The levels of organizational culture include: Organizational culture as an object of scientific study
In order to answer the question of how the organizational culture of an enterprise is manifested, it is necessary to identify specific forms of its expression. First of all, it is useful to distinguish between its external (clearly expressed, observable) and internal (implicit, hidden from observation) levels. The first level includes artifacts, behavior patterns, language, laws, rules officially in force at the enterprise, the use and production of new technologies, physical objects, and products. The second level includes inner world people, their ideas, perceptions, values, beliefs, ways of perceiving the world around them. It reflects the internal processes through which norms of behavior and hidden rules that govern people's behavior are learned. These two levels are easily traced, but are practically not separated, since they represent two parts of an inextricable unity, reflecting and complementing each other. It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that it is the hidden (second) level of organizational culture that determines human behavior in the enterprise. If a manager focuses only on the external manifestations of this behavior, he will not be able to understand its underlying reasons or motives and, perhaps, will only become an outside witness to unexpected changes in behavior and the accomplishment of extraordinary actions.
There are several classifications of levels or aspects of manifestation of the organizational culture of an enterprise or company.
Levels of organizational culture according to E. Schein. The classification has three levels: artifacts, values and core beliefs.
Artifacts. The visible, but often indecipherable level of the physical and social environment created in an organization is the external manifestation of organizational culture. These include artificially created artifacts, products not inherent in nature, products of civilization, culture, as well as technology, visible and audible behavior patterns, clothing, interior, jargon, etc. We see the physical space, the technological result of the group’s activities, its written and oral language, external behavior of its members.
Values- is intermediate, characterized to a lesser extent awareness level of organizational culture. It consists of values and norms accepted in a given physical and social environment. For example, any proposals to a group that finds itself faced with the need to make a decision under new conditions are tentative. Thus, if the existing quality of a product does not meet market requirements, changes can be made to manufacturing technology and personnel training can be organized, since there is a widespread belief that training improves product quality. But only after testing this solution in a specific critical situation and having established that it is correct, the group shares this common belief. Thus, the process of turning a decision into value through ideas and beliefs takes place; as soon as values begin to be taken for granted, they gradually turn into ideas, and then, becoming beliefs, they move to the subconscious level, and the habit of acting according to this scheme becomes automatic /22/. Obviously, this is the shortest path to self-organization and self-learning.
Not all values undergo such a transformation. Many of them, performing a normative or moral function in certain situations, despite the fact that they are openly proclaimed, remain only at the conscious level. Thus, a company, declaring in its charter or collective agreement that people are one of its main values, assumes that every employee or manager perceives this value without any experimental confirmation of it in historical development. This is an example of what is called documented social value. And only many years of experience confirming the proclaimed values initiates the process of becoming their beliefs, operating on a subconscious level.
Core Beliefs. This is an invisible, subconscious level of organizational culture; it unites the attitude towards the world around us, the perception of reality, time, space, human nature, human activity and relationships.
We have already said that if a solution to a problem is implemented repeatedly, it begins to be taken for granted. What was once a hypothesis based on intuition or a socially assigned value gradually becomes part of reality. Moreover, if a belief is actively supported by the group and becomes part of the organizational culture of the enterprise, any other judgment or behavior is unacceptable.
In some cases, such a subconscious worldview may contradict objective data. Enterprise employees who are confident, based on their experience and knowledge, that people seek to benefit from a situation whenever possible (this corresponds to McGregor’s “Theory X”), will interpret any actions of these people through the prism of their beliefs: if someone is sitting at his desk table and doesn’t seem to be doing anything, which means he’s just messing around, and, for example, not thinking about an important decision; if someone is not at work, it means that he is absent, and not doing work at home or an assignment in another organization (according to the theory of E. Schein). The opposite interpretation can be obtained if group members have the belief that each employee is endowed with internal motivation and strives for creative work on his own (according to McGregor’s “Theory Y”).
T. Deal and A. Kennedy consider four levels of organizational culture:
Values are ideas about the enterprise and its good shared by all employees of an enterprise;
Heroes are employees who are examples that embody the most important organizational values;
Rituals and rituals are ceremonies filled with symbolism at the enterprise, held to register events important for the enterprise and introduce new employees to them;
The structure of communication is the channels of informal communication through which employees of an enterprise receive information about its values, heroes, rites and rituals.
G. Trice and J. Beyer form the following components of organizational culture:
Established routines in the company: rituals as a pre-planned and prepared, often theatrical spectacle in which various manifestations of organizational culture are concentrated, for example, the ceremonial awarding of the title “Best Inventor of the Year”; ceremonies - a series of rituals combined into one event, for example, the launch ceremony of a new product, rewarding employees who have achieved special results, a solemn incendiary speech by one of the top managers about the future activities of the enterprise; rituals - an orderly system of actions that combines the core values of the enterprise, for example, rituals expressing recognition (anniversaries, celebrations of achievements, inclusion in the list of the best, public recognition, collective recreation, etc.), demonstrating what behavior is welcomed and supported in the enterprise;
Organizational communication is stories, stories, usually based on real events, but gradually overgrown with conjectures and additions. Myths - stories about the “good old days”, devoid of factual material, often transmitted by old employees; sagas are historical narratives about the outstanding achievements of a group of enterprise employees or its leaders. For example, stories common in the South Ural railway about the successes and methods of driving a locomotive in the military and post-war years machinist, Hero of Socialist Labor Blinov. Legends are retellings of real events, embellished with fictitious details, often at the center of a hero or heroine, for example, there was a legend in the company about a worker who was constantly trying to find a way to use the minerals that remained unused in the production of sandpaper. At first he was even fired for spending too much time at work thinking about and testing his theories. Having finally solved the problem, he... became deputy head of the “Grained Roofing Coverings” division, created in the company at his suggestion. Legends reflect the history and heritage of the organization and convey value orientations; fairy tales are completely fictitious stories, the moral of which contains a hint of the expected behavior of enterprise employees; symbols and slogans - memorable images and logos of various companies and enterprises;
Material manifestations of organizational culture are expressed in artifacts - furniture, tools, appliances, fixtures, clothing. For example, every IBM office must have a flip-up paper board; one of the values of the General Motors corporate culture is the ability to not stand out and fit into the company without attracting attention;
The design of physical space extends to the building, open areas, and office locations. For example, replacing four-seater tables in the cafeteria of one of the companies with six-seater ones expands the opportunities for acquaintances, conversations and bringing together employees of different departments and services;
Symbols of a company's power indicate its economic status, its treatment of its employees, and their position in the hierarchy. These include assigned corporate cars, payment of transportation costs, and subsidies for vacations for employees and members of their families;
The language of communication in an enterprise or a company is formed through joint activities and directed influence on this process, which becomes effective means bringing people together within a single organizational culture /22/. For example, in one of the Kuzbass mines, in assessing the importance of the employee category, such respectful definitions as “golden fund”, “backbone”, etc. were fixed.
LEVELS AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture does not exist by itself. It is always included in cultural context of a given geographical region and society as a whole and is influenced by national culture. In turn, organizational or corporate culture influences the formation of the culture of departments, work and management groups and teams.
Wherein:
· national culture is the culture of a country or a minority in a country;
· organizational culture - the culture of a corporation, enterprise or association;
· working culture - the culture of the dominant type of activity of society;
· team culture - the culture of the working or management team.
Organizational culture- this is a complex phenomenon that does not always lie on the surface; it is difficult to “feel” it. If we can say that an organization has a soul, then this soul is organizational culture. K. Scholts noted that corporate culture is the implicit, invisible and informal consciousness of the organization, which controls the behavior of people and, in turn, is itself formed under the influence of their behavior.
In modern literature, there are quite a few definitions of the concept of organizational culture. Like many other concepts of organizational and management disciplines, the concept of organizational culture does not have a single “correct” interpretation. Each of those who study it strives to give their own interpretation of organizational culture. Most authors agree that an organization's culture is a complex composition of important assumptions (often inarticulate) that are unsubstantiated and shared by members of a group or organization.
Organizational culture- this is a set of the most important assumptions accepted by members of the organization and expressed in the organization’s stated values, which give people guidelines for their behavior and actions
These value orientations are transmitted to individuals through the “symbolic” means of the spiritual and material intra-organizational environment. Organizational culture has a certain structure, being a set of assumptions, values, beliefs and symbols, adherence to which helps people in an organization cope with their problems. It is considered at three levels.
Analyzing the structure of organizational culture, three levels are distinguished: superficial, internal and deep.
A) Understanding organizational culture begins at a superficial level, including such external organizational characteristics, such as the products or services provided by the organization, the technology used, the architecture of production facilities and offices, the observed behavior of workers, formal language communication, slogans, etc. At this level, things and phenomena are easy to detect, but they cannot always be deciphered and interpreted in terms of organizational culture.
B) Those who try to understand organizational culture more deeply touch on its second, internal level. At this level, the values and beliefs shared by members of the organization are examined in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. The perception of values and beliefs is conscious and depends on the desires of people. Researchers often limit themselves to this level because the next level poses almost insurmountable difficulties.
B) The third, deep level includes basic assumptions that are difficult for even members of the organization to understand without special focus on this issue. These are hidden and taken-for-granted assumptions (eg, attitudes toward nature, attitudes toward people, attitudes toward work) that guide people's behavior by helping them perceive the attributes that characterize organizational culture.
So, organizational culture covers a large area of phenomena in the spiritual and material life of a team, namely: the moral norms and values that dominate it, the accepted code of conduct and ingrained rituals, established standards for the quality of products, even the manner of dressing and behaving, etc.
There are ten meaningful characteristics inherent in any organizational culture (culture components):
1. Identification and purpose: the meaning of the Self (sense of self), place, mission.
2. Communication system and language of communication: transmission of information, interaction, exchange.
3. Clothing, appearance and presentation of oneself at work: appearance, style, image, reputation.
4. Food and the way it is served: preparation, service, food preferences.
5. Awareness of time, attitude towards it and its use: the meaning of the duration of intervals.
6. Relationships between people: kinship, gender, rank, status, awards and recognition.
7. Values and norms: system of needs/priorities, standards of behavior.
8. Beliefs and attitudes. Worldview: myths, philosophy, perspective, religion, rites, rituals.
9.Development and self-realization of the employee: thought processes, education.
10. Features and methods of work: focus, direction of work, work patterns and procedures, management and leadership. Let's take a closer look at these characteristics.
1. Identification and purpose. Awareness of yourself and your place in the organization. Culture gives people a sense of identity in relation to the group and to some extent determines their place in life.
Culture also helps explain the meaning of uniting people into a group through mission and goals (WHO IS MY GROUP, WHY AM I WITH THEM) (some cultures value restraint and the employee’s concealment of his internal moods and problems, others encourage openness, emotional support and external manifestation of his experiences; in some cases creativity manifests itself through cooperation, and in others through individualism).
2. Communication system and language of communication. The group is distinguished by its own systems of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Unique interaction processes are developed through the use of a special set of words, special terminology and codes. Further differentiation occurs through dialects, slang, jargon, etc. (I CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AND I CAN UNDERSTAND THANKS TO SPECIAL TERMINOLOGY; SOMEWHERE IT IS ACCEPTABLE TO COMMUNICATE ORALLY, SOMEWHERE VIA E-MAIL, ETC.) (use of oral, written, non-verbal communication, "telephone rights" and openness of communication varies from organization to organization).
3. Dress, appearance and presentation at work. Culture manifests itself through clothing, decoration, through jewelry, etc. The length of hair or lack thereof, facial design, the presence of jewelry, work clothes or uniforms can characterize the tribe or division of the company (pirates, old people, teenagers, terrorists, military, medical workers, railway workers, etc.). (VNK, TEACHERS) (variety of uniforms, business styles, standards for the use of cosmetics, perfumes, deodorants, etc., indicating the existence of many microcultures).
4. Food and method of serving it. The way food is produced, prepared, presented and eaten is culturally distinct, as every visitor to a Chinese or French restaurant knows. Religious norms prohibit certain foods, such as beef or pork, or dictate how they are prepared. The method of serving may include the use of hands, chopsticks or cutlery, how food is organized for workers in the organization, including the presence or absence of canteens and buffets; participation of the organization in paying food costs; frequency and duration of meals; jointly or separate meals employees with different organizational status, etc.)
5. Awareness of time, attitude towards it and its use. Time is considered to be the storage, communication and measurement of the duration of intervals.
Cultural factors influence the fact that some people use a more precise, while others use a relative, sense of time. Some cultures associate time with sunrise or sunset, with rainfall, with drought, or with other seasonal changes. When performing special design work Usually only deadlines are indicated.
At the same time, the new technological work culture often operates on a 24-hour schedule, where operations are scheduled minute by minute (if we are talking about setting up specific deadlines, then IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSIDER: THE CONCEPT OF TIME IN ONE CULTURE, T.K. THIS MAY BE THE CAUSE OF DISAGREEMENTS; THE PHRASE "THE PROJECT WILL BE READY BY THE END OF THE WEEK" MAY BE COMPLETELY NOT SPECIFIC FOR REPRESENTATIVES OF SOME CULTURES)
6. Relationships between people. Cultures establish human and organizational relationships to age, gender, status and degrees of kinship, wealth, power and wisdom.
Depending on whether the culture is patriarchal or matriarchal, the dominant figure of power is a man or a woman. In some cultures, the elders are in power, in others, the youth are in power. A culture may give equal opportunity to women or force females to wear veils, appear deferential, and cede many rights to dominant men.
In successful multinational corporations, multicultural relationships are a global development factor along with technical support(Is it possible to send a WOMAN SPECIALIST to all negotiations? PROBABLY NOT, IF WE ARE TALKING ABOUT PATRIARCHAL CULTURE, SHE MAY SIMPLY NOT BE ACCEPTED AND THIS WILL AFFECT THE RESULTS OF THE EVENT).
7. Values and norms. Culture influences how people perceive their needs and how they rank them according to priorities (values - INDIVIDUALISM OR COLLECTIVISM; PRIVATE PROPERTY OR COLLECTIVE PROPERTY, ETC.)
Cultural values and norms of behavior are expressed in society openly or covertly. These acceptable standards of behavior may take the form of work ethics, principles of etiquette, codes of conduct, regulations and laws (the former are sets of ideas about what is good and what is bad; the latter are a set of assumptions and expectations about a certain type of behavior ).
8. Beliefs and attitudes. Worldview. Each cultural group has beliefs that shape the aspirations and attitudes of its members regardless of the rationality of these beliefs or objective truth.
IN national cultures this may take the form of belief in the supernatural or in God and be associated with the acceptance of a religious system (we are the chosen people). Thus, culture makes it possible to provide leadership to people, forming a system of views on such fundamental issues of life as the characteristics of human essence; the meaning of human life.
In organizational cultures, the dominant business philosophy is reflected in documents, procedures and publications. Organizational beliefs and attitudes define systems of recognition and reward - rites and rituals that range from parties and awards ceremonies to the establishment of clubs for key employees. In addition, beliefs and attitudes are included in the myths, traditions, legends about the heroes of the group and their exceptional character. (CONFIDENCE THAT MY COMPANY IS THE BEST, PROMISING, ETC.)
Worldview- ideas about the surrounding world, the nature of man and society, guiding the behavior of members of the organization and determining the nature of their relationships with other employees, clients, competitors, etc. Worldview is closely related to the characteristics of an individual’s socialization, his ethnic culture and religious beliefs.
Significant differences in the worldviews of workers seriously complicate their cooperation. In this case, there is scope for significant intra-organizational contradictions and conflicts. At the same time, it is very important to understand that it is very difficult to radically change people’s worldviews, and significant efforts are required to achieve some mutual understanding and acceptance of the positions of people with different worldviews. An individual's worldview is difficult to express in clear verbal formulations, and not everyone is able to explain the basic principles underlying his behavior. And to understand someone’s worldview, it sometimes takes a lot of effort and time to help a person explicate the basic coordinates of his vision of the world. Beliefs can be expressed in many ways, such as about the position and role of women in society. In some societies, women are revered; in others, they are considered equal to men; in some cultures they are subject to men. In industrial work culture, women are often discriminated against in hiring or promotion; often women's work is paid at a lower rate. In the emergence of a post-industrial work culture, competence rather than gender difference is paramount. Therefore, women must be given equal employment opportunities.
9. Development and self-realization of the employee.. The way people think, learn, organize and process information is unique and often different. Some cultures use whole-brain thinking, others prefer right-brain (INTUITION) - or left-brain (LOGIC) development. For example, in some countries logic is highly valued, while in others intuition is highly valued. Although reasoning and learning are universal processes, forms of education and learning can be very different (mindless or deliberate performance of work; reliance on intelligence or strength; free or limited circulation of information in an organization; recognition or rejection of the rationality of people's minds and behavior; creative environment or rigid routine; recognition of a person's limitations or emphasis on his potential for growth).
10. Features and methods of work. Work ethic and motivation. Cultures differ in the way they perceive and approach work; they vary in the types of work approved, the way the work is divided, and the methods of work. Culture through the economy determines the value and necessity of work for specific group. In some cultures, all members participate in desirable and worthwhile activities, but their membership is not measured by the monetary value of the work; instead, the role and significance of work for unification is emphasized. Culture determines the conditions, opportunities and segmentation of professional activity (attitude towards work as a value or duty; responsibility or indifference to the results of one’s work; attitude towards one’s workplace; quality characteristics labor activity(quality of working life); worthy and bad habits At work; a fair relationship between the employee's contribution and his remuneration; planning professional career employee in the organization).
These characteristics of an organization's culture collectively reflect and give meaning to the concept of organizational culture. The content of organizational culture is determined not by the simple sum of expectations and the actual state of affairs for each characteristic, but by how they are related to each other and how they form the profiles of certain cultures. A distinctive feature of a particular culture is the priority of the basic characteristics that form it, indicating which principles should prevail in the event of a conflict between its different components.
In this context, there is no need to talk about organizational culture as a homogeneous phenomenon. Any organization potentially contains many subcultures.
The most popular model that explains the structure of organizational culture is E. Schein’s three-level model. Sometimes it is called the “iceberg” model, because when we come to an organization, we see only a small part of the organizational culture; everything else seems to be hidden under water.
According to E. Schein, organizational culture has three levels: the level of artifacts, the level of proclaimed values, and the level of basic assumptions (Fig. 8.1).
Rice. 8.1.
First level - the most superficial, it can be directly observed when interacting with the organization. It includes such visible facts (artifacts) as technology used, architecture, formal structure, use of space and time, observable behavior, language, ceremonies, rituals, manner of communication, myths, etc. At this level, things and phenomena are easy to detect, but not easy to decipher and interpret in terms of organizational culture. The content of myths established in the organization, stories of company veterans reveal the history of the organization and the company’s values. The most significant artifacts are customs and rituals. Organizational customs and rituals are actions and activities with high degree emotional involvement, carried out according to certain rules. The main objectives of rituals are to demonstrate and convey to employees the values of the organization, ensure their stability and preservation, and promote staff cohesion. According to the theory of T. Deal and A. Kennedy, a company can have various rituals: communication rituals (rules of formal and informal communication, expression of opinions, emotions, etc.), work rituals (routinization of everyday actions), management rituals (holding meetings , decision-making procedures), rituals of official recognition (rewarding the best employees, maintaining the basic values of the organization).
On second level The values, perceptions and beliefs shared by members of the organization are studied in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. Management's decision to reduce working hours instead of laying off employees during a downturn in production if it leads to positive results, can gain a foothold as general idea. These values and ideas are recognized by people and perform a normative function, regulating the behavior of group members. However, the actual behavior of members of the organization may not correspond to the proclaimed values. Diagnosing organizational culture at this level is already difficult, since values are not always articulated. When studying the values of an organization, it is necessary to pay attention to the following aspects of the company’s life: the purpose of the organization, its “face” (innovation, quality, customer focus); distribution of power (degree of acceptable inequality); treatment of personnel (care of personnel, respect, presence or absence of favoritism, fairness of remuneration); organization of work (discipline, rotation of activities); management style (authoritarian, democratic); decision making (individual, group), etc.
Third , deep, level involves basic assumptions that are difficult for even organizational members to understand without focusing specifically on the issue. But these hidden and taken-for-granted assumptions guide people's behavior. E. Shane writes: “Culture as a set of basic ideas determines what we should pay attention to, what is the meaning of certain objects and phenomena, what actions should be taken in a given situation. Having developed an integrated system of such ideas, which can be called map of the world, we will experience comfort next to people who share our view of the world, and obvious discomfort in situations where a different system of ideas will operate, since we will not understand what is happening or, even worse, we will distortly perceive the actions of other people and give them a false interpretation."
Such basic assumptions include ideas about the nature of time, the nature of space, the nature of reality, the nature of man and human activity, and the nature of human relationships. This also includes the beliefs of employees (the influence of religion on organizational behavior) and their ethical attitudes (appearance, work schedule, gender relationships, etc.). Artifacts are easy to observe but difficult to interpret. To understand the culture of a group, it is necessary to go to the level of basic ideas and consider values and artifacts in the light of these parameters. And it is precisely the basic ideas that are greatly influenced by national culture.
The study of organizational culture usually begins at the top level, the level of artifacts, i.e. what can be seen and felt when encountering an organization, then there is a dive into the subsurface level (the level of values), and then attempts are made to understand the deep level of organizational culture. At the same time, the very formation of organizational culture proceeds, rather, in the opposite direction: from the deep level, through the level of values to the level of artifacts.
It should be noted that organizational culture is not a monolith, but consists of the prevailing (dominant) culture, subcultures of groups and countercultures that strengthen or weaken the culture of the organization as a whole. Subcultures, as a rule, do not contradict basic principles and the values of the dominant culture. They give specificity to the organizational culture of a particular organization. These can be territorial, functional, gender and other subcultures. Countercultures can be direct opposition to the values of the dominant culture, opposition to the power structure within the dominant culture, or opposition to patterns of behavior. Counterculture denies the basic and declared goals of the organization and the legitimacy of its leadership. Such opposition may include groups of shareholders who want to remove management or change the company's strategy, managers fighting for power, trade unions defending the interests of employees, etc. With large-scale transformations, the role of countercultures increases significantly. Basically, the strength of culture depends on the scope and sharing of its main attributes by members of the organization, as well as on the clarity of its priorities.
Is it possible to manage organizational culture? Proponents of the phenomenological approach deny this possibility, since organizational culture is an extremely complex process of interaction. large number variables, making it practically impossible to predict the influence of some variables on others.
Representatives of the rational-pragmatic approach insist on the possibility of managing organizational culture. In their opinion, this is a targeted influence on people’s values in order to change their behavior. First of all, the leader inspires and implements the fundamental values of the organization. This presupposes that the leader has a clear and sincere personal commitment to the values he shares. In the same time great attention must be given attention to details real life in the organization, what happens in it. In this case, manipulation of symbols and things of the material world of the organization, the creation of new patterns of behavior, etc. can be used. In general, cultural management involves the ability, through the constant manipulation of surface-level attributes, to influence the subsurface level, even to the point of changing basic assumptions.
Culture management is a very long and difficult process, and a process with not always predictable results. From the point of view of phenomenologists, any managerial impact is embedded in a culture-forming context, therefore, by influencing one variable, it is possible to cause unpredictable changes in another. Purposefully influencing organizational culture to change values in the direction desired by management may encounter resistance from conservative elements. And organizational culture itself is a relatively conservative component of the organizational environment in comparison with technology, marketing, personnel, etc. Cultural values must be shared by many people, and conservative sentiments (traditions) among the masses always prevail over the desire to change something. In a group, individual conservatism receives serious support, so it turns out to be more understandable and evidence-based than propaganda for change. As a rule, only their initiator, the creator of some new reality, believes in the good consequences of changes.
When studying any phenomenon, process, or subject, the following situation often arises. A seemingly simple phenomenon, as it is studied, undergoes significant changes in the perception of the researcher, becoming more and more complex both in content and in the methods of cognition used. Sometimes, as a phenomenon is studied, the idea of it changes to the exact opposite. This happens, in particular, when studying the organizational culture of an enterprise. For the first time, E. Schein proposed studying organizational culture at three levels (Fig. 19.3).
Knowledge of organizational culture begins with the first, “superficial” or “symbolic” level, which includes such visible external factors as the technology and architecture used, the use of space and time, observed behavior, language, slogans, etc., etc. .e. everything that a person can feel and perceive with his five senses (see, hear, taste and smell, touch). At this level, things and phenomena are easy to detect, but they cannot always be interpreted in terms of organizational culture 110].
Rice. 19.3.
In attempts to understand organizational culture more deeply, its second, “subsurface” level of proclaimed values is touched upon. The stated goals, strategies and philosophies, values and beliefs shared by members of the organization are examined in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. The perception of values and beliefs is conscious and depends on the desires of people. Researchers most often limit themselves to this level, since the next level is very complex and requires the use of special analytical techniques.
The third, “deep” level includes basic assumptions that are not easy for even the members of the organization to understand (without special concentration). Implicit and taken-for-granted assumptions guide people's behavior by helping them perceive the attributes that characterize organizational culture. Among such assumptions are features of perception, thoughts and feelings, subconscious beliefs and ideas. Depending on which of these levels are the object of study, organizational culture is divided into subjective and objective.
Subjective organizational culture is based on assumptions, expectations, shared by employees, group perception of the organizational environment with its values, norms and roles, existing as a person. This includes some elements of symbolism, stories about the organization and its leaders, myths, taboos, rites, rituals, language of communication, slogans. Subjective organizational culture serves as the basis for the formation of a management culture, i.e. leadership and decision-making styles, delegation of authority and participation in management, relationships with clients and suppliers, personnel motivation systems, etc.
Objective organizational culture usually associated with the subject environment of the organization, natural conditions, features of the architecture and design of the company building, equipment, furniture, communications, infrastructure, roads, parking lots, cafeterias, etc. They reflect the organizational culture to the extent that they reflect its core values and beliefs and, therefore, can be changed in accordance with these values. For example, harsh climatic conditions and the complexity of architectural masterpieces do not always indicate the wretchedness of the organizational culture of companies located in such natural areas. A rather unassuming design can hide deep content.
The deep level, of course, represents greatest interest, since it is in it that the “socio-spiritual field” develops, forming the organizational culture of the company. To study it, you need a fairly deep study cultural ideas employees, their basic philosophical ideas (about the meaning of life, objects and phenomena, the role of man in the world). Doubting the validity of one’s basic ideas and their significant divergence from generally accepted ones always causes a person to feel anxious and insecure. In this sense, the cultural field of an organization is the bearer of certain protective functions that allow a person to experience comfort and a sense of stability next to people who share his basic ideas. Culture allows us to create conditions that encourage collective ideas to reinforce each other.
The deep level of studying organizational culture is most associated with the concept of studying culture in in a broad sense words. However, the first two levels are more often studied: surface and subsurface.
Organizational culture is an important component and condition for the existence of an organization. The cultural patterns adopted and internalized in a given organization have a significant impact on different sides the activities of members of the organization and, in particular, on power relations and control relations; attitudes towards work; interpersonal relationships within groups; intergroup relations; relationships with the external environment, as well as on technology, motivation, etc. In addition, culture determines integration processes and the specificity of role requirements. Highlight three levels of organizational culture: superficial, internal and deep. A) Understanding organizational culture begins at the surface level, including such external organizational characteristics as products or services provided by the organization, technology used, architecture of production facilities and offices, observed behavior of employees, slogans, etc. B) internal level. At this level, the values and beliefs shared by members of the organization are examined in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. The perception of values and beliefs is conscious and depends on the desires of people. C) the deep level includes basic assumptions that are difficult for even the members of the organization to understand without special focus on this issue. These are hidden and taken for granted assumptions (for example, attitude towards nature, attitude towards people, attitude towards work) that guide people's behavior, helping them to perceive the attributes that characterize organizational culture. Thus, organizational culture covers a large area of phenomena of the spiritual and material life of the team , namely: the moral norms and values that dominate it, the accepted code of conduct and ingrained rituals, established standards for the quality of products, even the manner of dressing and behaving, etc. cultural components: 1. Identification and purpose: the meaning of the Self (sense of self), place, mission. Awareness of yourself and your place in the organization.2. Communication system and language of communication: transmission of information, interaction, exchange.3. Clothing, appearance and self-presentation at work: appearance, style, image, reputation. Culture manifests itself through clothing, decoration, jewelry, etc.4. Food and the way it is served: preparation, service, food preferences. The way food is produced, prepared, presented and eaten is culturally distinct, as every visitor to a Chinese or French restaurant knows 5. Awareness, attitude and use of time: the meaning of the length of intervals. Cultural factors influence some people to use a more precise sense of time and others to use a relative sense of time. Some cultures associate time with sunrise or sunset, with rainfall, with drought, or with other seasonal changes. When performing special project work, only deadlines are usually specified. 6. Relationships between people: kinship, gender, rank, status, awards and recognition. Cultures establish human and organizational relationships to age, gender, status and degrees of kinship, wealth, power and wisdom7. Values and norms: system of needs/priorities, standards of behavior. Culture influences how people perceive their needs and how they prioritize them 8. Beliefs and Attitudes. Worldview: myths, philosophy, perspective, religion, rites, rituals. Every cultural group has beliefs that shape the aspirations and attitudes of its members, regardless of the rationality of these beliefs or objective truth. 9. Development and self-realization of the employee:: thought processes, education. The way people think, learn, organize and process information is unique and often different. Some cultures use whole-brain thinking, others prefer right-brain (INTUITION) - or left-brain (LOGIC) development.10. Features and methods of work: focus, work direction, work patterns and procedures, management and leadership.
60 question Social. Project. Federal and regional aspects A social project is a program of real action, which is based on a current social problem that requires resolution. Its implementation will help improve the social situation in a particular region and society. This is one of the ways to participate in public life through the practical solution of pressing social problems. Subjects of social design: individuals, organizations, work collectives, social institutions, specially created project groups. An integral feature of the subject of design is the social activity of the subject. Objects of social design: 1) a person as an individual of society with his own needs, interests, value orientations, attitudes, social status, roles in the system of relationships; 2) various elements and subsystems of the social structure of society (social groups, work collectives); 3) various social relations (managerial, moral, political, ideological, family and everyday life, interpersonal, aesthetic). Modern social design is one of the most effective ways development of civil society. The participation of the population in the development and decision-making on projects, their adjustment, and in preventing arbitrary social decisions by government officials or private individuals is one of the fundamental foundations of the practice of social design in many countries. Inclusion of society in different forms in the processes of development and implementation of social projects significantly increases the civic activity of the population. Types of projects: By the nature of the changes being designed: 1) Innovative (characterized by properties). The task is to introduce new developments. 2) Restoration or support projects solve environmental problems and can be aimed at preserving and using cultural heritage. By area of activity: 1) Educational. 2) Scientific and technical. 3) Cultural. By financing features: 1) Investment. 2) Sponsorship. 3) Credit. 4) Budget. 5) Charitable. By scale: 1) Microprojects. 2) Small projects. 3) Megaprojects. By implementation period: 1) Short-term (1-2 years). 2) Medium-term (3-5 years). 3) Long-term (10-15 years). (!) “Pseudo-projects” are a form that covers up some other content that is not presented in the pseudo-project. (Fictions. The initiators are aimed at obtaining funding for a project, which in reality is planned to be used for other purposes or to be used only partially for the project; Quasi-projects. They have all the features of a real project, but the planned innovations are not such in reality.) The implementation of a social project takes place over several stages: 1. Study public opinion and identification of the current social problem.2. Involving participants and the public to solve this social project.3. Determining the goals and objectives of the social project.4. Determining the content of a social project. Drawing up a work plan. Distribution of responsibilities.5. Determining the required resources and drawing up a budget.6. Development of a project evaluation system.7. Formation of public opinion.8. Search for business partners. Preparation of project proposals.9. Conducting official negotiations. Obtaining the necessary resources.10. Carrying out planned activities.11. Analysis of work results.
61 Sociology of the family in modern Russia. Basic theoretical directions and concepts. Sociology of the family- branch of sociology that studies the family. The scope of research in this field includes: the study of the functioning of the family as a social institution and a small group, the structure and functions of the family, marital relations, patterns of family behavior characteristic of a particular type of culture, a particular social group. The sociology of the family in Russia occupies a special place in the development of family science. As a private sociological discipline, it has its own history, certain stages of development: I – from mid-19th V. until 1917 (in the pre-revolutionary period it was considered one of the general problems of sociology); II – from the beginning of the 20s to the mid-50s of the twentieth century; III – from the mid-50s of the twentieth century. until now. In the 20-30s V. K. N. Kovalev, L. S. Sosnovsky, E. A. Preobrazhensky, A. M. Kollontai and others dealt with issues of family sociology. The period from the second half of the 30s. until the early 60s. XX century left virtually no traces in the history of Soviet sociology of the family: there were few publications, most of them were based on the work of F. Engels “The Origin of the Family, private property and the state." The sociology of family and marriage as an independent branch of science originated in the 60s. XX century, when theoretical development of issues of family and marriage relations and empirical research appeared. The program thesis was the recognition of the family as the primary unit of society, that is, the most important element of the social structure. In those years, only the collective could compare in importance to the family. Sociologist S. Golod asserts in his works that the family in its development has gone through three ideal historical types: a) patriarchal (or traditional); b) child-centric (or modern); c) conjugal (or post-modern). In his opinion, the monogamous family has not entered a period of crisis, but is evolving from the patriarchal to the marital type. He does not consider the married family to be the ultimate type, but without a doubt recognizes the pinnacle of monogamy. In the 70s sociologist A. Kharchev The first sociological concept of the dual status of the family was formulated. The family appears in two aspects: a social institution and a small social group. Since the early 70s. gradually forming and by the end of the 80s two orientations of researchers of sociological problems of the family become obvious. Some authors sought to preserve and strengthen as much as possible the socio-functional understanding of the family (A.I. Antonov; O.N. Dudchenko, A.V. Mytil and their co-authors; N.D. Shimin); others, focusing on family stability and the characteristics of intrafamily interaction, tended to understand the independent value of studying the problems of family community (M.Yu. Harutyunyan; S.I. Golod; T.A. Gurko; G.A. Zaikina; N.V. Malyarov). In the early 80s. The attention of specialists to the family lifestyle has increased, emotional relationships spouses, conflicts, role relationships, etc. In other words, there has been a shift in emphasis from a social institution to the study of the family as a small group. In the 80-90s. XX century A number of monographs and collections of articles were published in which family issues are widely presented. In the early 90s The most popular topics were prostitution, deviant behavior, orphans, purchased marriage, suicide, drug addiction, homosexual behavior, moral preparation for family life, urban large families, pre- and post-divorce situations, women entrepreneurs. A new phenomenon in the institutionalization of family sociology in Russia was the creation of the Family Research Institute (in the first years of work from 1991 to 1993 - the Research Center for Social Protection of Children, Family and Demographic Policy). Most major contribution Russian sociologists contributed to the study of marriage and family relations: A. G. Kharchev (theory), M. S. Matskovsky (methodology and methodology), A. I. Antonov (fertility), V. A. Sysenko (marriage stability), I. S. Hunger (family stability), V. A. Borisov (need for children), D. Ya. Kutsar (marital quality), L. A. Gordon, N. M. Rimashevskaya ( life cycle family), N. G. Yurkevich, M. Ya. Solovyov (divorce), I. A. Gerasimova (family typology), T. A. Gurko (young family), E. K. Vasilyeva (stages, types of family activity) , V. B. Golofast (family functions), Z. A. Yankova (urban family, man and woman in the family).
62. Family policy of the Russian Federation. Federal and regional programs. State family policy is an integral part of the social policy of the Russian Federation and represents an integral system of principles, assessments and measures of an organizational, economic, legal, scientific, informational, propaganda and personnel nature, aimed at improving conditions and improving the quality of life of the family. The object of state family policy is the family. The subjects of state family policy are legislative and executive authorities at all levels, employers, public associations, political parties, trade unions, religious denominations, charitable foundations, foreign organizations, legal entities and individuals. The goal of state family policy is to provide the state with the necessary conditions for the family to realize its functions and improve the family’s quality of life. Main directions of state family policy Providing conditions for overcoming negative trends and stabilization of the financial situation of families, reducing poverty and increasing assistance to low-income families, including: a) measures to stabilize the situation on the labor market, reduce unemployment, including hidden unemployment, strengthen social protection of workers released as a result of bankruptcy and structural restructuring of organizations, with taking into account the marital status of employees, the number of dependents, including children; b) strengthening employment guarantees in the labor market for workers from families in need of increased social protection (families of single and large parents, disabled people, pensioners), by stimulating the creation of special jobs for such workers, providing them with professional training and retraining, providing tax or other benefits to organizations using their labor; c) support for the development of individual labor activity, family entrepreneurship and farming, etc. Support for family, motherhood and childhood is carried out both at the federal and regional levels. In accordance with the provisions of the federal law “On state benefits for citizens with children” (dated May 19, 1995 No. 81-FZ), there is a system of benefits that includes maternity benefits; a one-time benefit for women registered in medical institutions in the early stages of pregnancy; lump sum benefit for the birth of a child; monthly child care allowance until the child reaches the age of 1.5 years; a one-time benefit when placing a child in a family; a one-time allowance to the pregnant wife of a military serviceman undergoing military service; monthly allowance for the child of a military serviceman undergoing military service. To support families with two or more children, one of whom was born no earlier than January 1, 2007, maternity capital is provided. At the regional level, support is also provided to families with children in the form of payment of benefits and provision of social support measures. The procedure and conditions for these payments are established by the regions independently. State system support for families with children includes not only benefits and compensation payments, but also the creation of social conditions (clinics, kindergartens, schools, cultural institutions and sports facilities). In 2011, many different family assistance programs were adopted in Russia at the federal and regional levels.
63. Applied sociological research of the family. Applied sociological research is aimed at solving specific practical problems (a specific social problem), making assumptions about the possible development of the process, and developing specific programs for improving the object. The sociological research program must clearly answer the question of what problem and what result this research is aimed at solving, i.e. what is the purpose of the study . S.N.Varlamova, A.V. Noskova, N.N. Sedova Marriage agreement in Russia: from past to future. In the last decade of the 20th century. There has been a new transformational shift in the marital behavior of Russians. Against the background of the dynamic spread of unregistered cohabitation and civil marriages in the late 80s - mid-90s, there was a rapid decline in absolute and relative indicators characterizing the registration of marriages, as well as an intensive increase in divorce rates. In 1992, the number of divorces per 1,000 marriages exceeded 500 for the first time. In the mid-1990s, when divorce rates reached their first peak, the system marriage contract. “a marriage contract is an agreement between the persons entering into marriage, or an agreement between the spouses, defining the property rights and obligations of the spouses in the marriage and (or) in the event of its dissolution.” its place.. The system of a marriage contract latently implants in a person’s consciousness an attitude towards temporaryness marital relations, their fragility and washes away the idea that “only death can separate spouses.” L.P. Bogdanova, A.S. Shchukina Civil marriage in the modern demographic situation. The results of the study allow us to conclude that society’s attitude towards civil marriage is becoming more and more loyal. A significant part of the population, all of them age groups, considers civil marriage as a trial version of a marriage union. L.V. Kartseva Model of family in conditions of transformation Russian society The study made it possible to identify the features of the changed “face” of the Russian family. Thus, there is a category of cohabiting individuals raising joint children or illegitimate children of one of the partners. Both first and subsequent marriages are dissolved. Celibacy is deliberately maintained by a certain part of people (usually divorced people). Reproductive intentions are sharply limited. Thus, the subject-centric approach both in the theory of sociology and in social practice allows you to pay attention not so much to the individual himself, but to the family group and think through a system of measures that could create the necessary and sufficient conditions for its sustainable functioning, increasing its role and authority both in the individual and in the public consciousness. The situation in the marriage and family sphere is such that the return of the family to successful and economically stable functioning will become possible only after overcoming the economic crisis and creating favorable conditions for a socially desirable version of its structure E.R. Yarskaya – Smirnova Problematization of the family in sociology. Today, the Russian sociological community is just beginning to enter the zone of action of the anthropological revolution, but its influence on our culture is already quite noticeable, at least in how close attention not only to other cultures, but also to our own, is growing. It is possible to go beyond the limits of contextual limitations only by reflecting on the localization and temporalization of the text, including the theoretical field of the family and family policy. The claim to the universal truth of scientific representation only masks the total will to power, the desire to shape and subjugate the subject to the tyranny of the dominant discourse. I. F. Dementieva. Social well-being of the family Russia's transition to a qualitatively new path of socio-economic development has significantly affected the life of the family. The deterioration of the family's financial situation, associated, among other things, with the decline in the prestige of a number of professions, has weakened the educational authority of parents. State employment policy does not form a social order for families and schools to provide vocational training for young people. The insufficient attention of government agencies to “at-risk” families does not allow establishing a barrier to the criminalization of Russian society. And lastly, the national interests of Russia require taking urgent measures to socially support the family - a fundamental institution of Russian society and a priority subject of the socialization of children.
64. The essence and types of pedagogical technologies in teaching sociology. Special direction pedagogical learning technologies-appeared in the sixties of the last century. It originated in the USA and England, and over time it became widespread in other countries. Today the concept "pedagogical learning technologies" includes cumulative knowledge about the means and methods of organizing and conducting the educational process. Types of educational technologies. Traditional pedagogical technology. Presented in the form of a class-lesson system, the obligatory element of which is a lesson. Classes are held simultaneously with the whole class. The role of the teacher in this case is to explain the content educational material, transfer knowledge, develop skills, evaluate the results of reproducing what has been learned. Modular-rating pedagogical technology. The bottom line: all the material being studied is divided into modules. The educational process is organized as a sequential progression through modules, and the significance - the complexity and importance of a particular topic - is determined by the number of points. The student rating as a comprehensive measure of the quality of specialist training is the sum of points received by the student during the learning process. The formation of a student’s rating takes into account all aspects of educational activity: attendance and activity in classes; rhythm and quality of execution course work, volume and quality of acquired knowledge. Pedagogical technology problem-based learning. Based on the theoretical principles of the American philosopher, psychologist and teacher D. Dewey. Today, problem-based learning is understood as such an organization of educational activities that involves the creation, under the guidance of a teacher, of problem situations and active independent activity of students to resolve them, as a result of which creative mastery occurs professional knowledge, skills, abilities and development of thinking abilities. The goal of problem technology is the assimilation of methods of independent activity, the development of cognitive and creativity. Pedagogical technology of programmed learning. Programmed learning arose in the early 50s of the 20th century, when the American psychologist B. Skinner proposed increasing the efficiency of assimilation of material by constructing it as a sequential program for supplying portions of information and their control. Subsequently, N. Crowder developed branched programs that, depending on the control results, offered the student various material for independent work. Pedagogical technology of distance learning. Distance learning is a complex of educational services provided to the general population in the country and abroad with the help of a specialized information and educational environment, based on means of exchanging educational information at a distance (computer communications, satellite television, etc.). A feature of distance learning is, -firstly, the isolation (distance) of the student from the teacher; secondly, independence is a kind of distance learning option; and thirdly, active integration of information tools and resources into the learning process.
65. Characteristics of the main forms of teaching sociology (lecture, seminar). Forms of teaching sociology: 1.Lectures. Throughout the history of higher education, the lecture has been and remains the leading form of teaching (from the Latin lexio - reading). This is where the student's first acquaintance with academic discipline, it introduces students to science, introduces them to the basic categorical apparatus, and lays the foundations scientific knowledge on the subject being studied. Its main goal is to provide a systematic presentation of the fundamentals of the science being studied and thereby prepare students for independent work with sources and scientific publications. The peculiarity of university education is determined by the fact that here lectures are given special role. This feature is manifested in the fact that the lecturer (who is also scientist) introduces listeners not just to educational material, but tries to give the latest information from the field of his science, summarizing the data that appears in the scientific literature, strives not only to provide information, but also to explain it, to convey its meaning to each listener. 2. Seminars and practical classes. The seminar, along with the lecture, has become one of the main forms of practical knowledge acquisition. It is intended for in-depth study of the subject with the active use of the student’s creative abilities. The goals and objectives of seminar classes are very diverse. They stimulate: the development of professional speech skills; the development of independent thinking; the ability to argue and substantiate one’s point of view; study and analysis of primary sources; study of additional literature on the topic being studied; a critical attitude towards one’s own speech and the speech of one’s fellow students; the ability to compare data from different sources and summarize them; the ability to connect theoretical principles with practical situations; the development of strong professional convictions. Only then does the seminar fulfill its cognitive and educational functions, when there is a lively, interested discussion, sometimes reaching sharp, heated debates on the issues formulated in the seminar plan. And this is only possible provided that all students, or at least most of them, have seriously studied the recommended literature, that they clearly see the theoretical and practical significance issues discussed at the seminar 3.INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS Independent work of students is one of the most important forms of the educational process in higher school, while its value has a steady tendency to increase. This is explained by the fact that in the complex of requirements for a specialist with higher education, the ability to independently navigate the flow of information, the ability to self-educate and accumulate knowledge takes an increasing share. In the process of independent work, a person’s abilities are revealed, his qualities as a creative person are formed, therefore the ability to independently obtain and use information is one of the most valuable qualities of a modern specialist. The peculiarity of university education is to develop creative potential student. The entire teaching methodology at the university is aimed at activating this potential, revealing the creative potential of each student. That is why independent work of students at a university becomes an important component of the learning process and university didactics.
66. Features and types of control of students’ knowledge in teaching sociology. Control is the relationship between the achieved results and the planned learning objectives. The effectiveness of managing the educational process and the quality of specialist training largely depend on its proper organization. Testing students' knowledge should provide information not only about the correctness or incorrectness of the final result of the activity performed, but also about the activity itself: whether the form of action corresponds to this stage of learning. Well-established control allows the teacher not only to correctly assess the level of students’ assimilation of the material being studied, but also to see their own successes and failures. The following types of control are distinguished: Preliminary. It allows you to determine the initial level of knowledge and skills of students. Based on the data from the preliminary control carried out at the beginning of the year, the teacher makes adjustments to the calendar-thematic plan, determines which sections curriculum more attention should be paid. Current control is one of the main types of testing the knowledge, skills and abilities of students. The main task of current control is the regular management of students’ educational activities and their adjustment. It allows you to obtain continuous information about the progress and quality of assimilation of educational material and, on the basis of this, promptly make changes to the educational process; it stimulates regular, intense activity; determining the level of students’ mastery of independent work skills, creating conditions for their formation. Periodic (milestone) - allows you to determine the quality of students’ study of educational material by sections and topics of the subject. Such control is usually carried out several times a semester. Examples of midterm control include tests and tests on laboratory work. Periodic monitoring allows you to check the strength of assimilation of acquired knowledge and acquired skills, since it is carried out over a long period of time and not in separate doses of educational material. Midterm control covers students of the entire group and is carried out in the form of an oral survey, small written practical work. Final - aimed at checking specific learning outcomes, identifying the degree to which students have mastered the system of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the process of studying the subject. In preparation for it, a more in-depth generalization and systematization of the learned material occurs. When systematizing and generalizing the knowledge and skills of students, the developmental effect of training is manifested to a greater extent, since at this stage intellectual abilities and skills are especially intensively formed. Final control is carried out at transfer and semester exams, state exams, and the defense of a diploma project.
67. Methodological support for lectures on sociology. Methodological support for the lecture - highlighting the main thoughts, provisions and definitions, formulating conclusions and recommendations, selecting illustrative material, using technical teaching aids; Its main goal is to give a systematic presentation of the fundamentals of the science being studied and thereby prepare students for independent work with sources and scientific publications. types of lectures.-introductory; -lecture of a systematic course; -lecture of a special course; -review; -introductory. According to the form of presentation of lecture material, there are t: - informational and explanatory lecture; - problem lecture; - reflection lecture; - conversation lecture. Literature, used in preparing lectures on sociology can be divided into the following types: scientific (book products or periodicals); educational (textbooks, teaching aids, lecture courses); methodological (general and specific methods, corresponding plans and programs); reference (dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias); artistic; general periodicals (newspapers and magazines). The main part of the lecture, with methodological point view, breaks down into theoretical and empirical material. Theoretical material is a generally valid part of knowledge. What is accepted in the scientific community in the form of certain theoretical provisions, principles, laws and categories, which does not allow subjective interpretation, is the information core of the topic. The peculiarity of preparing lectures on sociology is that the teacher, on the one hand, needs to skillfully navigate in the multifaceted theoretical material that is available on almost every topic of the course, and on the other hand, show skill in its organization and systematization. The material in sociology lectures should be as closely related to local conditions as possible. For example, if you are reading a topic about family and marital relations or about deviant behavior, then, of course, it is necessary to support theoretical provisions with local data, and not with those given in textbooks and publications in the near and far abroad. Only in this case will the sociology course be perceived not as a purely theoretical, abstract construction, but as having great practical meaning, directly affecting the interests of students. The plan and program of the general sociology course is designed to familiarize students of non-sociological specialties with the fundamentals of modern sociological knowledge with the corresponding methodological instructions and explanations. The standard program is designed for 34 academic hours, i.e. to study sociology for one semester with credit in the form of knowledge control. It is assumed that 18 hours will be allocated for lectures, 12 hours for seminars, and 4 hours for supervised independent work of students. Of course, in every special case this combination can vary up to such extreme cases when the entire amount of class time is allocated only to lectures. Then the topics of lectures should be expanded due to the topics of seminar classes. Taking into account the fact that in the cycle of humanities subjects such as political science, religious studies, ethics, cultural studies, etc. are studied, a number of related topics could be excluded from the general course of sociology with given subjects, for example, sociology of politics or sociology of religion, etc. The main focus of the general sociology course is on the study of social structure, analysis of the main social institutions and problems of socialization and institutionalization. The number of lecture topics offered below (assuming 2 hours for each topic) is somewhat larger than the eighteen-hour program suggests, which allows the teacher to either enlarge specified topics, or shorten some of them. In addition, each topic is complex in nature and can be divided into a number of individual questions, which can become either topics for independent study or topics for seminar classes. That is why the proposed program as a whole is approximate and allows for variation depending on the profile of the specialty and the number of teaching hours allocated to the study of sociology at each university and at each faculty. In the lecture notes after each topic, a list of references is not indicated, because a general list of this literature with corresponding methodological instructions is given at the end of the complex.
68. Methods of preparing and conducting seminars and practical classes in sociology.
