Drama and its genres. Mandatory list of dramatic works

14 rules that will help you be yourself Rules that will help you be yourself in the best version of yourself possible, not on someone else’s terms, but on your own. Be yourself. By trying to be someone else, you simply lose yourself. Preserve your individuality - your ideas, beliefs, beauty. No one else has it, so why lose it? Be who you know yourself to be – the best version of yourself possible, and not on someone else’s terms, but on your own. And above all, be true to yourself.Get started today...1. Set your priorities correctly. In fact, in twenty years it will not matter at all to you what shoes you wore, what your hair looked like, or what brand of jeans you bought. What will really matter is how you loved, what you learned, and how you applied that knowledge.2. Take responsibility for your goals. If you want good things to happen in your life, you must help make them happen. You can't sit still and hope for someone's help. Do not think that your destiny depends on the activities of other people. Undoubtedly, there is a connection, but only we ourselves decide our future.3. Know your worth. Some people may view others as tools to solve their problems. Behind the request for help lies a desire to relieve oneself of tasks or obligations. That is why you need to look closely at people to understand whether you mean as much to a person as they mean to you. Don't let anyone take advantage of you. Don’t be afraid to refuse - this is not pride, but self-respect. If you surround yourself with selfish people, negative people– don’t expect positive changes in life. Know the value of yourself and what you offer to people. Never settle for less than you deserve.4. Choose the right perspectives. There is perspective in everything. A good example: We often encounter long queues and long traffic jams. Waiting all this time, a person can go in two ways. The first option is to become upset, disappointed, or even angry. The second option is to take this situation as a reason to think about your life, dream, or simply concentrate on contemplating the world around you, because in the daily bustle it’s not so often possible to admire the same clouds. As a result, in the first case, a person’s blood pressure will rise from negative emotions, and in the second - the mood, at the same time the consciousness will expand.5. Don't let old problems get in the way of your dreams. Learn to give up what you can't control. Avoid outbursts of anger - rash spontaneous actions can ruin your dreams forever. Every time you feel like thinking about an unfair situation, try to redirect your thoughts in a different direction. Don't let problems overwhelm you, and you will be on a straight path to a bright future.6. Focus on what really matters. Some things don't really have the importance that we might attribute to them. For example, the contents of the car we drive. Does it play any role in your life plan? Not at all. What about the contents of your heart? Playing. And so it is in everything. The problem with most people is that, although they understand what is really important in life, they do not attach any importance to it. Instead, they concentrate on trifles and are distracted from real life.7. Love yourself. Let them love you for who you are. People often mistakenly consider themselves unattractive and feel that they are unworthy of anyone's attention. No matter what shortcomings you have, remember - you are worthy of love. Let someone give it to you. At first, this someone will be you yourself, then the circle of fans will expand 8. Accept your strengths and weak sides as is. Don't be afraid to be yourself. We often spend time analyzing other people and comparing ourselves to them, wanting to become someone we are not. Every person has both advantages and disadvantages, so there is no need to look for the ideal in someone. You yourself must become an ideal, but this will only succeed after you accept yourself as you are.9. Rise up for yourself. You were born to be real, not perfect. Each of us is here to be ourselves, not who others want us to be. Don't let others change this setting. Don't be afraid to stand up and fight back. Feel free to look your enemies in the eyes and say: “Don’t judge me until you know me. Don't underestimate me until you challenge me. Don't talk about me until you talk to me."10. Learn from others and move on when necessary. Never expect people to change. You either accept them as such or start your life without them. Don't be afraid to end a relationship. If something ends in life, then so it should be. Don't be sad about it - rather see it as a valuable experience. Any event, whether good or not, enriches you with experience and makes you wiser. It’s the same with people: someone comes into your life to bless you, and someone to teach you a lesson.11. Be honest in your relationships. Don't cheat. When you are truly in love, fidelity is not a sacrifice, but a pleasure. If you are unhappy, have the courage to say so directly - this is the only true way.12. Learn to find a way out of uncomfortable situations. Everyone knows that life is unpredictable and can change dramatically at the most unexpected moment. Communication that does not foreshadow a warm relationship can develop into strong friendship, the career that occupies the most important place in life may be lost along with the hope of rehabilitation. Some situations may make you feel uncomfortable, frustrated and devastated, but remember, this is temporary. You won't always feel out of place, but it takes effort to get rid of it. Don’t be afraid of change, get rid of what causes you discomfort and your life will be transformed.13. Be who you were born to be. It is important to understand as early as possible that life path It has not only length, but also width. No matter how many years we live, a long life will have no meaning if it turns out to be empty. In order not to regret later about wasted years, do not deny yourself your desires. Live the way you want. It's better to live short life according to your own rules, rather than long according to others. Follow your heart, but don't forget your mind.14. Never give up. This is your life and you can only live it once. So why let someone else decide for you? Be strong and stand up for your interests. Strength isn't just about holding on to your dreams and goals. Strength also lies in the ability to start over if previous attempts have failed. It is very important to find the strength within ourselves and take revenge, since everything we dream of is achievable. Realizing your dreams is only a matter of time, so don’t give up, citing failures, bad luck or “old” age. Remember: it’s never too late to become who you could be. Continue to study, work, fight every day, every minute. You may not immediately reach your goal, but you will be closer to it than you were yesterday.

Many of us book lovers have been to the theater at least once. Actually, have you noticed where theater begins? As the prominent one said theatrical figure that theater begins with a hanger. This time we allow ourselves to disagree with him. Theater begins with writing a script for a play.

In other words, theater begins with drama. This word is translated from Greek as the composition or production of dramatic works. Dramaturgy is one of the main genres of literature. Theater performances have always been popular, and they are still in demand today.

What is special about dramaturgy?

When you pick up a play, you will immediately notice a number of features that distinguish dramaturgy from fiction . Let's look at just a few of them:

1.Text theatrical production consists of two parts - dialogue between characters and explanations by the author (remarks).
2. The work is based on conflict.
3.Viewers love fast development events, so the plot usually develops dynamically.
4.Quantity acting characters unlike book epics, it is limited.
5.In addition to the main one storyline, there is a secondary one, on which the author concentrates more attention.

What genres is drama divided into?

• Drama;
• Tragedy;
• Comedy;
• Melodrama;
• Mystery;
• Vaudeville;
• Farce.

How did drama develop?

The ancient Egyptians loved theatrical performances. The Egyptian mystery about Osiris has survived to this day. Dramaturgy reached its peak in Ancient Greece . Its brightest representatives: Aeschylus, Euripides, Aristophanes, Sophocles. IN Ancient Rome productions of Seneca, Terence, and Plautus shone. IN eastern countries, such as India, Japan, China also drama has been developed.

The ancient Greeks and Romans, so the origin of the drama genre can be considered ancient times. After the decline of antiquity European culture“took a break for several centuries. Dramaturgy began to “wake up” during the Renaissance at the beginning of the 14th century. . Her the brightest representatives- Shakespeare, Lope de Vega.

The Age of Enlightenment (17th century) again pushed drama into the background. Drama flourished at the turn of the 18th century. In Russia in the 19th century, such famous writers and playwrights as Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol and others gave drama a “second wind”. In the heyday of the dominance of realism, Henrik Ibsen, Gregart Hauptmann, Victorien Sardou and other playwrights were working on scripts.

What is drama?

This is one of the main types of literature, a type of drama. Such books reflect dramatic life and the actions of people, their difficult relationships with society and difficult experiences.

Dramatic works are intended both for performance on stage and not intended for stage execution. Dramatic works do not always end tragically; a happy outcome is possible. In our electronic library You can read such works by modern playwrights online for free.

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Most of the “respectable” novels included in all sorts of “best of” lists are drama books. We are proud that among them there are many Russian classics (here you have Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy), but, to be honest, the mass reader sometimes gets a little bored in the famous jungle of the plot of the same “War and Peace”, and even with our “relatives” We know each other at least from school. Therefore, today we will look for best drama books in foreign literature.

For the sake of the child

Despite the fact that Stephen King has long and deservedly worn the crown of the “King of Horror,” he is like no other modern writers knows how to dramatically twist the plot. Wedging elements of mysticism and thriller into the everyday life of ordinary people, he writes with pain about their problems: domestic violence, alcoholism and racial strife. This is the novel “Dolores Claiborne,” which tells about the sacrifice that a mother made for the sake of her daughter’s happiness. She did not appreciate (and, to tell the truth, did not understand) the act itself loved one- after all, she deprived the girl of another dearest person, her father. Fortunately for Dolores, her guilt in the death of her husband was not proven, and she closed herself off in her little world, still working hard for the capricious rich woman. But when the woman was accused of the death of the oppressive mistress (by that time paralyzed), the daughter was forced to return to the city of her childhood. This is where the terrible truth will be revealed.

Guilty without guilt

Another drama book (albeit with a mystical flavor, but we watch endless “Battles of Psychics,” so people like Coffey live next to us) is “The Green Mile.” Two little girls are killed and the evidence points to a black day laborer. Well, who will figure it out when the thug has “Maniac!” written on his forehead. Semi-literate John could not justify himself, and there was no money for a lawyer. Therefore, he ended up on death row, past which the very “Green Mile” passes - a piece of the corridor leading to the electric chair. And here the “ordinary miracles” began.

Hope and perseverance

"Rita Hayworth, or the Shawshank Redemption" is perhaps King's most powerful drama, although in terms of volume it is only a short story. Another man unfairly accused of brutal crime, scoops up the horrors of imprisonment with a spoonful. But this man enormous strength a will that will not let him break. He won't let you in inner world no one (except for his prison friend Red) and will not reveal his main secret. The book has a very life-affirming ending, so we recommend that if your heart is heavy, re-read it. It won't take much time, but it will give you hope! Of course, this, like King’s two previous books, were filmed, and very successfully. It’s not for nothing that Stephen is considered one of the most beloved authors by filmmakers; there are countless adaptations of his works!

The drama of a good man

"The Godfather" by Mario Puzo - what do you think it is? The basis for the next Hollywood hit? A mafia saga beautiful in style and language? Yes, this is a drama, a real drama, clearly showing how good man may descend to baseness and murder. Of course, you say, Michael had to stand up for his family! But degradation is obvious. It’s interesting that after the release of the bestseller, everyone immediately began to drag the author into connections with the mafia. And he honestly admitted that he drew knowledge from books, newspapers and other sources, but not from personal experience.

Who is normal in our world?

Another bestseller on our list (and its adaptation won a bouquet of Oscars) has been among the leaders for more than half a century: Ken Kesey wrote his dramatic book “Over the Cuckoo’s Nest” in the early 1960s. Unlike Puzo, he relied on his own impressions (obtained by the writer while working in a psychiatric hospital). Even then, as an orderly, Ken realized: not all people in the hospital are mentally normal, they are just somehow different from you and me. Others are reduced to the state of a “vegetable” by various pills, electric shock (and once upon a time the now prohibited lobotomy).

Guilt and forgiveness

Even those who never got around to Bernhard Schlink’s novel “The Reader” watched the film based on this drama book (or at least heard about it). In a plot covering long period lives of heroes, many have been raised moral problems– from the “forbidden” love of a minor boy and adult woman to the Holocaust and the question of forgiveness and guilt.

Protest of the “little man”

Behind all the surrealism of Chuck Palahniuk’s novel “Fight Club” there is also its own drama, recognizable features flash “ little man"(derived by Gogol in the immortal "Overcoat"). The author himself claims that the film adaptation of the book, thought out with great care by Fincher, is even better than its original text. Well, thanks for this not only to the director, but also to the magnificent Pitt, Norton and, of course, Helena Bonham Carter, who played the sociopath Marla with great brilliance.

A dream comes true... And it doesn’t come true!

We couldn't do our list of the best drama books without classics (albeit foreign ones). Written by Francis Scott Fitzgerald during the Jazz Age, The Great Gatsby remains one of the most poignant novels about love, about unfulfilled (and fulfilled) dreams, about that turbulent time when a pauper could become a prince (and vice versa). It is not for nothing that this novel is one of the leaders in the number of film adaptations: the directors were very interested in understanding the characters’ personalities. Once upon a time, Robert Redford appeared in the image of Gatsby, so he was replaced by the British Toby Stevens. "Modern" Gatsby - Leonardo DiCaprio. Who did better is up to you to decide.

When home is not a fortress, but a prison

It’s even somehow insulting for the British classic Archibald Joseph Cronin - his most famous work received a second life in cinema only once - in the distant forties. Castle Brodie was the Scot's debut and is considered his most powerful novel. The writer’s father was a hatmaker, and in “Brody’s Castle” the main character is engaged in making hats. John is a rare egoist and tyrant; he doesn’t hesitate to ruin the lives of his loved ones. Will any of the relatives be able to leave “their home – their fortress”?

Having reached all the peaks...

For some reason, the novel “Martin Eden” is very popular theater directors. Who hasn't played title character! They say that this young man showed the features of the author himself. Jack London became famous for his works about courageous people, conquerors of the Wild North. "Martin Eden" is a story about strong man, who built his life “according to the rules” and tried to break through from the bottom. When he seemed to have everything, the bourgeois swamp became disgusting to him, and he accepted unexpected decision…

On the one hand, when working on a drama, the means that are in the writer’s arsenal are used, but, on the other hand, the work should not be literary. The author describes the events so that the person who reads the test can see everything that happens in his imagination. For example, instead of “they sat at the bar for a very long time,” you can write “they drank six beers,” etc.

In drama, what is happening is shown not through internal reflections, but through external action. Moreover, all events take place in the present tense.

Also, certain restrictions are imposed on the volume of the work, because it must be presented on stage within the allotted time (maximum 3-4 hours).

The demands of drama, as a stage art, leave their mark on the behavior, gestures, and words of the characters, which are often exaggerated. What cannot happen in life in a few hours, in a drama it very well can. At the same time, the audience will not be surprised by the convention, the implausibility, because this genre initially allows them to a certain extent.

In times when books were expensive and inaccessible to many, drama (as a public performance) was the leading form of artistic reproduction of life. However, with the development of printing technologies, it lost its primacy epic genres. Nevertheless, even today dramatic works remain in demand among society. The main audience for the drama is, of course, theatergoers and moviegoers. Moreover, the number of the latter exceeds the number of readers.

Depending on the method of production, dramatic works can be in the form of plays and scripts. All dramatic works intended to be performed with theater stage, are called plays (French pi èce). Dramatic works based on which films are made are scripts. Both plays and scripts contain author's notes to indicate the time and place of action, indications of the age, appearance of the characters, etc.

The structure of a play or script follows the structure of a story. Usually parts of a play are designated as an act (action), a phenomenon, an episode, a picture.

Main genres of dramatic works:

– drama,

– tragedy,

– comedy,

– tragicomedy,

- farce,

– vaudeville,

– sketch.

Drama

Drama is literary work, depicting a serious conflict between characters or between characters and society. The relationship between the heroes (heroes and society) in works of this genre is always full of drama. As the plot develops, there is an intense struggle both within individual characters and between them.

Although the conflict in drama is very serious, it can nevertheless be resolved. This circumstance explains the intrigue and tense anticipation of the audience: will the hero (heroes) succeed in getting out of the situation or not.

Drama is characterized by a description of real everyday life, the formulation of “perishable” questions of human existence, a deep disclosure of characters, the inner world of characters.

There are such types of drama as historical, social, philosophical. A type of drama is melodrama. In it, the characters are clearly divided into positive and negative.

Widely known dramas: “Othello” by W. Shakespeare, “The Lower Depths” by M. Gorky, “Cat on a Hot Tin Roof” by T. Williams.

Tragedy

Tragedy (from the Greek tragos ode - “goat song”) is a literary dramatic work based on an irreconcilable conflict in life. Tragedy is characterized by an intense struggle between strong characters and passions, which ends in a catastrophic outcome for the characters (usually death).

The conflict of a tragedy is usually very deep, has universal significance and can be symbolic. Main character As a rule, he suffers deeply (including from hopelessness), his fate is unhappy.

The text of the tragedy often sounds pathetic. Many tragedies are written in verse.

Widely known tragedies: “Prometheus Bound” by Aeschylus, “Romeo and Juliet” by W. Shakespeare, “The Thunderstorm” by A. Ostrovsky.

Comedy

Comedy (from the Greek komos ode - “cheerful song”) is a literary dramatic work in which characters, situations and actions are presented comically, using humor and satire. At the same time, the characters can be quite sad or sad.

Usually a comedy presents everything that is ugly and absurd, funny and absurd, and ridicules social or everyday vices.

Comedy is divided into comedy of masks, positions, characters. This genre also includes farce, vaudeville, sideshow, and sketch.

A sitcom (comedy of situations, situational comedy) is a dramatic comedy work in which the source of humor is events and circumstances.

A comedy of characters (comedy of manners) is a dramatic comedy work in which the source of humor is inner essence characters (morals), funny and ugly one-sidedness, exaggerated trait or passion (vice, flaw).
A farce is a light comedy using simple comic devices and designed for coarse taste. Usually farce is used in circus shows.

Vaudeville is a light comedy with entertaining intrigue, which contains a large number of dance numbers and songs. In the USA, vaudeville is called a musical. IN modern Russia it is also common to say "musical", meaning vaudeville.

An interlude is a small comic skit that is performed between the actions of the main play or performance.

A sketch (eng. sketch - “sketch, draft, sketch”) is a short comedy work with two or three characters. Usually they resort to presenting sketches on stage and television.

Wide famous comedies: “Frogs” by Aristophanes, “The Inspector General” by N. Gogol, “Woe from Wit” by A. Griboedov.

Famous television sketch shows: “Our Russia”, “Town”, “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”.

Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy is a literary dramatic work in which a tragic plot is depicted in comic form or is a disorderly jumble of tragic and comic elements. In tragicomedy, serious episodes are combined with funny ones, sublime characters are shaded by comic characters. The main technique of tragicomedy is the grotesque.

We can say that “tragicomedy is the funny in the tragic” or, conversely, “the tragic in the funny.”

Widely known tragicomedies: “Alcestis” by Euripides, “The Tempest” by W. Shakespeare, “ The Cherry Orchard"A. Chekhov, films "Forrest Gump", "The Great Dictator", "That Same Munchasen".

More detailed information on this topic can be found in the books of A. Nazaikin

One of the founders of Russian literary criticism was V.G. Belinsky. And although serious steps were taken in developing the concept back in antiquity literary kind(Aristotle), it was Belinsky who owned the scientifically based theory of three literary families, which you can get acquainted with in detail by reading Belinsky’s article “The Division of Poetry into Genus and Species.”

There are three types of fiction: epic(from Greek Epos, narrative), lyrical(it was called a lyre musical instrument, accompanied by chanting poems) and dramatic(from Greek Drama, action).

When presenting this or that subject to the reader (meaning the subject of conversation), the author chooses different approaches to it:

First approach: in detail tell about the object, about the events associated with it, about the circumstances of the existence of this object, etc.; in this case, the author’s position will be more or less detached, the author will act as a kind of chronicler, narrator, or choose one of the characters as the narrator; the main thing in such a work will be the story, narration about the subject, the leading type of speech will be narrative; this kind of literature is called epic;

The second approach: you can tell not so much about the events, but about the impressed, which they produced on the author, about those feelings which they called; image inner world, experiences, impressions and will relate to lyrical kind literature; exactly experience becomes the main event of the lyrics;

Third approach: you can portray item in action, show him on stage; introduce to the reader and viewer of it surrounded by other phenomena; this kind of literature is dramatic; In a drama, the author's voice will be heard least often - in stage directions, that is, the author's explanations of the actions and remarks of the characters.

Look at the following table and try to remember its contents:

Types of fiction

Each type of literature in turn includes a number of genres.

GENRE is a historically established group of works united common features content and form. Such groups include novels, stories, poems, elegies, short stories, feuilletons, comedies, etc. In literary criticism, the concept of literary type is often introduced, this is more broad concept than genre. In this case, the novel will be considered a type of fiction, and genres will be various types of novels, for example, adventure, detective, psychological, parable novel, dystopian novel, etc.

Examples genus-species relations in literature:

• Genus: dramatic; view: comedy; genre: sitcom.
• Genus: epic; view: story; genre: fantastic story etc.

Genres being categories historical, appear, develop and eventually “leave” from the “active stock” of artists depending on historical era: ancient lyricists did not know the sonnet; in our time, an archaic genre has become one that was born in ancient times and popular in XVII-XVIII centuries Oh yeah; romanticism XIX century brought to life detective literature, etc.

Consider the following table, which presents the types and genres related to the various types of word art:

Genera, types and genres of artistic literature

Modern literary criticism also highlights fourth, a related genre of literature that combines the features of the epic and lyrical genres: lyric-epic, which refers to poem. And indeed, by telling the reader a story, the poem manifests itself as an epic; Revealing to the reader the depth of feelings, the inner world of the person telling this story, the poem manifests itself as lyricism.

DRAMA - special kind literary creativity. Drama, in addition to its verbal, textual form, also has a second “life” that follows the text - production on stage in the form of a performance, a spectacle. In addition to the author, directors, actors, costume designers, artists, composers, decorators, make-up artists, lighting technicians, stagehands, etc. are involved in organizing the spectacle. Their common task seems to fall into two stages:

2) give a director's interpretation, new interpretation the author's intention in the stage production of the work.

Since a dramatic work is designed for obligatory (even if in most cases “posthumously in absentia”) collaboration of the author with the theater, the text dramatic work in a special way organized.

Let's read fragments of the first pages of the text of A. Ostrovsky's drama "The Thunderstorm":

Have you noticed that, unlike the author of the epic ( narrative work), the author does not tell the story of the heroes at length, but indicates them in a “list”, providing brief necessary information about each, depending on his own plan: what is whose name, how old is someone, who is who in the place and in the society where it happens action, who is related to whom, etc. This "list" characters called posters.

Further Ostrovsky pointed out, Where action takes place how much time passes between certain moments of action, how they are dressed characters; in the notes for the first act it says, who is there on the stage, what are you doing characters, what is he doing Each of them. In the following fragments of text, the author briefly states in parentheses, to whom heroes apply with speech, what are they gestures and postures, from which intonation they say. These explanations are made primarily for the artists and the director and are called remarks.

What is happening is broken down into compositional parts - actions(or acts), which in turn are also split into phenomena(or scenes, or paintings). This is explained by the fact that the stage action is strictly limited in time: the performance usually lasts 2-3 hours, and during this time the author and actors need to express everything for which the work was written and staged.

All phenomena, as you see, are also divided into small (or sometimes large!) fragments, which are words - monologues and dialogues - of characters. At the same time, the author always indicates which of the heroes they belong to, calling the hero by name, as if giving him a “microphone”. These words of drama characters are called replicas. As you have already noticed, the words of the characters are often accompanied by stage directions.

So,
Organization of the text of a dramatic work and necessary terms:

POSTER- this is a list of characters with author’s explanations;

REPLICA- these are the words of the characters in a dramatic work; replicas are organized stage dialogues of the characters;

PHENOMENON(or a picture, or a scene) is a plot-complete fragment of the text of a dramatic work; each phenomenon (or scene, or picture) represents a separate, complete moment stage action, in other words - an episode.

Since drama is a stage action, a theatrical spectacle, it is not so much designed for communication between one reader and the author’s text (like novels, short stories, poems, verses, where the reader and the work “communicate” one-on-one, alone with each other ), how much for the mass contact of the work with the audience. Hundreds and thousands of people come to theaters. And it is very, very difficult to keep their attention. Therefore, the foundation of any performance - an author's literary work - must be based on the audience's interest and "hold it tenaciously." Drama helps the playwright with this. intrigue.

INTRIGUE(from Latin Intricare, “to confuse”) - 1) intrigues, hidden actions, usually unseemly, to achieve something; 2) the relationship between characters and circumstances, ensuring the development of action in work of art. (Dictionary foreign words, 1988.)

In other words, intrigue is a kind of secret, a riddle, often organized by one of the characters for their own purposes, the solution of which is the basis of dramatic action. Not a single play is complete without intrigue, since otherwise it will not be interesting to readers and viewers.

Now let's turn to content of dramatic works. It comes first associated with the type and genre of drama. There are three types of dramatic works: tragedy, comedy and drama (don’t get confused, the name of the type coincides with the name of the type of literature, but these are different terms).

An important aspect of a dramatic work is composition. There are several types of drama composition as a type of literature. Let's look at some of them:

Subject composition- This the totality of all character relationships, a system of their speeches, gestures and actions, connected by a single author’s goal, that is, the main theme of a dramatic work. This set is aimed at revealing the characters’ characters, the reasons for their dependence on everyday and psychological characteristics.

Dynamic composition - this is organized by the author connecting all the sharp points of dramatic action(exposition --> rising action --> conflict --> resolution --> rising --> climax --> falling, etc.). Dynamic composition is characteristic both of the entire work and of its individual components: actions, acts, phenomena, scenes, paintings, etc.

• Each hero leads his own theme and has his own emotional mood(various topics);
• Topics change periodically: from line to line, from episode to episode, from action to action (change of topic);
• The theme is developed in dialogue by one character and picked up by another (theme pick-up);
• The theme of one character in the dialogue is interrupted by another, but does not leave the dialogue (topic interruption);
• Characters go off topic and then return to it;
• The characters return to a topic left in one dialogue in another;
• The topic can be interrupted without completion (topic failure).

Since a dramatic work is designed to be staged in a theater where hundreds of spectators come, the range of life phenomena considered by the author ( subject matter of the work) must be relevant to the viewer - otherwise the viewer will leave the theater. Therefore, the playwright chooses for the play topics determined either by the era or by eternal human needs, primarily spiritual, Certainly. The same can be said about issues, that is, about those issues that concern the author and which he brings to the reader’s and audience’s judgment.

A.N. Ostrovsky addressed topics from the life of the Russian merchant class, small and large officials, townspeople, creative, primarily theatrical audiences - that is, those layers of Russian society that were well known to him and studied from both positive and negative perspectives. negative aspects. And the problems raised by the playwright also concerned public spheres:

• How can a smart young man make his way in life? talented person, but who, due to poverty and origin, does not have the strong support of a rich and influential relative or acquaintance? ("Simplicity is enough for every wise man")
• Where has the conscience of the Russian merchants gone? How did it happen that, in pursuit of profit, both daughter and son-in-law are ready to rob their father-in-law and leave him in debtor’s prison, just so as not to pay his debts? ("Our people - we will be numbered!")
• Why does a mother sell her daughter's beauty? ("Dowry")
• What should a beautiful, but poor and unprotected girl do so that her love and honor are not destroyed? ("Dowry")
• How can a person who feels, loves and strives for freedom live among the “dark kingdom” of ignoramuses and tyrants? (“Thunderstorm”), etc.

A. Chekhov dedicated his plays to people in other circles: the Russian intelligentsia, the last “splinters” noble families and people of art. But Chekhov’s intellectuals get too deeply entangled in “eternal” questions, depriving them of the ability to make decisions; his landowners, idolizing the cherry orchard as a national treasure, do nothing to save it and are preparing to leave just when the orchard begins to be cut down; and Chekhov’s actors, artists and writers on stage are completely different from the “stars”, “idols” whom the public applauds: they are petty, stingy, quarrel over the ruble, quarrel with loved ones, cowardly endure an already faded and now not at all love, but a boring and burdensome connection... And the problems of Chekhov’s plays are also largely due to time:

• Is it possible to save a dying life and how to do it? ("Uncle Vanya", "The Cherry Orchard")
• Will it be so reverently expected? Chekhov's heroes“tomorrow”, “later”, “someday”? ("Three sisters")
• Why time is running, but a person does not change? ("The Seagull", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya")
• Will there ever be a happy ending that path, those wanderings that befall a born person? ("The Cherry Orchard")
• What is happiness, glory, greatness anyway? ("Gull")
• Why does a person have to suffer in order to free himself from delusions and discover his own talent? ("Gull")
• Why does art require such terrible sacrifices from a person? ("Gull")
• Is a person able to get out of the routine rut into which he has driven himself? ("Three Sisters", "The Cherry Orchard", "The Seagull")
• How to preserve the beautiful “cherry orchard” - our Russia - the way we love and remember it? (“The Cherry Orchard”), etc.

Chekhov's plays introduced a new specificity of stage action into Russian drama: no special events, “adventures,” happen on stage. Even out-of-the-ordinary events (for example, Treplev’s suicide attempt and suicide in “The Seagull”) occur only “behind the scenes.” On stage, the characters only talk: they quarrel over trifles, sort out relationships that are already clear to everyone, talk about meaningless things, get bored and discuss what happened “behind the scenes.” But their dialogues are filled with powerful energy internal action: behind insignificant remarks hides a heavy human loneliness, an awareness of one’s own restlessness, of something undone, but very important, without which life will never get better. This property of Chekhov's plays made it possible to consider them plays of internal dynamics and became a new step in the development of Russian drama.

Many people often have a question: why when posing such problems and such development of the plots of the play "The Cherry Orchard" and "The Seagull" are comedies? Don’t forget, they were defined this way not by critics, but by the author himself. Return to the table. What is the creative task of comedy?

That's right, make fun of vice. Chekhov makes fun, or better yet, laughs - subtly, ironically, beautifully and sadly - not so much at the vices, but at the incongruities, “irregularities” of the life of the person of his time, be it a landowner, a writer, a doctor or someone else: a great actress - greedy; famous writer- henpecked; “to Moscow, to Moscow” - and we’ll spend our whole lives in the provincial wilderness; a landowner from a noble and wealthy family - and is going to go to the bank as an ordinary employee, knowing nothing about banking; there is no money - and we give the gold to a beggar rogue; we are going to transform the world - and we are falling down the stairs... This is exactly what inconsistency, overflowing Chekhov's plays(in fact, fundamental basis comic), and makes them comedies in the highest, ancient sense of the word: these are real “comedies of life.”

The turning point era (the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries) demanded that playwrights pay attention to new themes and, first of all, attention to the very phenomenon of “man.” M. Gorky in the play "At the Bottom" he draws a terrible model of the "bottom" human society, creating on stage a kind of overnight shelter-cave, as if containing in it the whole world of contemporary human relations. But the “bottom” for Gorky is not only poverty and restlessness. The soul also has a “bottom,” and the revelation of the deep dark secrets of this soul was embodied in the images of the Baron, Kleshch, Actor, Kostylevs, Ashes... The appearance of Luka revealed to the night shelters not only the illusory possibilities of another, “better” life, it highlighted in them the impossibility of resisting that darkness, the negativity that has accumulated in their souls throughout their real, actual life. No one will make your life different except yourself - this is the result of the author’s observations of the characters in the drama. And therefore Gorky’s drama “At the Depths” is defined by its genre as social and philosophical. The key problems for Gorky were:

• What is the real truth of life?
• How capable is a person himself of taking his destiny into his hands? What have you done to make your life different, the way you would like it to be?
• Who is to blame for the attempt to “jump off the tram” and start new life failed?
• How should a person be seen today, contemporary to the author, of the moment?
• Regret or stigmatize? - what really helps a person?
• How responsible is society and the environment for human life? And etc.

When analyzing a dramatic work, you will need the skills that you acquired while completing tasks to analyze an episode of the work.

Be careful and strictly adhere to the analysis plan.

Topics 15 and 16 are closely related to each other, so successful completion of the work is possible only with detailed study theoretical materials on these topics.

• A.S. Griboyedov. Comedy "Woe from Wit"
• N. Gogol. Comedy "The Inspector General"
• A.N. Ostrovsky. Comedy "Our people - we will be numbered!"; dramas "The Thunderstorm", "Dowry"
• A.P. Chekhov. Play "The Cherry Orchard"
• M. Gorky. The play "At the Bottom"