ku 2004, 49-54.

yesFig. 5. Bronze vessel with Arabic inscription (1) and bell (2), wooden kobyz (3). 1 - Uvek settlement (Saratov Regional Museum of Local History, No. SMK 50587, SUAC 2785); 2 - Tsarevskoe ancient settlement, from the former collection of Stroganov (photo archive of the IIMK, No. 0 668.9); 3 - Ust-Kurdyum, mound 8, excavations by I.V. Sinitsyn 1963 (Saratov Regional Museum of Local History, No. SMK 57951/A-3000, AO 2576/4).

lions, pendants and plaques. The famous “Monomakh's cap” - a Moscow grand-ducal and later royal ceremonial headdress - is the work of the toreuts of the European part of the Ulus of Jochi16 of the late 13th - early 14th centuries. (the cross and fur trim on the product appeared later).

Stone-cutting was closely related to jewelry making. In the Golden Horde cities of the Volga region, in particular at the Bolgarsky and Selitrennoye settlements (raw materials, blanks and defective products were found there), the processing of ornamental and precious stones was carried out17. The range of products made from colored stones includes beads (Fig. 3), pendants, rings, ring inserts, buckles, overlays, plaques, vases and chess pieces. Stone millstones, whetstones, whetstones, fishing weights, tensions and cannonballs were produced in large quantities. Stone cutters also made tombstones and carved architectural details.

Bone carving was also at a high level, using a number of technologies, including processing products on a lathe, sawing, cutting, applying circular ornamentation, engraving and polishing. Bone-carving workshops are known at Tsarevskoye, Selitrennoye and Bolgarskoye settlements (painting of products with bone-carvers is also recorded there), and at the last of them ornamented bone linings of quivers were made, which were sold by urban artisans to nomads. In two estates of the Tsarevskoe settlement, blanks of bone and horn, scraps of bone and horn, and semi-finished products were noted; Knife handles, pommels and linings were made there. At the Bolgar settlement, production waste, blanks, defects, numerous products of bone cutters and their tools (cutters, drills, specialized knives, etc.) were also found.

Buckles, overlays, stripes, plaques, buttons, beads, rings, amulets, “wrote”, chess, checkers, alchiki for playing knucklebones, dice, piercings, kochedyki, combs, spears, spoons, scales, needle cases, handles of whips, awls, handles, muffs and butt pads of knives, saddle covers, horse harness fasteners, rings for pulling bow strings, “whistling” attachments on the petioles of iron arrowheads, bone arrowheads for hunting, parts of bows and ornamented decorative linings of quivers, which often painted in different colors.

Leatherworking was developed. According to archaeological data, leather was used to make bags, purses, pouches, cases, amulets, bows, quivers, belts, trousers, boots and other shoes, hats, covers for mirrors, needle cases, and saddles were covered with it. More than one and a half thousand fragments of products (including shoes with asymmetrical soles, made separately for the right and left legs) and scraps of leather were found at the Bolgar settlement, and in a dwelling of the early 14th century. raw materials were found (pieces of leather measuring 40x30 cm) and tools (knives for cutting, a copper needle, an iron awl and fragments of a grindstone); fragments of boots and ankle boots, soft footwear such as shoes and sandals were recorded18.

16 Kramarovsky 2001.

17 Poluboyarinova 1991.

18 Khlebnikova 1988, 244-253.

Rice. 6. Bronze mirrors from the Uvek settlement, finds of 1994 (Saratov Regional Museum of Local History).

Plano Carpini describes in detail the leather armor and horse armor of the Mongols, as well as metal armor fastened with leather belts and thongs; Carpini also talks about fox fur coats lined with cotton wool on the inside19. Guillaume Rubruk also mentions leather armor, boots, ankle boots, reports leather trousers, fur pants, hats and winter fur outerwear, represented by two types, lower, with fur inward, and upper, with fur outer; According to Rubruk, there were also homemade fur clothing20. The Mongol women made clothes (including winter clothes, sewing skins with threads from sinews), shoes, boots and all leather goods21. Codex Cumanicus mentions in the Cuman version the concepts of furrier (“ygina tonci”), needle (“ygina”), scissors (“bucchi”), thimble (“oymac”) and thread (“yp”), textually interrelated with each other22; in the text of the source, 23 cobbler (“eticci”), shoe last (“kalip”), awl (“bix”), shoemaker’s knife (“YСас eticci”), sole (“taban”), vamp (top of the shoe) (“ suruc"), morocco ("sastian"), sheepskin ("choy suruchi"), boot ("etic"), shoe ("basmac") and boot toe ("etic baxi").

Clothes and headdresses were made from fabric, belts, wallets, and mirror covers were made - the remains of all these products (including headdresses made of brocade and silk) are present in the materials of excavations of Golden Horde monuments. Unfortunately, archaeological material does not yet allow us to distinguish between fabrics made in the Golden Horde and those imported, as well as to distinguish threads of our own production from imported ones.

Cotton, silk and brocade fabrics came from China, Central Asia and Iran, as reported by G. Rubruk: “From Cathay and other eastern countries, as well as from Persia and other southern countries, silk and gold fabrics, as well as cotton fabrics, are delivered to them papers in which they dress in the summer"24. P. Carpini mentions clothes and products made of bukaran (probably cotton fabric), purple and baldakine (the last two materials were undoubtedly expensive, and pieces of purple are also mentioned; baldakin is the name of brocade fabric, which, according to Carpini, was brought from Baghdad ), bokki covered with these materials, as well as silks, velvet, brocade belts25. Guillaume Rubruk also talks about covering the bokki with silk, who also reports on clothes made of axamite (brocade fabric) lined with silk, cotton fabrics (including bumazeya), bukaran, purple and nasik (one of the names of brocade made in Baghdad)26. Codex Cumanicus mentions in the Cuman version the names of wool (“yung”), flax (“usculi”), silk (“ypac”), raw silk (“last”), taffeta (“cux”), naka (“nao>”) , nasic (“nasic”), velvet (“catifa”), scarlat (“yscarlat”), Russian linen (“russi chetan”), fabrics from Champagne (“yionban chetan”), Germany (“alamani chetanj”), Orleans (“orlens chetan”), Novara (“sasda chesi”), Cremona (“dras. ches”), Lombardy (“lonbardi chetanj”), Asti (“astexan chetanj”), Ostuni

19 Shastina 1957, 50-51, 80.

20 Shastina 1957, 98-99, 122, 186, 242.

21 Shastina 1957, 37, 101.

22 Kuun 1981, 97; Drimba 2000, 90.

23 Kuun 1981, 99; Drimba 2000, 91-92.

24 Shastina 1957, 98.

25 Shastina 1957, 27, 33, 49, 74, 76-77, 80, 197.

26 Magidovich 1955, 59, 95, 254, 278; Shastina 1957, 88, 100, 148, 154-156, 180, 237, 239.

(“ostume chetanj”), Burgundy (“bergonia katanj”), Bergamo (“bgamasce ketanj”) and Fabriano (“aracli”)27; contains the Codex Cumanicus and the concepts of tailor (“derxi”), tailor’s scissors (“bizchi”, “chopti”)28. Russian linen, European cloth (including Ypres, Champagne, Chalon, Florentine, Genoese, Parma, Reims, Piacentina, from Vitry-le-François, Douai, Provins, Milan and Popering, with fur trim), linen from Champagne, Genoese canvas and twill, cotton (including yarn), nasik, Mosul fabrics (embroidered with gold), ak-samites, Florentine brocade fabric, damask (including tailoring), velvets, taffeta, kamokat, sandalwood, satins, silk ( including Chinese, Mazandaran, including from Gorgan, Merv, “Urgench”, “Khorezm”, from Georgia, Karabakh, Sheki, Shamakhi, Lahijan), Bukaran, Skamandri, Motley, Karmazin, Zuf, Kamlot, velor, kilik, kindyak , calico, bombasin, paper, oriental carpets and silk rugs were sold, judging by Italian documents, in the Northern Black Sea region at the end of the 13th - mid-15th centuries29; Merchants also brought Flemish and Italian fabrics to the Lower Volga region30. Tuscan anonymous from the beginning of the 14th century. recommends that merchants bring to Kaffa “linen fabrics of all colors, canvas of all types, Cypriot camelot of all colors, but especially dark green, dark blue, yellow and light blue, Syrian cotton of all types, tufted and spun cotton of all types. .. thick woolen cloth from Languedoc and Toury, Toulouse and Perpignan, cloth from Chalons in all colors”; from Tana to the West, the same source advises exporting “raw silk of all varieties, silk and gold-embroidered fabrics of all quality”31. Linen fabrics, thick and thin cloth could be transported through Tana, according to the Tuscan anonymous, directly to Urgench, or even to China32. According to Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, when leaving Venice and Genoa for China, you should take linen fabrics with you and go to Urgench, where you sell them for silver and move on33. According to Pegolotti, thick, gray and thin cloth, canvas, and thin linens were brought from Venice to Tana34; Silks, cotton, linen, linen, and canvas were sold in Tana35. Flax and linen were brought from Rus' through the territory of the Golden Horde to India and Iran, and cotton fabric zenden came from Central Asia to Rus' through the Horde. Ibn Battuta mentions tents made of linen and multi-colored silk, as well as a linen fence around them, prepared by the emir and qadi of Azak for the meeting of the emir of Khorezm Kutlug-Timur, who, upon arriving, walked on spread pieces of silk fabric; An Arab traveler also reports about brocade capes on horses carrying carts of noble Mongol women, dressed, like those accompanying them, in silk, studded with precious stones and embroidered with gold36. Among the trophies captured by Russian soldiers on the Kulikovo field, the chronicles name clothing (“ports”), and the lengthy edition of “Zadon-

27 Kuun 1981, 106-108; Drimba 2000, 95-97.

28 Kuun 1981, 98; Dreamba 2000, 91.

29 Volkov 2008, 447; Yemanov 1995, 34, 47-53, 75-79, 84, 92-97, 105; Karpov 1990, 116, 119-125, 158, 161, 163-164; Piotrovsky 2005, 95.

30 Yemanov 1995, 49; Fedorov-Davydov 2001, 205.

31 Yemanov 1995, 149.

32 Yemanov 1995, 149-150.

33 Pegolotti 1936, 22-23

34 Pegolotti 1936, 150.

35 Pegolotti 1936, 24.

36 Tiesenhausen 1884, 285, 292.

shchiny" - kamki, nasik ("nosechi", "nasycheve"), "patterned"37. Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo reports the shipment of Gilan silk to Caffa38. In 1438, the Shiraz merchant Shams ad-Din Muhammad acquired raw silk, silk damask, satin, European cloth and Russian linen in Sarai39. Jehoshaphat Barbaro reports about the Golden Horde cloth makers (“artesani de drapi”), he mentions silks, scarlet (bright red) cloth and rag images of deities40. Ambrogio Contarini talks about pieces of satin, silk products and boccasins brought from Derbent to the Lower Volga region, as well as the resale of silk products from Yazd and boccasins by Horde merchants to Russian lands41. Brocade and silk robes were worn by the nobility42, while the poor population used linen, cotton and woolen fabrics43. Cloth was used to cover carts (in particular, blue cloth is mentioned)44 and in the manufacture of ongons45. Italian sources mention the fabric dye kermes from Rus' (“cremexe rosesco”), which came through the Northern Black Sea region, where alum was also sold, used for dyeing fabrics and tanning leather46.

Thus, written sources name only cloth of the Golden Horde production and Khorezm silks; the rest of the materials mentioned on the territory of the Ulus of Jochi have various foreign origins. It should be noted, however, that it was fabrics and raw materials for their production (raw silk, flax, cotton in the form of yarn and tufts) that were brought to the Golden Horde, and not ready-made garments, as convincingly evidenced by written sources and archaeological finds of only their own clothes. cut.

Let us analyze the names of imported fabrics mentioned on the territory of the Golden Horde. The most expensive were brocade (brocade, aksamite, canopy, nasik, nak) and silk (silk, satin, velvet, taffeta, damask, kufter, sandal, ka-mokat) fabrics. Woolen (various cloth, camelot, purple, zuf, kilik, velor, twill), cotton (cotton, paper, kindyak, calico, bombasin, zenden, scamandri, bucaran?) and linen (linen and canvas) materials were also brought. For three types of fabrics it is difficult to determine the material from which they are made: these are multi-colored motley fabric, karmazin (red damask or cloth) and boccasin (thin linen or cotton fabrics). The origin of these fabrics is of significant interest. First of all, cloth came from European countries: French (from Burgundy, Champagne, Languedoc, including Toulouse, from Toury, Perpignan, Orleans, Vitry-le-Francois, Reims, Provins, as well as elite ones from Chalon), Italian (Florentine, Genoese , Venetian, Parma, Piacentina, from Novara, Asti, Ostuni, Fabriano, Lombardy, including from Milan, Cremona and Bergamo) and Flemish

37 Kuchkin 1998, 10, 40, 81, 103, 118, 131.

38 Clavijo 1990, 80.

39 Zakhoder 1955, 14-19.

40 Barbaro, Contarini 1971, 140-141, 157, 173, 181-182.

41 Barbaro, Contarini 1971, 217, 220, 261.

42 Magidovich 1955, 90; Shastina 1957, 100.

43 Shastina 1957, 99.

44 Barbaro, Contarini 1971, 144; Tiesenhausen 1884, 288.

45 Magidovich 1955, 90.

46 Yemanov 1995, 33; Karpov 1990, 134-137.

(from Ypres, Popering, elite from Douai), probably the mentioned fabrics from Germany should also be classified as cloth. Axamites, velor, twill, linen (from Champagne, Venice and Rus'), linen (from Venice and Genoa), and from the 15th century were also delivered from various regions of Europe. - Italian silks, damask, brocade, kamokat, kuf-ter and velvets. A number of fabrics, mainly brocade and silk, were brought from the Middle East: canopy, nasik, nak, Mosul brocade, velvets, damask, camelot, zuf, kilik, cotton, bukaran, bombasin, karmazin, boccasins, scamandri. From Iran and Central Asia, mainly cotton (cotton, bumazeya, calico, zenden) and silk (silk, including Mazandaran, including silk from Gorgan, Merv, from Sheki, Shemakha, Karabakh, Lahijan, Georgia, Gilan and Yazd, atlases) were imported , damask, taffeta, sandal) fabrics, as well as brocade and boccasins. Cotton fabrics (bukaran, kindyak, bombasin) and “motley” were delivered from India; brocade, nak, silk, damask, purple and fumazea could come from China. So, the largest number of mentioned names of fabrics (42) indicates their European (including Old Russian) origin, fewer names of Iranian and Central Asian (20) fabrics, even fewer Middle Eastern (15), as well as Chinese and Indian fabrics (10 names); This probably reflects the assortment of imported fabrics in the Golden Horde markets; these materials were used by local tailors to sew clothes in accordance with the preferences of the population of the Jochi Ulus.

Felt was also used47, which was used to cover and decorate carts and chests; blankets, raincoats, saddle cloths, “rain caps,” shoes and images of deities (ongons) were made from felt. According to P. Carpini, Mongolian carts “have walls and roofs covered with felt, the doors are also made of felt”48. This is how G. Rubruk describes the cart of the Mongols: “They place the house in which they sleep on wheels made of wicker rods; its logs are rods that converge upward in the form of a small wheel, from which a neck rises upward, like a chimney; They cover it with white felt, but more often they also impregnate the felt with lime, white earth and bone powder so that it sparkles brighter; and sometimes they also take black felt. They decorate this felt near the upper neck with beautiful and varied paintings. In front of the entrance they also hang felt, varied from the variety of fabrics. It is they who sew colored felt or other felt, making vines and trees, birds and animals.”49 Judging by the following message from Rubruk, felt was also used in the manufacture of chests: “They make quadrangular boxes from split small rods, the size of a large chest, and after that, from one edge to the other, they make a canopy from similar rods and make a small entrance on the front edge ; after that, they cover this box or house with black felt soaked in lard or sheep’s milk so that rain cannot penetrate, and they also decorate such a box with multi-colored or downy fabrics.”50 The presence of remains of war is sometimes recorded in the coffins of nomads.

47 Barbaro, Contarini 1971, 144, 213, 222; Magidovich 1955, 90; Tiesenhausen 1884, 281, 286; Shastina 1957, 27-29, 32-33, 51, 91-92, 94, 99, 101, 122, 130, 166, 177.

48 Shastina 1957, 27.

49 Shastina 1957, 91.

50 Shastina 1957, 91-92.

silt bedding under the buried. The production of felt and the covering of carts among the Mongols was carried out by women51.

It is worth highlighting the woodworking craft. Due to the poor preservation of wood at the Golden Horde monuments, only a few types of products of wood carvers who used lathes in their work have reached archaeologists: saddles, quivers, bows, arrow shafts, sheaths, handles of whips, knives and awls, bases of bokk hats, needle cases, amulets, boxes, bowls, dishes, bowls and plates, kobyz (stringed musical instruments) (Fig. 5, 3), combs and spoons. Wooden dishes were sometimes painted with colored paints.

The construction business received enormous development in the Golden Horde. Codex Cumanicus mentions in the Polovtsian version the concepts of carpenter (“cherchi”), ax (“balta”), cleaver (“buran”), saw (“bicchi”), plumb line (“uxun ip”), chisel (“uturgu”), hammer (“CaсhuC”), compass (“pargal”), plane (“uscu”), mallet (“tocmac”) and turning tool (“schinia”), textually interrelated with each other52. The buildings of the Lower Volga region are represented by mosques, mausoleums, baths, palaces, houses, usually equipped with horizontal chimneys, souf beds and toshnau washbasins, industrial and utility buildings. Along with wooden dwellings, which were sometimes half-dugouts or dugouts, there were buildings made of stone, mud or baked brick. In cities there were also fences around estates (sometimes quite impressive walls). Cities were landscaped with squares, reservoirs, wells, ditches, drainage structures, ceramic pipelines, even fountains and public toilets.

In exchange for agricultural and handicraft products delivered to cities from rural settlements, urban centers supplied the villages with products of high-tech crafts (glazed ceramics, glassware, cast iron, many types of non-ferrous metal products53), the existence of which is not recorded in small urban and rural settlements .

Ordinary Golden Horde unglazed pottery ceramics also came from cities to the countryside in huge quantities. However, there was not enough ceramics on the periphery; in the villages, artisans were forced to make it even at home, which was recorded by us during the excavations of the Konstantinovsky settlement in the Saratov Volga region (Fig. 1, 7).

We must also recognize the bulk of the blacksmith's products from rural monuments as products of urban crafts, since of all the villages around the large Golden Horde cities of the Lower Volga region, a blacksmith's forge was noted only in the Martyshkino tract in the area of ​​the Uvek settlement, and the remains of an unidentified structure associated with iron processing - on settlement Shirokiy Buerak in the same region.

51 Shastina 1957, 101.

52 Kuun 1981, 99-100; Dreamba 2000, 92.

53 Primitive forms of processing non-ferrous metals undoubtedly existed both in small towns and in rural areas; this can be confirmed by the finds of bursts and scraps of metal at the villages of Bagaevskoye, Kolotov Buerak, Sovetskoye and Khmelevskoye I in the area of ​​the Uvek settlement, as well as at the Vodyansk settlement, where foundry molds were also recorded (this is the only case of their discovery outside the largest settlements).

The nomads, judging by written and archaeological data, were even engaged in blacksmithing and weaving. However, a number of crafts (pottery, glassmaking, cast iron production, developed forms of processing non-ferrous metals) could not exist at all in conditions of nomadic life, therefore, all their products in the funerary monuments of nomads should be considered imported, coming from the settlements of the Lower Volga region. Receiving livestock and dairy products from the nomads, the cities supplied them with handicrafts.

From the Bolgar settlement there are known finds of three matrices54 for making handles (in the form of a dragon protome) of belt ladles from precious metals, characteristic of early Juchid toreutics and constituting one of the attributes of the Mongolian equestrian culture55; The preparation of a bone ornamented quiver covering56 is also known there, similar to the products that were used by the nomads of the Golden Horde era, which confirms the opinion about the production of coverings in the Volga cities of the Ulus of Jochi, in which finds of finished products of this group are also known57. Glass jewelry and high-quality bronze mirrors (which could only be made in hard stone forms, known today only from the Bolgar, Uvek and Selitren settlements)58 were also made in the largest cities of the Jochi Ulus and supplied from there to the steppe. It is noteworthy that at the Uvek settlement a mold for casting mirrors was found (Fig. 4, 1), belonging to a type not found in the materials of this monument, but recorded in the surrounding settlements and in nearby nomadic mounds59; This fact testifies not only to the production of mirrors in large cities for subsequent sale to residents of settled and nomadic areas, but also to the specialization of this production, which took into account the tastes and demands of nomads, in the field of metal mirrors, which are noticeably different from the preferences of city dwellers60.

The data presented, in our opinion, indicate a high degree of development of the Golden Horde craft, which included the following industries: pottery, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy and metalworking, jewelry, glassmaking, weaving, bone carving, stone cutting, leather and construction, wood processing, production felt

LITERATURE

Barbaro I., Contarini A. 1971: Barbaro and Contarini about Russia: On the history of Italo-Russian relations in the 15th century. L.

Valiulina S.I., Nedashkovsky L.F. 2005: Glass products of Ukek and its surroundings // NAV. 7, 257-280.

54 Rudenko 2006, 48-49, 89-90, 99, 113, Fig. 2, Fig. 5.

55 Kramarovsky 2001.

56 Polyakova 1992, 243-244.

57 Zakirova 1988, 227, 229, 239, 243, fig.99,14-16; Malinovskaya 1974, 155-156, 169, 171, tab. IX,30, X,32-35; Fedorov-Davydov 1976, 187; 1994, 179.

58 Nedashkovsky 2001, 355, 364, fig. 5, 1-2; Polyakova 1996, 160, 162, fig. 56, 5, 58, 9; Fyodorov-Davydov 1984, 178, fig. 107, 2; Nedashkovsky 2004, 48, 228-229, fig. 62, 1-2, 63.

59 Nedashkovsky 2001, 355; Nedashkovsky 2004, 48.

60 Nedashkovsky 2000, 65-66, table 3; 2001, 355; Nedashkovsky 2004, 35, 48, tab.3.

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THE GOLDEN HORDE CRAFT

L. F. Nedashkovsky

The Golden Horde craft peculiarities make it possible to tell its products from those of production centers of other medieval states. Primarily, it is worth noting ceramic production. Non-glazed red clay ceramics is a key material for Golden Horde monuments. The Golden Horde is also noted for abundant production of kashin and red-clay glazed ceramics. It could also boast well developed glass production, bone carving, the handling of semi-precious stones and gems, non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, and blacksmith's work. It is thanks to the Golden Horde that iron-making appeared in in Europe . Town centers took to the countryside high-technology craft products such as glazed and non-glazed pottery, glassware, iron and ironware, non-ferrous products. Nothing is known about the crafts of the kind in small towns and settlements. There was no place for such crafts as pottery, glassware, iron-making, etc. in a nomadic environment. Consequently, all the products of the kind found in nomad burials are brought from towns and settlements. Nomads exchanged stock-breeding products for a variety of craft -ware especially made with regard to artistic taste and traditions of nomads.

Key words: the Golden Horde, craft, trade

History of the Golden Horde.

Education of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde It began as a separate state in 1224, when Batu Khan came to power, and in 1266 it finally left the Mongol Empire.

It is worth noting that the term “Golden Horde” was coined by the Russians, many years after the Khanate collapsed - in the middle of the 16th century. Three centuries earlier, these territories were called differently, and there was no single name for them.

Lands of the Golden Horde.

Genghis Khan, Batu’s grandfather, divided his empire equally between his sons - and in general its lands occupied almost the entire continent. Suffice it to say that in 1279 the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, from the Baltic to the borders of present-day India. And these conquests took only about 50 years - and a considerable part of them belonged to Batu.

Dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde.

In the 13th century, Rus' surrendered under the pressure of the Golden Horde.. True, it was not easy to cope with the conquered country; the princes sought independence, so from time to time the khans made new campaigns, ravaging cities and punishing the disobedient. This went on for almost 300 years - until in 1480 the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally thrown off.

Capital of the Golden Horde.

The internal structure of the Horde was not very different from the feudal system of other countries. The empire was divided into many principalities, or uluses, ruled by minor khans, who were subordinate to one great khan.

Capital of the Golden Horde during the time of Batu it was in the city Saray-Batu, and in the 14th century it was moved to Saray-Berke.

Khans of the Golden Horde.

The most famous Khans of the Golden Horde- these are those from whom Rus' suffered the most damage and ruin, among them:

• Batu, from which the Tatar-Mongol name began
• Mamai, defeated on the Kulikovo field
• Tokhtamysh, who went on a campaign to Rus' after Mamai to punish the rebels.
• Edigei, who made a devastating raid in 1408, shortly before the yoke was finally thrown off.

Golden Horde and Rus': the fall of the Golden Horde.

Like many feudal states, the Golden Horde eventually collapsed and ceased to exist due to internal turmoil.

The process began in the middle of the 14th century, when Astrakhan and Khorezm separated from the Horde. In 1380, Rus' began to rise, having defeated Mamai on the Kulikovo Field. But the biggest mistake of the Horde was the campaign against the empire of Tamerlane, who dealt a mortal blow to the Mongols.

In the 15th century, the Golden Horde, once strong, split into the Siberian, Crimean and Kazan khanates. Over time, these territories were subject to the Horde less and less, in 1480 Rus' finally emerged from under oppression.

Thus, years of existence of the Golden Horde: 1224-1481. In 1481, Khan Akhmat was killed. This year is considered to be the end of the existence of the Golden Horde. However, it completely collapsed during the reign of his children, at the beginning of the 16th century.

In the middle of the 13th century. as a result of aggressive campaigns on the territory of Eurasia, one of the Mongolian states was formed - Ulus Jochi. It included the steppe spaces of Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, Eastern Europe to the Danube. These areas were called Desht-i-Kshchak (Kypchak steppe). In addition, the state included a number of settled regions with old urban centers: the North Caucasus, Crimea, Moldavia, Volga Bulgaria, Central Asian regions to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, part of Khorezm. Rus' was in a dependent position.

Later, the state of Ulus Jochi began to be called the Golden Horde by the Russians. This name is fixed in historical literature. Originally it meant “golden tent” (khan’s headquarters).

In its development, the Golden Horde went through several stages: formation(1242-1266); heyday(1267-1359); decline(from the 60s to the 80s XlVe.), when the Horde ruled only within the Volga region.

One of notable features The Horde from its very foundation is that it was the bearer of two economic systems - nomadic steppe and urban craft and trade. This determined the uniqueness of the Golden Horde social system. At the first stage of its existence, the Horde considered areas with a settled population and urban centers as the object of periodic predatory campaigns. Only in the second half of the 13th century. The Mongol aristocracy began to lean toward a policy of patronage of settled lands and cities, contributed to the restoration of the economy and the transformation of conquered territories into objects of systematic taxation. The change in the policy of the Golden Horde aristocracy was to a certain extent facilitated by the liberation of the Ulus of Jochi from the power of the head of the Genghisid Empire - the Great Kaan. It is noteworthy that it was the Jochid khans in the 1270s. the first of the rulers of the Mongol states began to mint coins in their own name.

Freed by the end of the 13th century. From the highest imperial power, the Golden Horde rulers reduced the payment of tribute to Mongolia, the funds remained in their own treasury. From this time on, the intensive growth of cities began in the main region of the Golden Horde - in the steppe lower reaches of the Volga. If in the middle of the 13th century. the main cities of the Horde were Bolgar, Khorezm (Urgench), Crimean cities, i.e. centers in the outlying settled lands, then in the 14th century. it becomes like this Barn in the Itil (Volga) delta, practically in the center of the vast possessions of the Ulus of Jochi.

In the Lower Volga, where new cities were built, there was a favorable combination of floodplain lowlands, convenient for agriculture, and steppe expanses - for nomads and pastures. The weak population made it possible to develop them more quickly than the traditional territory of the nomadic Kipchak population. Here, the most important Eastern European trade route, the Volga, crossed with caravan routes from the Black Sea region, Central Asia and Mongolia. The control of the Golden Horde power was established over trade routes.

The Golden Horde cities were set on the places of nomadic camps of the Khan's headquarters- actually “hordes”. Remnant of old nomadic life, it was the most characteristic element of the Golden Horde social system. The Khan's horde was the main capital and political center of the Ulus of Jochi. Even in the 14th century, when the Golden Horde had many large and rich cities, the Khan could often be found wandering in the horde. Barn also served as the capital, the political center of the state, but shared it with the horde, while being the main economic, cultural and religious center of the country.

The Golden Horde cities were built primarily as administrative centers - outposts of the khan's power in the conquered territory. Cities arose at the behest of the khans. The cities flourished during the period of strong khan's power, and their decline coincided with the time of its weakening. Cities were built historically fast deadlines. This was facilitated by the fact that the grandiose conquests of the Mongols caused a massive flow of captive slaves. Slaves were used initially as builders of new cities, and later as their population, as forced citizens. Gradually, slave artisans freed themselves from slavery, turning into feudally dependent people living under the tutelage of their masters, but in their own home. Slave labor was transformed into the labor of a feudally dependent population. The Golden Horde cities did not appear as a result of long-term economic development in places of traditional settlement, but arose “instantly” in areas deprived of long-term settlement. In a short time - second half of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century.- along the banks of the Volga and its tributaries, from the middle reaches to the delta, a whole chain of Golden Horde settlements grew. Archaeological materials record at least 75 ancient settlements. Most of them have been little studied, so there is no reason to classify all places with Golden Horde layers as urban centers, but the scale of construction is impressive, especially since in addition to the Volga region, Golden Horde settlements appear in Western Siberia, the North Caucasus, the Don region, Crimea, the Dnieper region, and Moldova . It is noteworthy that everywhere, even in old settlement areas, near pre-Mongol cities, Golden Horde settlements do not have previous cultural strata. Urban centers in the Lower Volga region were Barn- the capital of Ulus Jochi (now Selitrennoye settlement, 100 km above Astrakhan on the Volga channel - Akhtuba), New Barn(Tsarevskoe settlement near Volgograd), in which in the 40s. XIV century the capital was moved Vodyanskoe settlement(40 km above Volgograd), Uvek(near Saratov), Haji Tarkhan(Astrakhan), etc.

The Golden Horde cities, even capital centers, from the moment of their inception were lacking defensive fortifications. Only in the 1360s, during a period of unrest and civil strife, a ditch was dug around the cities and a rampart was built. However, they can hardly be called fortifications in the full sense of the word: there were no structures on the ramparts. Consequently, the Golden Horde cities initially and deliberately excluded one of the most important (if not the main) functions - defensive, which was a consequence of the confidence of the khan's power in its strength. The early Horde cities probably consisted of a group of castle-estates, to which were attached courtyards of slaves and semi-slaves - builders and artisans driven from the occupied lands. During the heyday of the Horde, individual castles turned into city estates with adjoining artisan quarters. In these cities, public places appeared - mosques and minarets, baths, state craft workshops, mints, etc. Cities and individual estates are being improved, provided with water, sewerage, and roads.

Residential buildings in the Golden Horde cities clearly demonstrate the social ranking of residents.

The lowest rung of the social ladder was occupied by slaves and semi-slaves. They lived together in large rectangular or oval dugouts. These dwellings had earthen beds (sufas) along two or three walls and an entrance in the form of a narrow staircase. They were heated by braziers. The area of ​​the dugouts is 11-32 square meters. m.

Cases have been recorded of the reconstruction of large dugouts into houses with elements of improvement, when chimneys-kanas were laid in the sufas, connected to a furnace-stove, round tandoor ovens were installed for baking flat cakes, and a toshnau was made - a device for washing.

Such rebuilt or originally furnished dugouts of a smaller size (9-15 sq. m) served as dwellings for individual families of semi-free or poor free townspeople. The poor also lived in one-room houses, partially buried in the ground. These houses had wooden walls coated with clay.

Ground-based, one-room, square houses with an area of ​​10 to 50 square meters. m with wooden or mud brick walls could be the dwellings of poor families, servants or dependent people. The buildings were often part of a complex of rich estates. They had all the elements of improvement inside the premises. Double or triple lines of chimneys were installed in sufs. Sometimes several one-room buildings were combined into multi-room houses. This trend led to the fact that later they began to immediately erect multi-room buildings, brick and wooden, formed by several interconnected houses, usually with individual entrances.

The dwellings of the Golden Horde aristocracy were large multi-room houses, which often represented real palace complexes. Huge buildings up to 570-580 sq. m were built from wood, mud or burnt brick. The floor was lined with baked bricks, sometimes glazed. The sofa beds in the central hall had multi-channel canals. There was a swimming pool in the center. The walls of the central halls were painted on white plaster and decorated with tiled panels. On the sides of the hall there were residential, storage, and utility rooms, and there were special children's rooms. Sometimes the house had up to 10 or more rooms. The living quarters were whitewashed and sometimes painted. Special rooms were allocated for toshnau, usually with a brick floor, tandoors, and a home mill. There were patios.

The central entrances were architecturally decorated. For glazing, plaster bars were inserted into the windows. The doors were decorated with alabaster ornamented platbands. The roofs of such houses may have been covered

tiles.

Near the palace there was a bathhouse, houses for servants and guards, and artisans' workshops. The area of ​​the estates reached 10,000 square meters. m, perhaps more. Inside the estates there was always a well, and sometimes a swimming pool. In front of the palace, open platforms with walls made of baked bricks were sometimes made. In the courtyards of houses there were tandoors, open or under awnings. There are utility pits, including grain pits. On large estates, gardens were fenced off. The estates were surrounded by walls of houses, blank facades facing the street, and adobe fences. In the summer, light tents - yurts - were placed in the courtyard.

Stationary yurt-shaped buildings are found in urban areas. The yurts were lined with fragments of burnt brick (they are preserved). In yurts, accumulations of coals from open fires are found and the floors are partially paved with burnt bricks.

Identified in cities landscaping elements. Along the city streets, ditches were dug - ditches with running water. In the neighborhoods of the ordinary part of the population there were public wells and large quarterly reservoirs were installed in the squares. Used water was drained through wooden drainage pipes.

In the development of the Golden Horde cities, an important place was occupied by religious buildings and public baths. According to written data, there were 13 cathedrals and many other mosques in Sarai, built in conjunction with minarets.

Public baths consisted of several rooms: a large heated dressing room with an adobe floor and a sufa, washrooms with underfloor heating and water supply through ceramic pipes. Water was drained through an underground drain. In the rest rooms the visitor could cool down after washing. Such baths were intended for ordinary townspeople. In buildings for the more privileged, they were larger in area (up to 200 or more square meters) - a fountain was installed in the dressing room, additional rooms were equipped. In addition to public baths, there were manor baths; their main structural elements were similar.

Funeral buildings- mausoleums were of different types, single-chamber and double-chamber. They were often decorated, including with mosaics. Along with the above-ground ones, there were underground mausoleums.

The Golden Horde cities were large craft centers. The forms of organization of handicraft production were varied: individual workshops with narrow specialization and a small volume of products; estate workshops, in which work was carried out for the owner; large productions in which dozens of craftsmen were united into one manufactory owned by a noble owner; finally, of course, there were state-owned manufactories, such as mints.

The most developed was pottery craft.

Glazed or glazed ceramics are the brightest and most characteristic manifestation of the civilization and culture of the Golden Horde city. Irrigation vessels were made of clay and capshn (a siliceous mass mixed with glue, which was used to fill a special mold). The syncretism and multicomponent nature inherent in the Golden Horde urban culture were well demonstrated in ceramics. The technology of glazed ceramics in the Golden Horde developed under the influence of three powerful currents: Iranian-Central Asian, Byzantine-East Caucasian and Far Eastern.

The forms of glazed ceramics are varied, but limited in terms of species. Most of the bowls come in different variants with a ring tray. There are also plates, pot-shaped vessels, one-handled jugs, bottles, lamps, flasks, and inkwells. The limited type of glazed pottery is many times compensated for by its ornamental diversity. The polychrome range of painting was ensured by applying a green, blue or brown outline of the design to a white, or less often light turquoise background, and coloring the details of the ornament with blue dots and turquoise spots. The ornamentation was extremely diverse, combining plant (most often a lotus flower or trefoil), geometric, less often zoomorphic (waterfowl or winged centaur) elements, complemented in some cases by ornaments in the form of Arabic script.

Red clay and less often gray clay ceramics very diverse: tableware (jugs, plates, bowls, pots, pans, cups), household items (lamps, piggy banks, whistles, toys), containers (amphoras, hums), technical products (pipes, tiles, jugs for water-lifting wheels ). To decorate red clay and gray clay tableware, a stamp, cut, and sometimes molded ornaments were used.

Ceramic products. A special type of production of the Golden Horde ceramists is the production of mosaics and majolica, which were widely used in architectural decoration. The outer surfaces of buildings were covered with mosaics, panels were made from them, friezes, cornices, etc. were decorated. The basis of the mosaics was formed by carved individual ornamental elements from ceramic tiles, which were usually covered with an opaque glaze - ultraviolet, white, blue, red, yellow. The uniqueness of the Golden Horde mosaics was that the mosaic elements were additionally decorated with patterns of gold foil on a red base. Majolicas are ceramic tiles with a full floral or geometric pattern on the surface.

Architectural decor complemented by terracotta elements with stamped ornaments, carved plaster window grilles, and overlays on individual building parts. Golden Horde architectural decor developed under the influence of Iranian and East Caucasian (Azerbaijani) impulses.

Complex in technology glass making represented by numerous finds - vessels, jewelry, window glass - and traces of production. A workshop for the production of beads, pendants, rings and bracelets was discovered in Sarai, which indicates local production and the narrow specialization of artisans. The shapes of glass vessels are varied: bottles, jugs, glasses, glasses, bowls. The bluish or greenish window glass looked like flat disks. The products of the Golden Horde glassmakers and the composition of glass find broad analogies in the workshops of different countries, mainly Central Asian.

The iron-making craft in the Lower Volga cities has not been specifically studied, but its products are known from archaeological materials. Golden Horde blacksmiths produced various tools - axes, chisels, adzes, sickles, shovels, saws, anvils, hoes; weapons - swords and sabers, daggers, darts, arrowheads of various types, including Mongolian arrows with a slot (“whistling”); items of horse equipment - arched stirrups, bits, horseshoes; household items - locks and keys, chairs, nails, crutches, staples, etc.

Just like in Volga Bulgaria, in the Golden Horde cities from the 14th century. produced cast iron, from which boilers and axle bushings for carts were made. An iron foundry forge with 79 holes for nozzles was discovered in Novy Sarai. This amount was necessary to constantly supply air and reach the melting point of iron.

In New Saray, two estates were opened bone carving workshops. The assortment of bone carver products was limited - mainly knife handles, linings, pommels; also rings for pulling bowstrings, bone arrows, piercings, spears, lamellar ornamented linings for quivers and caskets were produced.

Workshops of artisans processing non-ferrous metals and jewelers who worked with gold and silver were excavated in several Golden Horde cities. Craftsmen mastered all technological techniques - casting, including the splash casting method, soldering, stamping, chasing, engraving.

From non-ferrous metals, including silver and gold, they made a lot of jewelry (earrings, bracelets, rings and rings), clothing parts (buckles, belt plaques, overlays and bells), household items (dishes, mirrors, buttons, bronze locks in the form of animal figures, candlesticks and lamps, miniature vessels). The shapes of objects (especially jewelry) were varied. They were often decorated, most often with engraving. The cast bracelets with lion faces at the ends, bronze and gold, are magnificent. In most cases, the outer side of the mirrors was decorated with geometric and floral patterns; images of animals running in a circle; scenes of a lion hunt; images of a fox and grapes - the plot of an ancient fable.

Toreutics, along with glazed ceramics, is an area of ​​artistic craft where the highest skill and degree of culture of the Golden Horde artisans were most clearly demonstrated. Silver vessels - cups, bowls, jugs - were covered with the finest engraving. An interesting group of gold and silver vessels with handles in the shape of dolphins and dragons, sometimes with rings in the mouth, almost always with fine wire decoration along the ridge.

The Golden Horde cities were created by the Khan's power on trade routes, which initially turned them into the most important centers of international trade and places of lively domestic trade. Khans and aristocrats patronized trade, which brought great profits. There were merchant associations with the participation of aristocrats who organized large caravan trade. State authorities ensured postal services and road safety.

International trade in the Golden Horde cities was largely transit and consumer. Imports were larger than exports. Goods from the east and west, north and south flocked to the cities of the Lower Volga region: porcelain and jewelry, glass and metal dishes, jewelry and weapons, silk and brocade, wood, spices and incense. All these goods either went to meet the needs of the Golden Horde nobility, or were supplied in wholesale quantities to other countries, thereby ensuring extensive medieval trade. There is evidence of the existence of permanent merchant offices in the Golden Horde cities.

Finds of trade instruments are ubiquitous and numerous: “pharmacy” type scales and parts from them, steelyards, weighing weights. Golden Horde weights - bronze, prismatic six- and octagonal or multi-sided. Cylinders or rosette-shaped thick plates also served as weights. Typically, Golden Horde weights did not have a multiplicity designation.

The intensity of market relations was facilitated by the Golden Horde coinage, organized by the first khans in Bolgar, and later transferred to the cities of the Lower Volga region and other Horde centers. The Golden Horde coin was in circulation in many countries and primarily in the controlled territories.

A large number of coin hoards are known to have been found both at settlements and far from them. The latter were probably buried by merchants near the road route in moments of danger. There are very large treasures - up to 30 thousand silver coins. A huge number of coins, mainly copper, are found in the cultural layer of the Golden Horde settlements. In addition to silver and copper coins, rod-shaped “boat-shaped” silver bars were used in the monetary circulation of the Golden Horde, and there were also gold coins.

A section of geology that studies the patterns of formation of modern sedimentary rocks.

Paleogeography is a science that studies physical-geographical situations, their dynamics, the sources (factors) of this dynamics - climate change, tectonic movements - on the surface of the Earth in the geological past.

Cities of the Golden Horde

One of the traditional ideas about the Golden Horde is that this state, without much thought, is classified as purely nomadic. Apparently, this point of view is greatly facilitated by the very concept of “horde” - something formless, poorly controlled, unbridled and in constant rotation. Until now, maps depicting the territory of the Golden Horde contain a minimum of topographical and other (conditional) load and information, presenting an almost silent space of steppes cut by rivers. And only somewhere in the very middle of the steppes the gaze suddenly lingers on a tiny point with an explanatory inscription “Barn”. This is the capital of the state, the name of which to the modern Russian ear sounds not just unexpected, but even surprising and causes a smile. After all, now hardly anyone would think of assigning it to even a tiny village. Another evidence that the past, even a very distant one, does not pass without a trace - at least some fragment of it is preserved in the current life. And probably more than one, and probably not only in language.

In the same way, not only the chronicle memory of the cities of the Golden Horde, but also they themselves, have survived to this day. And not only in the form of archaeological remains under layers of earth and sand. Some of them continue to live and develop now, for example Azov, Kazan, Stary Krym, Tyumen.

Not so long ago, works on the history of the Golden Horde cited the names of 15–20 cities, but now there are already 110 of them, and this number continues to increase. The figure increased so sharply because the force of inertia, which classified the state as nomadic, did not allow anyone to doubt this conclusion for a long time. The question seemed to have been studied and proven since the time of the ancient authors, who wrote about the Mongols that they “do not have a permanent residence anywhere and do not know where they will find it in the future.” But the founders of the state were really nomads! How and why did they have cities?

First of all, you need to pay attention to the indisputable fact that before the start of the aggressive campaigns and the formation of the huge empire of Genghis Khan, the Mongols had no cities at all and they really remained, as they say, pure nomads. Mongolian cities proper begin to appear only some time after the formation of a huge empire, which included many nomadic and sedentary peoples. Attempts by some historians to explain the emergence of cities among the Mongols by the influence of sedentary neighbors are not confirmed. Such influence is possible only in places of direct contact between nomadic and sedentary populations, that is, on the very outskirts of their habitat. And the Mongolian cities themselves appeared in the very center of the steppes, many days’ journey from the areas of traditionally developed urban planning. This means that the reasons for their appearance lie in the depths of the nomadic society itself, in changes in the political and economic structure of their life, which, regardless of external factors, lead to the emergence of cities.

New Mongolian cities appeared in the steppes even despite the fact that among the nomadic aristocracy, a significant part of it opposed not only settled life, but also for the destruction of all cities in the conquered countries. Genghis Khan himself was among the supporters of this idea. However, after the death of the founder of the Mongol Empire, another direction prevailed, the main political line of which was concentrated in a statement addressed to the successor of Genghis Khan: “Although you received the Celestial Empire while sitting on a horse, you cannot rule it while sitting on a horse!” That is, one of the most important reasons for the emergence of cities among the Mongols was the urgent need for administrative organization and streamlining of political rule in the vast conquered territories.

The changes that took place in the life of the nomadic society required the creation of stationary centers where the administrative bureaucracy was concentrated, associated with the collection of taxes and tribute, the reception of numerous ambassadors, the conduct of diplomatic correspondence, etc. The khan's headquarters, which roamed the steppe for most of the year, was not suitable for these goals. As a result, a specific stratum of officials stands out in Mongolian society, which does not wander with the khan, but settles permanently around his stationary winter headquarters. Thus, a core of a settled settlement is created, formed around the palace of the supreme ruler. It is precisely this scheme of the birth of the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Saraya, that is evidenced by its name, which is translated as “palace”. The second capital of the state, Saray al-Jedid (New Palace), had the same name. One can recall the center of the Crimean Khanate of Bakhchisarai and the city of Saraichik on Yaik. All these settlements arose according to the same pattern.

The concentration of wealthy officials and aristocracy attracted merchants, forming permanent bazaars and fairs, which increased the population of the new city. Craftsmen and slaves were recruited for the construction of residential and public buildings, which contributed to the further growth of the settlement. Finally, the growth of cities in the Golden Horde was facilitated by the adoption of a new religion - Islam, as the construction of various religious buildings and spiritual schools began. And the clergy itself (and not only Muslim ones) formed a noticeable stratum in the urban population.

The emergence of cities among the Mongols was a consequence of the formation of the state and the formation of its internal political and economic structure. At the same time, city life was closely linked to the interests of the government, and the city itself always acted as a conductor of the policies of the central government and was one of its reliable supports. Moreover, the existence of cities was unthinkable without a strong central government, and its weakening became one of the reasons for the decline of settled life in the Golden Horde.

Urban development in the Golden Horde went through several stages. The earliest of them, associated with the initial period of the existence of the state, is characterized by the use by the Mongols of cities that existed before their appearance in Europe and were destroyed during the invasion of 1236–1242. Such cities were restored and used as political and commercial centers. A striking example in this regard is the Great Bolgar, the former capital of Volga Bulgaria. Under Khan Batu, this city for some time played the role of the capital of the state (before the founding of Sarai) and it was here that the minting of Golden Horde coins began. The commercial importance of the city is evidenced by the fact that the Italians, the Polo brothers, visited it with their goods. In 1246–1247 The Golden Horde was crossed from west to east by Plano Carpini, who did not meet a single city or even a village on his way in the steppes. But after six years, the picture changed noticeably, as evidenced by another traveler, Guillaume Rubruk, who traveled a similar route. His notes paint a picture of the beginning of urban planning in the steppes. On the left bank of the Don, Rubruk visited a village inhabited by Russians (apparently prisoners), “who transport ambassadors and merchants on boats.” The village was built on the instructions of Khan Batu himself. He was immediately informed of the existence of another village downstream of the river, “where ambassadors cross in the winter.” Next on the monk's route was a village on the banks of the Volga, inhabited by Russians and Muslims (probably Volga Bulgarians), who were also responsible for transporting ambassadors across the river. Finally, this same traveler has the honor of being the first to notify Europe about the emergence of a new capital - the city of Sarai. Rubruk visited here in the fall of 1254, but the city was still so small that the traveler, apart from the name, does not provide any information about it. This suggests that Sarai was founded by Batu Khan around 1250.

A noticeable revival of urban planning occurred under Khan Berke, when an attempt was made to introduce Islam into the Golden Horde. During this period, cities took on a classic “oriental” appearance, being built up with monumental buildings of mosques, minarets, madrassas, caravanserais, etc. For their construction, artisans were brought in from all sides, bringing with them architectural canons and construction techniques tested over centuries, tested building materials and technology for their production. The huge number of captives taken into slavery made it possible to carry out construction in a short time and on a large scale. However, the four khans who ruled after Berke did not accept Islam and did not pay so much attention to the development of existing cities and the founding of new ones. This policy undoubtedly slowed down the growth of cities somewhat, but it was no longer able to stop the process that had begun. Urban planning and architecture reached their true flourishing under Khan Uzbek and his successor Janibek. At this time, not only the territory of already existing cities expanded, but many new ones emerged. The largest of them was Saray al-Jedid, founded by Uzbek in the 30s of the 14th century. and which later became the capital of the state. In some sources it is called Saray Berke, which is why some researchers attribute the time of its foundation to the reign of this particular khan. However, archaeological studies of the remains of this city (Tsarevskoye fortified settlement) clearly indicate that it arose during the reign of Uzbek Khan.

Under him, the Volga coast was almost entirely built up with cities, towns and villages. Along the left bank of the Akhtuba River, a continuous strip of settled life appears, consisting of small towns, villages and castles of the aristocracy, surrounded by cultivated fields. A sedentary region of similar size and size appears at the point of closest convergence of the Volga and Don. However, the heyday of the Golden Horde cities, although stormy, was relatively short. Already in the last years of Janibek’s reign, and especially under his heir Berdibek, there was a gradual decline in urban planning and its abrupt cessation with the beginning of internal strife in the 60s and 70s of the 14th century. The final blow to the Golden Horde cities was dealt in 1395–1396. Timur. After this, the vast majority of them remained lying in ruins among the steppes; there were no more artisans or the means to restore them. We can say that the entire Golden Horde urban culture was destroyed almost instantly, within one year.

The route of Timur's troops covered the territory of the state in all directions, specifically targeting the destruction and plunder of cities. It was very rich and easy prey, since the cities of the Golden Horde did not have any fortifications and were practically defenseless. The absence of walls around cities is one of the characteristic features of the Golden Horde settlements, which was not the case in any other medieval state. The Mongols boasted and were proud of this, believing that their cities were reliably protected by endless steppes and numerous cavalry. There was only one fortress in the state with walls erected long before the advent of the Golden Horde - Derbent. The fortress separated the Golden Horde from Hulaguid Iran, which was also ruled by a dynasty of descendants of the Chingizids, which was constantly at war with the Jochids. True, in the time of Mamai, the largest cities of the state were hastily surrounded by earthen ramparts with log walls on top. However, such defensive structures had a purely symbolic meaning, not presenting any serious obstacle.

All cities of the Golden Horde are divided into two large groups: 1) those that existed before the arrival of the Mongols, and then restored by them after the defeat; 2) founded by the Mongols themselves in the 13th–14th centuries. The first group included settlements located in traditionally settled areas on the outskirts of the extended steppe belt - the Black Sea coast and Crimea, the North Caucasus, Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria. All of them were destroyed as a result of the Mongol conquests, but were subsequently gradually restored and flourished. The most famous of them are Urgench in Khorezm, Great Bolgar in the Volga region, Akkerman in the Northern Black Sea region. The Mongols used them not only as administrative centers of specific regions, but also as large transit trade points.

The defensive walls of these cities were destroyed, and no one dared to think about restoring them while the state was a single possession of the Jochids with a strong central government. The absence of walls gave the cities of the Golden Horde a very special flavor and led to extreme amazement of foreign travelers. Residents of all countries of Europe and Asia competed with each other to build the highest and thickest possible walls of stone and wood, and here, in the middle of the flat steppe, there were huge, unprotected cities, literally filled with valuables brought from all over the world.

The Mongols themselves during the XIII-XIV centuries. both capitals of the Golden Horde were founded - Sarai and Sarai al-Dzhedid, Saraichik on Yaik, Madjar in the North Caucasus, Crimea on the Tauride Peninsula, Azak at the mouth of the Don, Khadzhitarkhan in the Volga delta, Ukek in the Middle Volga region, Mokhshi in the Mordovian forests, Tyumen in Siberia and many other cities. Their names are sometimes unknown, but archaeological remains have been recorded and date well back to the Golden Horde period. Naturally, not all of the territory of the Golden Horde was built up with cities. The endless expanses of the steppes remained completely at the disposal of the nomads. One could travel for several weeks without encountering any settled settlement. But there were also areas where settled life completely replaced the nomads. In confirmation, we can cite the description of the Saratov local historian of the last century A. Leopoldov, who drove along the left bank of the Akhtuba. Here he encountered “remarkable ruins of stone buildings. Beginning near the villages of Bezrodny or Verkhne-Akhtubinsky, they stretch for 70 miles. These ruins are sometimes frequent, sometimes rare, sometimes vast and large, sometimes small and insignificant, but everywhere they show brick, clay, and lime. Further from the village. When you reach the village of Kolobovshchina, 15 versts away, you can see ruins that are almost continuous and mostly huge.” This is what it looked like in the first half of the 19th century. the area around the second capital of the Golden Horde, Saray al-Jedid.

But the most significant city not only of the Golden Horde, but also of Europe was Saray - the first capital of the state. Its remains are located 150 km above modern Astrakhan, near the village. Selitrennogo. In the middle of the 14th century. its area exceeded the capitals of many European states. In the 30s of the XIV century. The Arab traveler Ibn Batuta visited here and left an impressive description of the city. This is what he wrote: “The city of Sarai is one of the most beautiful cities, having reached extraordinary size, on flat land, crowded with people, with beautiful bazaars and wide streets. One day we rode out on horseback with one of its elders, intending to ride around it and find out its volume. We lived at one end of it and left there in the morning, and reached the other end only after noon. We performed the midday prayer there, ate and reached our home no earlier than sunset. Once we walked its width, went and returned half a day later, and it was all a continuous row of houses, where there were no empty spaces or gardens.” A similar description is attached to the city of the 14th century. may seem like an exaggeration, but the current state of the remains of Sarai leaves no doubt that it would have taken at least a day to travel around the capital with all the suburbs along its perimeter. Written sources report that the population living here was about 75 thousand people. If we take into account that in the XIV century. a city with a population of 5–10 thousand people was considered large, then Sarai really seemed like a giant among them.

Sarai was not just the capital of the state, but the largest center of handicraft production. Entire blocks of the city were occupied by artisans who specialized in a particular industry (metallurgical, ceramic, jewelry, glass, bone carving, etc.).

The city was the largest center of international transit trade on the China-Western Europe line. Even after Timur cut this caravan route, merchants continued to come here until the mid-15th century. After the final collapse of the Golden Horde, the city was practically abandoned by the population and all its magnificent buildings, slowly collapsing, resembled a steppe mirage. So it stood until 1578, when the son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsar Fyodor, by a special decree ordered the destruction of “mizgiti (mosques. - V. E.) and polats in the Golden Horde and thus make the city "Astrakhan. In this way, the problem of scarce building material was solved, which was also convenient to float on barges down the Akhtuba. After this, only piles of bricks, lime and multi-colored tiles remained in the steppe, which the author of “Russian History” V.N. Tatishchev looked at with amazement in 1741, reporting that “from the shore the structure can be seen from the lying bricks for about three miles, in and five, except that there is no building now, because it was dismantled and demolished for the construction of Astrakhan.”

When considering the cities of the Golden Horde, one cannot ignore such an interesting phenomenon as the presence on its territory of Italian colonies that belonged to Genoa and Venice. All of them were closely connected with the sea. Only on the eastern coast of the Azov and Black Seas in the 14th century. there were 39 such settlements known from medieval maps. Apparently, these were small trading posts that conducted brisk trade with the local population. From here, various foodstuffs and raw materials were exported to Italy, and in exchange, the Italians offered various types of fabrics and handicrafts, such as sabers. The administrative center of all the small colonies of the Genoese was the city of Kafa on the southern coast of Crimea (modern Feodosia). The Mongols allowed the founding of this trading colony in 1266. In the middle of the 14th century. it was surrounded by powerful stone walls, the remains of which can still be seen today. Formally, the city enjoyed the right of complete independence and did not submit to the authority of the Golden Horde khans, which was even reinforced from time to time by special treaties. However, in fact, neither the treaties nor the walls, the construction of which was allowed by the Mongols themselves, saved the city from repeated defeats. But Kafa was rebuilt each time, since overseas trade was an extremely profitable business. Moreover, the Genoese managed to expand their possessions, capturing Soldaya (Sudak) and Chembalo (Balaklava) located on the same coast. Both cities were also surrounded by powerful fortifications, which allowed the Italians to control the entire southern coast of Crimea.

The Genoese managed to found another important colony at the mouth of the Don near the Golden Horde city of Azaka. Here they were allocated a special quarter, surrounded by a wall, called Tana. Thanks to the energy and vigorous activity of Italian merchants, Azak in the 14th century. becomes a key point where several trade routes converge. Along the Don it was possible to get here from the second capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai al-Jedid, from Rus' and the Urals. Another route led from the east from Khadzhitarkhan, located in the Volga delta. The road from the large North Caucasian city of Madzhar approached from the south. All this made Azak one of the main export centers of the Golden Horde. Spices coming from the east were exported from here: pepper, ginger, saffron, nutmeg, various oils for medical and perfumery needs. All kinds of fabrics: silk, brocade, cotton and linen. The famous Russian furs, honey, wax, and leather also came here. Among the foodstuffs, bread, fish and caviar occupied a special place. Here, such goods specific to the Golden Horde as livestock were sold - mainly horses, bulls and camels. A special and very profitable industry was the slave trade. All Italian colonies existed until 1475, when they were defeated by the Turks.

The ethnic diversity of the population of the Golden Horde, as well as the peculiar internal political conditions, sometimes led to rather unexpected incidents in the urban planning of this state. As an example, we can cite the fate of two well-known and currently developing Russian cities. These are Yelets and Tula. Both cities were located on the territory of the Golden Horde, as evidenced clearly by the chronicle data. The exact date of their origin is unknown; it is only possible with a high degree of probability to attribute this event to the first half of the 14th century. Tula was located in the northern part of the steppe wedge, which cut deeply from the south to the right bank of the Oka. Its first mention in sources dates back to 1382. Judging by documentary data, it was the residence of the Golden Horde Baskaks, who were in charge of the vast lands around it. It is possible that the name of the city goes back to the name of the wife of Khan Janibek Taidula, who owned this area. Neither the Ryazan prince, neighboring the Tula lands, nor the Moscow prince throughout the 14th century. did not claim this territory, stipulating its special position in the charters. The population of the city was undoubtedly Russian, although the administration was Mongolian and territorially it belonged to the Golden Horde.

North of Tula on the left bank of the Oka there is another Russian city - Kaluga, the foundation of which also dates back to the first half of the 14th century. Its name indicates its Golden Horde origin and is translated by the word “outpost”. It is possible that one of the northernmost stronghold garrisons of the Tula Baskas was located here. The original purely military purpose of Kaluga as a small outpost fortress is evidenced by the fact that it became a city in 1445.

The example of the Golden Horde shows that the widespread point of view about the incompatibility of sedentary urban culture with nomadic steppe culture does not reflect the true state of affairs. It was as a result of the close union of the steppe and cities, the rapid development of crafts and caravan trade that the specific economic potential was formed, which for a long time contributed to the preservation of the power of the Golden Horde. This symbiosis provided the state created by the nomads with many important conditions for its existence. Both components complemented and mutually supported each other. True, the nomadic element, during its quantitative development, did not change its qualitative content, remaining deeply conservative throughout the existence of the Golden Horde. As for the sedentary urban component, its development was a progressive phenomenon for the Golden Horde, contributing to its strengthening. A special role in the emergence of cities in the steppes was played by the central government, which accumulated funds for their development, ensured the prosperity of foreign trade, and resolved issues of monetary circulation over a vast territory. Cities, in turn, did not oppose national aspirations, but were their conductors in all parts of the country.