The peoples of the Netherlands features traditional culture. Cultural diplomacy

All substances on the planet are in the process of circulation. Solar energy causes two cycles of matter on Earth: large (geological, biospheric) And small (biological).

The large circulation of substances in the biosphere is characterized by two important points: it is carried out throughout geological development Earth and is a modern planetary process that takes a leading part in further development biosphere.

The geological cycle is associated with the formation and destruction of rocks and the subsequent movement of destruction products - detrital material and chemical elements. A significant role in these processes was played and continues to be played by the thermal properties of the surface of land and water: absorption and reflection sun rays, thermal conductivity and heat capacity. The unstable hydrothermal regime of the Earth's surface, together with the planetary atmospheric circulation system, determined the geological circulation of substances, which at the initial stage of the Earth's development, along with endogenous processes, was associated with the formation of continents, oceans and modern geospheres. With the formation of the biosphere, the products of vital activity of organisms were included in the great cycle. The geological cycle supplies living organisms with nutrients and largely determines the conditions for their existence.

Magma, having entered the surface of the lithosphere from the depths of the Earth, undergoes decomposition and weathering in the biosphere. Weathering products pass into a mobile state, are carried by waters, wind to low relief places, fall into rivers, the ocean and form thick strata of sedimentary rocks, which over time, plunging to a depth in areas with elevated temperature and pressure, undergo metamorphosis, i.e. "remelted". During this remelting, a new metamorphic rock appears, entering the upper horizons of the earth's crust and re-entering the circulation of substances. (Fig. 32).

Rice. 32. Geological (large) circulation of substances

Easily mobile substances - gases and natural waters that make up the atmosphere and hydrosphere of the planet - undergo the most intensive and rapid circulation. The material of the lithosphere cycles much more slowly. In general, each circulation of any chemical element is part of the general large circulation of substances on Earth, and all of them are closely interconnected. The living matter of the biosphere in this cycle does a great job of redistributing the chemical elements that are constantly circulating in the biosphere, moving from external environment into organisms and back into the environment.

Small, or biological, circulation of substances- This

circulation of substances between plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms and soil. The essence of the biological cycle is the flow of two opposite, but interrelated processes - the creation of organic substances and their destruction. First stage The emergence of organic substances is due to the photosynthesis of green plants, i.e., the formation of living matter from carbon dioxide, water, and simple mineral compounds using solar energy. Plants (producers) extract molecules of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, silicon, aluminum, zinc, copper and other elements from the soil in a solution. Herbivorous animals (consumers of the first order) absorb compounds of these elements already in the form of food of plant origin. Predators (consumers of the second order) feed on herbivorous animals, consuming more than complex composition, including proteins, fats, amino acids and other substances. In the process of destruction by microorganisms (decomposers) of organic matter of dead plants and animal remains, simple mineral compounds enter the soil and aquatic environment, available for assimilation by plants, and the next round of the biological cycle begins. (Fig. 33).

The Earth's biosphere is characterized in a certain way the existing circulation of matter and the flow of energy. The cycle of substances is the repeated participation of substances in the processes that occur in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, including those layers that are part of the Earth's biosphere. The circulation of matter is carried out with the continuous supply of external energy from the Sun and internal energy Earth.

Depending on the driving force, within the circulation of substances, one can distinguish geological (large circulation), biological (biogeochemical, small circulation) and anthropogenic cycles.

Geological cycle (great circulation of substances in the biosphere)

This circulation redistributes matter between the biosphere and deeper horizons of the Earth. driving force this process are exogenous and endogenous geological processes. Endogenous processes occur under the influence of the internal energy of the Earth. This is the energy released from radioactive decay. chemical reactions formation of minerals, etc. Endogenous processes include, for example, tectonic movements, earthquakes. These processes lead to the formation of large landforms (continents, oceanic depressions, mountains and plains). Exogenous processes proceed under the influence of the external energy of the Sun. These include the geological activity of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, living organisms and humans. These processes lead to the smoothing of large landforms (river valleys, hills, ravines, etc.).

The geological cycle continues for millions of years and consists in the fact that rocks are destroyed, and weathering products (including water-soluble nutrients) are carried by water flows to the World Ocean, where they form marine strata and only partially return to land with precipitation. Geotectonic changes, the processes of subsidence of the continents and the rise of the seabed, the movement of the seas and oceans for a long time lead to the fact that these strata return to land and the process begins again. The symbol of this circulation of substances is a spiral, not a circle, because. the new cycle of circulation does not exactly repeat the old one, but introduces something new.

The great cycle includes the circulation of water (hydrological cycle) between land and ocean through the atmosphere (Fig. 3.2).

The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored for 2 million years.

Rice. 3. 2. Water cycle in the biosphere.

IN hydrological cycle all parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected. More than 500 thousand km3 of water participate in it every year. The driving force behind this process is solar energy. Under the action of solar energy, water molecules are heated and rise in the form of gas into the atmosphere (evaporates daily - 875 km3 fresh water). As they rise, they gradually cool, condense and form clouds. After sufficient cooling, the clouds release water in the form of various precipitations that fall back into the ocean. Water that has fallen on the ground can follow two different paths: either soak into the soil (infiltration) or run off (surface runoff). On the surface, water flows into streams and rivers that lead to the ocean or other places where evaporation occurs. Water absorbed into the soil can be retained in its upper layers (horizons) and returned to the atmosphere by transpiration. Such water is called capillary. Water that is carried away by gravity and seeps down the pores and cracks is called gravitational water. Gravity water seeps down to an impenetrable layer of rock or dense clay, filling all voids. Such reserves are called groundwater, and their upper limit is the groundwater level. Underground rock layers through which groundwater flows slowly are called aquifers. Under the influence of gravity, groundwater moves along the aquifer until it finds a “way out” (for example, forming natural springs that feed lakes, rivers, ponds, i.e. become part of surface water). Thus, the water cycle includes three main "loops": surface runoff, evaporation-transpiration, groundwater. More than 500 thousand km3 of water is involved in the water cycle on Earth every year, and it plays a major role in shaping natural conditions.

Biological (biogeochemical) circulation

(small circulation of substances in the biosphere)

The driving force of the biological cycle of substances is the activity of living organisms. It is part of a larger one and takes place within the biosphere at the ecosystem level. A small cycle consists in the fact that nutrients, water and carbon accumulate in the matter of plants (autotrophs), are spent on building bodies and life processes, both plants and other organisms (usually animals - heterotrophs) that eat these plants. Decay products organic matter under the action of destructors and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, worms) decompose again to mineral components. These inorganic substances can be reused for the synthesis of organic substances by autotrophs.

In biogeochemical cycles, a reserve fund (substances that are not associated with living organisms) and an exchange fund (substances that are connected by direct exchange between organisms and their immediate environment) are distinguished.

Depending on the location of the reserve fund, biogeochemical cycles are divided into two types:

Cycles of the gas type with a reserve fund of substances in the atmosphere and hydrosphere (cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen).

Cycles of sedimentary type with a reserve fund in the earth's crust (circulations of phosphorus, calcium, iron, etc.).

Cycles of the gas type, having a large exchange fund, are more perfect. And besides, they are capable of rapid self-regulation. Sedimentary-type cycles are less perfect, they are more inert, since the bulk of the matter is contained in the reserve fund of the earth's crust in a form inaccessible to living organisms. Such cycles are easily disturbed by various kinds of influences, and part of the exchanged material leaves the cycle. It can return again to the circulation only as a result of geological processes or by extraction by living matter.

The intensity of the biological cycle is determined by the ambient temperature and the amount of water. For example, the biological cycle is more intense in tropical rainforests than in the tundra.

Cycles of the main biogenic substances and elements

The carbon cycle

All earthly life based on carbon. Each molecule of a living organism is built on the basis of a carbon skeleton. Carbon atoms are constantly migrating from one part of the biosphere to another (Fig. 3. 3.).

Rice. 3. 3. Carbon cycle.

The main carbon reserves on Earth are in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) contained in the atmosphere and dissolved in the oceans. Plants absorb carbon dioxide molecules during photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon atom is converted into a variety of organic compounds and thus included in the structure of plants. Following are several options:

carbon remains in plants ® plant molecules are eaten by decomposers (organisms that feed on dead organic matter and at the same time break it down to simple not organic compounds) ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere as CO2;

· plants are eaten by herbivores ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere during the respiration of animals and as they decompose after death; or herbivores will be eaten by carnivores and then the carbon will again return to the atmosphere in the same ways;

· after death, plants turn into fossil fuels (for example, into coal) ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere after the use of fuel, volcanic eruptions and other geothermal processes.

In the case of dissolution of the original CO2 molecule in sea water, several options are also possible: carbon dioxide can simply return to the atmosphere (this type of mutual gas exchange between the World Ocean and the atmosphere occurs constantly); carbon can enter the tissues of marine plants or animals, then it will gradually accumulate in the form of sediments on the bottom of the oceans and eventually turn into limestone or again pass from the sediments into sea water.

The CO2 cycle rate is about 300 years.

Human intervention in the carbon cycle (burning of coal, oil, gas, dehumification) leads to an increase in the content of CO2 in the atmosphere and the development greenhouse effect. At present, the study of the carbon cycle has become important task for scientists involved in the study of the atmosphere.

Oxygen cycle

Oxygen is the most common element on Earth (sea water contains 85.82% oxygen, atmospheric air 23.15%, and 47.2% in the earth's crust). Oxygen compounds are indispensable for sustaining life (play essential role in the processes of metabolism and respiration, is part of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, of which organisms are “built”). Main mass oxygen is in a bound state (the amount of molecular oxygen in the atmosphere is only 0.01% of general content oxygen in the earth's crust).

Since oxygen is found in many chemical compounds, its circulation in the biosphere is very complex and mainly occurs between the atmosphere and living organisms. The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained through photosynthesis, as a result of which green plants under the action of sunlight convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The bulk of oxygen is produced by land plants - almost ¾, the rest - by photosynthetic organisms of the oceans. A powerful source of oxygen is the photochemical decomposition of water vapor in the upper atmosphere under the influence of the ultraviolet rays of the sun. In addition, oxygen makes the most important cycle, being part of the water. A small amount of oxygen is formed from ozone under the influence of ultraviolet radiation.

The oxygen cycle rate is about 2 thousand years.

Deforestation, soil erosion, various mine workings on the surface reduce the total mass of photosynthesis and reduce the oxygen cycle over large areas. In addition, 25% of the oxygen generated as a result of assimilation is consumed annually for industrial and domestic needs.

nitrogen cycle

The biogeochemical nitrogen cycle, like the previous cycles, covers all areas of the biosphere (Fig. 3.4).

Rice. 3. 4. Nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen is part of the earth's atmosphere in an unbound form in the form of diatomic molecules (approximately 78% of the total volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen). In addition, nitrogen is found in plants and animals in the form of proteins. Plants synthesize proteins by absorbing nitrates from the soil. Nitrates are formed there from atmospheric nitrogen and ammonium compounds present in the soil. The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and animals is called nitrogen fixation. During the decay of organic matter, a significant part of the nitrogen contained in them is converted into ammonia, which, under the influence of nitrifying bacteria living in the soil, is then oxidized into nitric acid. This acid, reacting with carbonates in the soil (for example, calcium carbonate CaCO3), forms nitrates. Some of the nitrogen is always released during decay in free form into the atmosphere. In addition, free nitrogen is released during the combustion of organic substances, during the combustion of firewood, hard coal, peat. In addition, there are bacteria that, with insufficient air access, can take oxygen from nitrates, destroying them with the release of free nitrogen. The activity of denitrifying bacteria leads to the fact that part of the nitrogen from the form available to green plants (nitrates) becomes inaccessible (free nitrogen). Thus, far from all the nitrogen that was part of the dead plants returns back to the soil (part of it is gradually released in a free form).

The processes that compensate for the loss of nitrogen include, first of all, electrical discharges occurring in the atmosphere, in which a certain amount of nitrogen oxides is always formed (the latter with water give nitric acid, which turns into nitrates in the soil). Another source of replenishment of nitrogen compounds in the soil is the vital activity of the so-called azotobacteria, which are able to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. Some of these bacteria settle on the roots of plants from the legume family, causing the formation of characteristic swellings - nodules. Nodule bacteria, assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, process it into nitrogen compounds, and plants, in turn, turn the latter into proteins and other compounds. complex substances. Thus, in nature, a continuous cycle of nitrogen takes place.

Due to the fact that every year with the harvest the most protein-rich parts of plants (for example, grain) are removed from the fields, the soil “requires” to apply fertilizers that compensate for the loss in it. essential elements plant nutrition. The main uses are calcium nitrate (Ca(NO)2), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), sodium nitrate (NANO3), and potassium nitrate (KNO3). Also, instead of chemical fertilizers, the plants themselves from the legume family are used. If the amount of artificial nitrogen fertilizers applied to the soil is excessively large, then nitrates also enter the human body, where they can turn into nitrites, which are highly toxic and can cause cancer.

Phosphorus cycle

The bulk of phosphorus is contained in rocks formed in past geological epochs. The content of phosphorus in the earth's crust is from 8 - 10 to 20% (by weight) and it is found here in the form of minerals (fluorapatite, chlorapatite, etc.), which are part of natural phosphates - apatites and phosphorites. Phosphorus can enter the biogeochemical cycle as a result of rock weathering. Erosion processes carry phosphorus into the sea in the form of the mineral apatite. Living organisms play an important role in the transformation of phosphorus. Organisms extract phosphorus from soils and water solutions. Further, phosphorus is transferred through the food chains. With the death of organisms, phosphorus returns to the soil and to the silts of the seas, and is concentrated in the form of marine phosphate deposits, which in turn creates conditions for the creation of phosphorus-rich rocks (Fig. 3. 5.).

Rice. 3.5. The cycle of phosphorus in the biosphere (according to P. Duvigno, M. Tang, 1973; with changes).

With improper use of phosphorus fertilizers, as a result of water and wind erosion (destruction under the action of water or wind), a large amount of phosphorus is removed from the soil. On the one hand, this leads to excessive consumption of phosphorus fertilizers and depletion of phosphorus-containing ores.

On the other hand, an increased content of phosphorus in waterways its transfer causes a rapid increase in biomass aquatic plants, "blooming of reservoirs" and their eutrophication (enrichment with nutrients).

Since plants carry away a significant amount of phosphorus from the soil, and the natural replenishment of soil phosphorus compounds is extremely insignificant, the application of phosphorus fertilizers to the soil is one of the most important measures to increase productivity. Approximately 125 million tons of phosphate ore are mined annually in the world. Most of it is spent on the production of phosphate fertilizers.

Sulfur cycle

The main reserve fund of sulfur is found in sediments, soil and atmosphere. the main role in the involvement of sulfur in the biogeochemical cycle belongs to microorganisms. Some of them are reducing agents, others are oxidizing agents (Fig. 3. 6.).

Rice. 3. 6. Sulfur cycle (according to Yu. Odum, 1975).

In nature in in large numbers various sulfides of iron, lead, zinc, etc. are known. Sulfide sulfur is oxidized in the biosphere to sulfate sulfur. Sulfates are taken up by plants. In living organisms, sulfur is part of amino acids and proteins, and in plants, in addition, it is part of essential oils, etc. The processes of destruction of the remains of organisms in soils and in the silts of the seas are accompanied by complex transformations of sulfur (microorganisms create numerous intermediate sulfur compounds). After the death of living organisms, part of the sulfur is reduced in the soil by microorganisms to H2S, the other part is oxidized to sulfates and is again included in the cycle. Hydrogen sulfide formed in the atmosphere is oxidized and returned to the soil with precipitation. In addition, hydrogen sulfide can re-form "secondary" sulfides, and sulfate sulfur creates gypsum. In turn, sulfides and gypsum are again destroyed, and sulfur resumes its migration.

In addition, sulfur in the form of SO2, SO3, H2S and elemental sulfur is emitted by volcanoes into the atmosphere.

The sulfur cycle can be disrupted by human intervention. The reason for this is the burning of coal and emissions from the chemical industry, resulting in the formation of sulfur dioxide, which disrupts the processes of photosynthesis and leads to the death of vegetation.

Thus, biogeochemical cycles provide homeostasis of the biosphere. However, they are largely subject to human influence. And one of the most powerful anti-environmental actions of a person is associated with the violation and even destruction of natural cycles (they become acyclic).

Anthropogenic cycle

The driving force of the anthropogenic cycle is human activity. This cycle includes two components: biological, associated with the functioning of a person as a living organism, and technical, associated with economic activity of people. The anthropogenic cycle, unlike the geological and biological cycles, is not closed. This lack of closure leads to exhaustion. natural resources and environmental pollution.

All substances on the planet are in the process of circulation. Solar energy causes two cycles of matter on Earth: large (geological, biospheric) And small (biological).

The large circulation of substances in the biosphere is characterized by two important points: it is carried out throughout the entire geological development of the Earth and is a modern planetary process that takes a leading part in the further development of the biosphere.

The geological cycle is associated with the formation and destruction of rocks and the subsequent movement of destruction products - detrital material and chemical elements. A significant role in these processes was played and continues to be played by the thermal properties of the surface of land and water: the absorption and reflection of sunlight, thermal conductivity and heat capacity. The unstable hydrothermal regime of the Earth's surface, together with the planetary atmospheric circulation system, determined the geological circulation of substances, which at the initial stage of the Earth's development, along with endogenous processes, was associated with the formation of continents, oceans and modern geospheres. With the formation of the biosphere, the products of vital activity of organisms were included in the great cycle. The geological cycle supplies living organisms with nutrients and largely determines the conditions for their existence.

Main chemical elements lithospheres: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and others - participate in a large circulation, passing from the deep parts of the upper mantle to the surface of the lithosphere. The igneous rock that arose during the crystallization of magma, having arrived on the surface of the lithosphere from the depths of the Earth, undergoes decomposition and weathering in the biosphere. Weathering products pass into a mobile state, are carried by waters, wind to low relief places, fall into rivers, the ocean and form thick strata of sedimentary rocks, which over time, plunging to a depth in areas with elevated temperature and pressure, undergo metamorphosis, i.e. "remelted". During this remelting, a new metamorphic rock appears, entering the upper horizons of the earth's crust and re-entering the circulation of substances. (rice.).

Easily mobile substances - gases and natural waters that make up the atmosphere and hydrosphere of the planet - undergo the most intensive and rapid circulation. The material of the lithosphere cycles much more slowly. In general, each circulation of any chemical element is part of the general large circulation of substances on Earth, and all of them are closely interconnected. The living matter of the biosphere in this circulation performs a huge job of redistributing the chemical elements that continuously circulate in the biosphere, passing from the external environment to organisms and again to the external environment.

Small, or biological, circulation of substances- This

circulation of substances between plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms and soil. The essence of the biological cycle is the flow of two opposite, but interrelated processes - the creation of organic substances and their destruction. The initial stage in the emergence of organic substances is due to the photosynthesis of green plants, i.e., the formation of living matter from carbon dioxide, water, and simple mineral compounds using solar energy. Plants (producers) extract molecules of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, silicon, aluminum, zinc, copper and other elements from the soil in a solution. Herbivorous animals (consumers of the first order) absorb compounds of these elements already in the form of food of plant origin. Predators (consumers of the second order) feed on herbivorous animals, consuming food of a more complex composition, including proteins, fats, amino acids and other substances. In the process of destruction by microorganisms (decomposers) of organic matter of dead plants and animal remains, simple mineral compounds enter the soil and aquatic environment, available for assimilation by plants, and the next round of the biological cycle begins. (Fig. 33).

The emergence and development of the noosphere

Evolution organic world on Earth has gone through several stages. The first is associated with the emergence of the biological cycle of substances in the biosphere. The second was accompanied by the formation of multicellular organisms. These two stages are called biogenesis. The third stage is associated with the appearance human society, under whose influence modern conditions there is an evolution of the biosphere and its transformation into the sphere of the mind-noosphere (from gr.-mind,-ball). The noosphere is a new state of the biosphere, when intelligent human activity becomes the main factor that determines its development. The term "noosphere" was introduced by E. Leroy. VI Vernadsky deepened and developed the doctrine of the noosphere. He wrote: "The noosphere is a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In it, man becomes a major geological force." V. I. Vernadsky singled out the necessary prerequisites for the creation of the noosphere: 1. Humanity has become a single whole. 2. The possibility of instantaneous information exchange. 3. Real equality of people. 6. Exclusion of wars from the life of society. The creation of these prerequisites becomes possible as a result of the explosion of scientific thought in the twentieth century.

Topic - 6. Nature - man: a systematic approach. The purpose of the lecture: To form a holistic view of the system postulates of ecology.

Main questions: 1. The concept of the system and complex biosystems. 2. Features of biological systems. 3. System postulates: the law of universal communication, environmental laws of B. Commoner, Law big numbers, Le Chatelier's principle, The law of feedback in nature and the law of constancy of the amount of living matter. 4. Models of interactions in systems " nature is man” and “man-economy-biota-environment”.

Ecological system - main object ecology. Ecology is systemic in nature and in its theoretical form is close to general theory systems. According to the general theory of systems, a system is a real or conceivable set of parts, the integral properties of which are determined by the interaction between the parts (elements) of the system. In real life, a system is defined as a collection of objects brought together by some form of regular interaction or interdependence to perform a given function. In the material there are certain hierarchies - ordered sequences of spatio-temporal subordination and complication of systems. All the varieties of our world can be represented as three sequentially emerged hierarchies. This is the main, natural, physico-chemical-biological (P, X, B) hierarchy and two side ones that arose on its basis, social (S) and technical (T) hierarchies. The existence of the latter in totality feedback affects the main hierarchy in some way. Combining systems from different hierarchies leads to "mixed" classes of systems. Thus, the combination of systems from the physico-chemical part of the hierarchy (F, X - "environment") with living systems of the biological part of the hierarchy (B - "biota") leads to a mixed class of systems called ecological. A union of systems from hierarchies C

("man") and T ("technology") leads to a class of economic, or technical and economic, systems.

Rice. . Hierarchies of material systems:

F, X - physical and chemical, B - biological, C - social, T - technical

It should be clear that the impact of human society on nature, depicted in the diagram, mediated by technology and technology (technogenesis), refers to the entire hierarchy of natural systems: the lower branch - to the abiotic environment, the upper - to the biota of the biosphere. Below we will consider the contingency of the environmental and technical and economic aspects of this interaction.

All systems have some general properties:

1. Each system has a specific structure, determined by the form of space-time connections or interactions between the elements of the system. Structural order alone does not determine the organization of a system. The system can be called organized if its existence is either necessary to maintain some functional (performing certain work) structure, or, on the contrary, depends on the activity of such a structure.

2. According to the principle of necessary diversity the system cannot consist of identical elements devoid of individuality. The lower limit of diversity is at least two elements (proton and electron, protein and nucleic acid, "he" and "she"), the upper limit is infinity. Diversity is the most important information characteristic of the system. It differs from the number of varieties of elements and can be measured. 3. The properties of a system cannot be comprehended only on the basis of the properties of its parts. It is the interaction between the elements that is decisive. By individual details machine before assembling it is impossible to judge its action. Studying separately some forms of fungi and algae, it is impossible to predict the existence of their symbiosis in the form of a lichen. The combined effect of two or more different factors on an organism is almost always different from the sum of their separate effects. The degree of irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of the individual elements of which it consists determines emergence systems.

4. Allocation of the system divides its world into two parts - the system itself and its environment. Depending on the presence (absence) of the exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment, the following are fundamentally possible: isolated systems (no exchange possible); closed systems (impossible exchange of matter); open systems (matter and energy exchange is possible). The exchange of energy determines the exchange of information. In nature, there are only open dynamic systems, between internal elements which and the elements of the environment carry out the transfer of matter, energy and information. Any living system - from a virus to the biosphere - is an open dynamic system.

5. The predominance of internal interactions in the system over external ones and the lability of the system in relation to external forces
actions define it self-preservation ability thanks to the qualities of organization, endurance and stability. An external influence on a system that exceeds the strength and flexibility of its internal interactions leads to irreversible changes.
and death of the system. The stability of a dynamic system is maintained by its continuous external cyclic work. This requires the flow and transformation of energy into this. topic. The probability of achieving the main goal of the system - self-preservation (including through self-reproduction) is defined as its potential efficiency.

6. The action of the system in time is called it behavior. The change in behavior caused by an external factor is denoted as reaction system, and a change in the reaction of the system, associated with a change in structure and aimed at stabilizing behavior, as its fixture, or adaptation. Consolidation of adaptive changes in the structure and connections of the system in time, in which its potential efficiency increases, is considered as development, or evolution, systems. The emergence and existence of all material systems in nature is due to evolution. Dynamic systems evolve in the direction from more probable to less probable organization, i.e. development proceeds along the path of complication of the organization and formation of subsystems in the structure of the system. In nature, all forms of system behavior - from elementary reaction to global evolution - are essentially non-linear. An important feature of evolution complex systems is
unevenness, lack of monotony. Periods of Gradual Accumulation minor changes are sometimes interrupted by sharp qualitative jumps that significantly change the properties of the system. They are usually associated with the so-called bifurcation points- bifurcation, splitting of the former path of evolution. A lot depends on the choice of one or another continuation of the path at the bifurcation point, up to the emergence and prosperity of a new world of particles, substances, organisms, societies, or, conversely, the death of the system. Even for decision systems, the choice result is often unpredictable, and the choice itself at the bifurcation point can be due to a random impulse. Any real system can be represented as some kind of material likeness or iconic image, i.e. respectively analog or sign system model. Modeling is inevitably accompanied by some simplification and formalization of the relationships in the system. This formalization can be
implemented in the form of logical (causal) and/or mathematical (functional) relationships. As the complexity of systems increases, they acquire new emergent qualities. At the same time, the qualities of simpler systems are preserved. Therefore, the overall diversity of the qualities of the system increases as it becomes more complex (Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.2. Patterns of changes in the properties of system hierarchies with an increase in their level (according to Fleishman, 1982):

1 - diversity, 2 - stability, 3 - emergence, 4 - complexity, 5 - non-identity, 6 - prevalence

In order of increasing activity in relation to external influences, the qualities of the system can be ordered in the following sequence: 1 - stability, 2 - reliability due to awareness of the environment (noise immunity), 3 - controllability, 4 - self-organization. In this series, each subsequent quality makes sense in the presence of the previous one.

Steam Difficulty system structure is determined by the number P its elements and the number T

connections between them. If in any system the number of private discrete states is investigated, then the complexity of the system WITH is determined by the logarithm of the number of bonds:

C=logm.(2.1)

Systems are conditionally classified by complexity as follows: 1) systems with up to a thousand states (O <С < 3), относятся к simple; 2) systems with up to a million states (3< С < 6), являют собой complex systems; 3) systems with more than a million states (C > 6) are identified as very complex.

All real natural biosystems are very complex. Even in the structure of a single virus, the number of biologically significant molecular states exceeds the latter value.

Before the emergence of the biosphere on Earth, there were three cycles of substances: mineral cycle - movement of magmatic products from the depths to the surface and back; gas cycle - circulation of air masses periodically heated by the Sun,The water cycle - evaporation of water and its transfer by air masses, precipitation (rain, snow). These three cycles are united by a single term - geological (abiotic) cycle. With the advent of life, the gas, mineral and water cycles were supplemented biotic (biogenic) cycle - the circulation of chemical elements carried out by the vital activity of organisms. Together with the geological, a single biogeochemical cycle substances on earth.

Geological cycle.

About half of the solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is spent on the evaporation of water, the weathering of rocks, the dissolution of minerals, the movement of air masses and, together with them, water vapor, dust, and solid particles of weathering.

The movement of water and wind leads to soil erosion, movement, redistribution and accumulation of mechanical and chemical precipitation in the hydrosphere and lithosphere. This cycle is still going on.

Of great interest is The water cycle. Approximately 3.8 10 14 tons of water evaporates from the hydrosphere in one year, and returns with precipitation to water shell Earth only 3.4 10 14 tons of water. The missing part falls on land. In total, about 1 10 14 tons of precipitation falls on land, and approximately 0.6 10 14 tons of water evaporates. Excess water formed in the lithosphere flows into lakes and rivers, and then into the oceans (Fig. 2.4). Surface runoff is approximately 0.2 10 14 tons, the remaining 0.2 10 14 tons of water enters subsoil aquifers, from where water flows into rivers, lakes and the ocean, and also replenishes groundwater reservoirs.

biotic cycle. It is based on the processes of synthesis of organic substances with their subsequent destruction into the original minerals. The processes of synthesis and destruction of organic substances are the foundation of the existence of living matter and the main feature of the functioning of the biosphere.

The vital activity of any organism is impossible without metabolism with environment. In the process of metabolism, the body consumes and assimilates the necessary substances and releases waste products, the size of our planet is not infinite, and in the end everything beneficial substance would be recycled into useless garbage. However, in the process of evolution, a magnificent solution was found: in addition to organisms that can build living matter from the inanimate, other organisms appeared, decomposing this complex organic matter into original minerals, ready for new use. " The only way to give the properties of the infinite to a limited quantity, - wrote V.R. Williams, is to make it rotate in a closed curve.

The mechanism of interaction between animate and inanimate nature consists of the involvement of inanimate matter in the area of life. After a series of transformations of inanimate matter in living organisms, it returns to its previous initial state. Such a cycle is possible due to the fact that living organisms contain the same chemical elements as inanimate nature.

How does such a cycle take place? V. I. Vernadsky substantiated that the main converter of energy coming from space (mainly solar) is green stuff plants. Only they are able to synthesize primary organic compounds under the influence of solar energy. The scientist calculated that the total surface area of the green matter of plants that absorb energy, depending on the season, is from 0.86 to 4.2% of the surface area of the Sun. At the same time, the surface area of the earth

Animals whose food is plants or other animals synthesize new organic compounds in their bodies.

The remains of animals and plants serve as food for worms, fungi and microorganisms, which eventually turn them into their original minerals, releasing carbon dioxide in the process. These minerals again serve as the initial raw material for the creation of primary organic compounds by plants. So the circle closes and a new movement of atoms begins.

However, the circulation of substances is not absolutely closed. Some of the atoms leave the cycle, are fixed and organized by new forms of living organisms and their metabolic products. Penetrating into the lithosphere, hydrosphere and troposphere, living organisms have produced and continue to produce a huge geochemical work to move and redistribute existing substances and create new ones. This is the essence of the progressive development of the biosphere, since the sphere of biogeochemical cycles expands and the biosphere strengthens. As V. I. Vernadsky noted, in the biosphere there is a constant biogenic movement of atoms in the form of "vortices".

Unlike the geological cycle, the biotic cycle is characterized by low energy consumption. As already noted, about 1% of the solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is spent on the creation of primary organic matter. This energy is sufficient for the functioning of the most complex biogeochemical processes on the planet.