Exam of previous years in literature. How to pass the Unified State Exam in literature: features, requirements and recommendations

Subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS GOES TO ARIA, AND NOT TO US)

Morphology translated from Greek literally means “the study of form.” This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of the word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The famous linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical study of words.

A word as a grammatical unit is a collection of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text it appears in a specific word form. Yes, word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms singular and 6 case forms plural. In examples They gave me an interesting one book And They gave me interesting books The selected word forms differ in their particular grammatical meanings – singular meanings. and many more numbers, with the word book preserves both lexical and categorical grammatical meaning subject. Token is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have identical lexical meaning. The entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text or constructing a statement, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expression certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the peculiarities of the functioning of grammatical forms, and have an idea of ​​the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.

That is why subject of morphology is teaching about parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, aspect, mood, tense, person, voice),system of inflection.

Morphology tasks.

· determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

· establish which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

· establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

· correlate them with the characteristics of objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal means involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (NRY edited by Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

· Actually grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> Full description grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - studying grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - the creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Grammar options in various fields life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (teach to speak or write abstracts).

· Functional aspect. Describes how language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

· grammatical (morphological) form,

· grammatical meaning,

· morphological paradigm,

· parts of speech.

Grammatical is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by individual elements, or using other words in a sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

1. Based on the question, we can determine that this word form generally names an object.

2. Based on the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. The interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, it is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one thing is meant.

6. Allows the phrases white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very little house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)

7. The phrase house that I built allows, but does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimateness)

8. Allows collocation white house, and does not allow white house or house that stands on the mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows collocation yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows collocation admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental case)

11. Allows collocation

a wonderful house, but does not allow the wonderful house

(subordinate instrumental)

Grammatical meanings are complementary to lexical ones, but due to their enviable regularity they can be interpreted separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The set of all possible word forms of one specific word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, about brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, about brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of similar means, where it is contrasted with other forms. (singular and plural numbers, for example)

Grammatical form– unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

Grammatical meaning– generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of a grammatical category opposed to each other. The word forms of the inflected parts of speech express both the general grammatical meaning and specific morphological meanings. Unchangeable parts of speech are characterized only by a general grammatical (categorical) meaning. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), attribute attribute ( Moscow-style hospitable). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm is the totality of all forms of the word being modified. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech consists of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes number and case paradigms.

The concept of grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms, according to their grammatical content, are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. This is precisely the definition of a grammatical category adopted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of a grammatical category. It's a closed system.

We need to differentiate inflectional And non-inflectional (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflectional:

This is necessary in order to be able to form forms correctly. So, for example, the form I'll protect formed from a perfective verb protect, form I protect - from an imperfective verb protect.

Grammatical category– a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposing rows.G.k. are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories one can name the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed inflectional system, the distinction between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories is fundamental.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their differentiation. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. Grammatical category of animate/inanimate.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The nuclear nature of this group of words is ensured by unique semantic features: the denotation of a noun can be any reality. For example:

· Material objects: house, pen.

· Signs: blue.

·Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Movement: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: correspondence.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical subject (subject matter), performs the syntactic function of subject and object, and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in the inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and the non-inflectional categories of gender and animate-inanimate. A noun always answers the question who? What? You need to ask a question about the initial form of the word.

Initial noun form – form nominative case, units numbers, and for nouns that do not have a singular form. h. – form named after. plural case numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be the subject and object, as well as inconsistent definition: performance by figure skaters, fairy tales by Pushkin.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be defined by an adjective and a participle: Cold winter, past holiday.

Dividing nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animate-inanimate with the concept of living-inanimate. Yes, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm– nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view they are living organisms. In grammar, the names of deceased people are dead man, deceased– are considered animate, and only a noun dead body– inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is the category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animate nouns usually name living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specific declension and represent a special category in relation to the category of gender, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the named creatures:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

Animate nouns have an accusative plural form (and in masculine and singular) coincides with the genitive case form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) – students, student, horses.
No one? (genus) – students, student, horses. Waiting for who? Student.

Animate nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of objects that seem to be alive for some reason. For example: I dress dolls, fly a kite.

Inanimate:

In inanimate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) coincides with the nominative case form.
I see what? (vin.pad.) – airplanes, plane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (named after pad.) – airplanes, plane.

Inanimate nouns used figuratively receive the meaning of a person and become animate: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numerals ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial version).

Conclusion: To correctly determine the animate/inanimate nature of a noun, the word must be considered in the context of a sentence.

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. Grammatical category of number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexical and grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

There are such lexical-grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common nouns, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, material, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories– semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender is specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many more number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dissected set of objects. This is an inflectional category that covers all modifiable nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a core group. Abstract, real and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in the category of number.

Please note: lexically non-identical number forms: choice, elections. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heavens

· pain/pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a singular number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, grains, I years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “The singular function of the singular number, devoid of direct relation to number and counting, appears especially clearly in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomena ideological direction, flows in general in the designations abstract concepts"(militarization, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed in the case when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses covered) (People walked with a scarf tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite objects (firewood, sledges, sleds);

3. Mass, substance, material in its entirety (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residues from some process: bran, sawdust, scraps;

6. Places and localities (places, heads, settlements, as well as proper names Bronnitsy);

7. Period of time (days, twilight, holidays);

8. Complex action, a condition consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, pranks);

9. Games (hide and seek, bloopers, catch-up);

10. Rituals and holidays (baptisms, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (living in the dark, being able, being in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (they take envy, to celebrate).

All nouns are in singular form. h. have a category of genus, i.e. belong to one of 3 genera: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -a, -ya in the form im. p.un. numbers usually refer to the feminine gender (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If the initial form has the ending –о, -е, then the noun belongs to the neuter gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domische (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of the m. gender).

A small group of words belong to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have a singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sleigh, gate, ink) are not distributed by gender.

Family couple

Family couple is a paired opposition of the nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of biological sex.

There are pairs:

1. suppletive birth pairs (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional– having common ground and differing in endings (husband - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexandra).

If the words included in the generic pair are names of animals, then the type of animal can be designated either by the word m of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys) or by the word w. kind (cats, sheep, goats).

Common nouns

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), there are also nouns general kind, in meaning they correlate with persons of both male and female gender, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech for the speech characteristics of characters, when addressing a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. In professional use a couple arose nurse– medical brother.

Generic variants

Many nouns are used in the SRL in both the m and f forms. kind.

· -​ aviary - aviary (more commonly 1 form);

· -​ giraffe – giraffe (1st form is more common);

· -​ clip – clip (literary form is 1);

· -​ reprise – reprise (the 2nd form is most often used).

The uniqueness of the languages ​​of the world is manifested in grammatical categories. Thus, the category of gender, familiar to East Slavic languages, turns out to be unknown to entire families of languages ​​- Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. Chinese there is no grammatical category of number, in Japanese There are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In the Russian language, the category of gender of nouns is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, whereas in Lithuanian language nouns retain gender distinctions in the plural.

1) grammatical category (GC) acts generalization a whole series (necessarily at least two) grammatical meanings correlative and opposed to each other, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms (generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc.)

2) Civil Codes can change and disappear(cases in English language(4=>2), category of number in Russian (singular, plural, dual)

3) Civil codes are divided into morphological and syntactic, namely:

a) morphological– uniting grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes, i.e. in the center of morphological categories is the word with its grammatical changes and its grammatical characteristics; morphological GCs are expressed in following forms:

• inflectional forms:

combine word forms within the same lexeme (for example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional; the adjective agrees with the noun, taking on its grammatical gender: white paper, white spot)

• classification forms:

classification categories unite lexemes based on common grammatical meaning (category of gender of nouns - classification; noun table male, the wall is female, the window is middle, and this generic “attachment” is strictly obligatory)

b) syntactic categories- these are categories based on morphological categories, but going far beyond them: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under general concept"predicativeness".

Grammatical meaning:

Grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in the language.

To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.

1) degree of coverage of lexical material:

Grammatical meaning groups groups of words into specific grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity unites a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language in grammar class a noun, the grammatical meaning of an action, another part of the vocabulary - into the class of a verb, etc.

2) acts in relation to the lexical additional, accompanying:

Using various formal indicators, we can change the appearance of a word without changing its lexical meaning (water-water-water-water-water; carry-carry-carry-carry-carry-carry, etc.). However, the grammatical meanings differ regularity of expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators, with the help of which they are implemented in in different words(for example, the ending -ы, -и in genitive case singular for feminine nouns).

3) by the nature of generalization and abstraction:

If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical meaning arises as generalization of the properties of words, as abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although behind grammatical abstraction there are also general properties and signs of things and phenomena (division in Russian and Belarusian languages verbal tense for the past, present and future corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future).

4) features of the attitude towards thinking and the structure of language:

If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of language and, as part of specific phrases, express thoughts, knowledge, and ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organization of thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralingual nature.

Grammatical form- this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings (gender, number, case, etc.). Grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.

Paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words.

The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence of a stable, invariant part of the word (the root of the stem) and its changing part (inflections, less often suffixes).

Morphological paradigms are divided into big and small, as well as on complete and incomplete. Complete Paradigm includes a set all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms of the word; in the incomplete paradigm, some forms of the word are not formed. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in the Russian language includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the gender paradigm, the number paradigm, the paradigm of full and short forms, the paradigm of degrees of comparison. Big Paradigms include all meanings of the word, while small – only part of the values.

30. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. Means for the formation of synthetic and analytical forms. Mixed word forms

Grammatical meanings can be expressed both within a word - this is affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetition and intonation, and outside of it – this is intonation, methods

function words and word order. The first row of methods is called synthetic, second -

analytical.

1) synthetic methods:

a) affixation:

The method of affixation is attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words, serving to express grammatical meanings. Thus, many grammatical meanings of the Russian verb (person, gender, number, tense) are expressed by endings and the suffix -l-: work-yu, work-esh, work-em, work-em, work-ete, work-ut, work- l, work-l-a, work-l-o, work-l-i.

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed by a zero affix, for example, zero ending in the words house, city, forest, garden, student, etc. The zero indicator in grammar has the same formal force as positive indicators. In the system of grammatical forms he contrasted with the presence of formal indicators, thereby acquiring its grammatical meaning in grammatical oppositions. In the examples given, the zero inflection expresses the meanings of the nominative case, singular and masculine in nouns, that is, zero expresses three grammatical meanings at once. The zero grammatical indicator is also present in syntactic constructions. For example, in expressions like Table - furniture, Roses - flowers.

b) alternation of sounds in the root:

Grammatical meanings can also be expressed by alternating sounds in the root, which are sometimes called internal inflection. Such alternations of sounds are not determined by their phonetic position. At the same time, not every alternation of sounds at the root, not determined by their phonetic position, is grammatically significant. In the Russian language there are a lot of so-called historical, or traditional, alternations that are not stipulated in modern language phonetic position. They are called historical because they occurred at one time or another. historical period development of the language and are not explained by its modern state. These alternations do not express grammatical meanings in themselves, for example, stump - stump, day - day, sleep - sleep, run - run, bake - bake, dry - drier, etc., but only accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms , acting as mandatory by tradition.

c) emphasis:

One way of expressing grammatical meanings is stress. In Russian, this method can be observed when expressing grammatical meaning of the perfect and imperfect forms in verbs: cut - cut, pour - pour, take out - take out, cut - cut, pour out - pour out, etc. This method is important in the Russian language with some nouns: walls - walls, pipes - pipes, houses - houses, cities - cities, parusa - parusa, khutora - khutora, etc. In English, a verb and a noun can differ only in the place of stress in the word, for example: progréss - progress, progress - progress, import - import, ímport - import, etc. In different languages, the grammatical method of stress plays different role, which depends on the type and type of stress in the language. In languages ​​with a fixed single-place stress, oppositions such as the Russian pairs of words noted above are impossible.

d) suppletivism:

In some cases, to express grammatical meanings it is necessary to use forms of words formed from other roots. Such an expression of grammatical meanings using other roots is called suppletivism, and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, the suppletive way of expressing grammatical meanings is considered unproductive. In a suppletive way, for example, it is expressed grammatical meaning of indirect cases of personal pronouns(I - me, you - you, he - them, we - us), the meaning of the plural of some nouns (child - children, person - people), the grammatical meaning of the perfect form of a number of verbs (take - take, speak - say, look for - find), value comparative degree individual adjectives (good - better, bad - worse).

e) repetitions or reduplications:

Consists of full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, which is associated with the expression of grammatical meaning. Repetitions can be carried out without changing the sound composition of the word or with a partial change in it. In a number of languages, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in Chinese, Malay, Korean, Armenian and other languages: Chinese zhen - person, zhen-zhen - people, xing - star, xing-xing - stars; Malay orang – person, orang-orang – people; Korean saram – person, saram-saram – each of the people; Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - many regiments. In Russian, repetitions are used as means of enhancing the intensity of an action or symptom, as well as duration, repetition of action: yes-yes, no-no, barely, barely, kind-kind, big-big, thought-thought, high-high, walk-walk, ask-ask.

f) addition:

A way of forming words in which the reference (last) component is equal to the whole word, A previous its component (or components) is clean base. The composition of the word-formation formant in pure addition includes: a) interfix, indicating the connection of the components compound word and signaling the loss of the morphological significance of the previous component; b) fixed order of components; c) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component: primary source, forest-steppe, wear-resistant, and half-turned. Interfix can be zero: Tsar-cannon, plunder-army (colloquial)

2) analytical methods:

a) intonation:

Intonation can serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings. In some languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese, intonation is used to distinguishing both lexical meanings of a word and grammatical. In the Russian language, intonation is also, in some cases, one of the means of expressing grammatical meanings in a word. For example, a verb in the infinitive form can appear in imperative mood, being pronounced with the intonation of a command, an order, a call to action: stand up! sit down! lie down! stand! be silent! run! close! etc. In Russian, intonation as a means of expressing grammatical meanings is widely used in a sentence. Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences differ from each other in the type of intonation; with the help of pauses inside the sentence they show the grouping of sentence members, highlight introductory words and expressions, can differentiate between simple and complex sentences.

b) function words:

Function words are lexically dependent words that do not have a nominative function in the language (they do not name objects, properties or relationships) and express various semantic-syntactic

relationships between words, sentences and parts of sentences.

c) word order:

In languages ​​in which there are no inflections (or they are rarely used) and the word usually retains the same form, word order is very important. an important way of expressing grammatical meanings. For example, in English, a sentence has a very fixed word order, in which the subject is in the first place, the predicate in the second, the object in the third, the adverbial in the fourth, that is, the place in which the word appears in the statement turns out to be a factor expressing its grammatical meaning.

Suggestions the man killed a tiger – a man killed a tiger and the tiger killed the man - the tiger killed the man gets the opposite meaning by changing the places of the subject and object. Word order also plays an important grammatical role in languages ​​such as Chinese, French, and Bulgarian.

The Russian language differs from other languages ​​in its relatively free word order. But in some cases, word order becomes the only means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. Thus, in the sentences “Mother loves daughter” and “Daughter loves mother”, “Being determines consciousness” and “Consciousness determines being”, “The tram hit the car and the Car hit the tram” the meaning of the nominative case is created by placing the noun in the first place; in the first place the noun plays the role of the subject, in the last place - the object.

Mixed or hybrid, the type of expression of grammatical meanings combines the characteristics of synthetic and analytical types. Thus, in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition (by car, in the house, in the forest, about the earth, about the accident, etc.).

Many languages ​​combine both types of expression of grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical, but one of the types always prevails. The predominantly synthetic languages ​​include Latin, Sanskrit, Russian, Lithuanian, German and other languages. In languages ​​of predominantly analytical structure - English, French, Spanish, Danish, Modern Greek, Bulgarian and others - the analytical type of expression of grammatical meanings predominates, the main way of which is function words.

2.1. Morphological GCs

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic Civil Codes

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

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General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is constructed either based on form or based on grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammatical category(Greek katē goria‘judgment, definition’) – a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, s. 227; Alefirenko, s. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of civil codes are civil laws. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific concept.

Members (components) of the Civil Code, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1st, 2nd, 3rd person) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialseverity grammatical meaning (GS). Wed. GZ definition: Grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to talk about GC.

The second necessary sign of GC, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposing forms, united by some value:

among the Russians there are nouns GC kind, but the English ones do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (direct and indirect case are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no contrasting grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single civil code that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the civil concept and the way of its expression [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same GP is expressed in different ways:

In language uss(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) the plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) are plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'People';

consumption of some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'hands';

wai‘oar’ – lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'Brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal inflection:

gwu la 'cloak' - gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. – 1993). Quote from: Reformatsky, p. 263].

write -on -write,

decideA -th – decide-And -th,

personalAnd army - gather,

incisioná th - cuté shut up,

speak -say .

Types of grammatical categories

There are several classifications of HA.

1. Depending on the number of opposing members the same Civil Code can be organized differently in different languages.

Binomial GK:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. sort of in Romance (masculine ↔ feminine) and Iranian languages ​​(according to animate / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in the Slovenian, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the singular and dv forms are contrasted. and many others. For example, Khant.:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n 'two trees', yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

in Papuan languages ​​there is also triple number;

2. Civil codes are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological GCs characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; sort of,numbers And case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are internal to a word and do not depend on its use in a sentence (cf. Russian categories sort of nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal type civil code: GK gender, case, animate-inanimate;

Verb type GC: Civil code of tense, type, voice, mood.

GK language are in close cooperation and show a tendency towards interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. moods, and kind: temporary forms are usually contrasted within indicative mood representing real events; if a language has a lot of “tenses”, then this types temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the vulgar, present continious etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects noun and verb.

In order to state that in a certain language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some general meaning so that within this association there is opposition and that those opposed have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites linguistic units on the basis of the common meaning “number.” Within this unification, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of singular and plural numbers are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural - by the endings -i and -nnya -i ta -a.

The formal expression is very important sign grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for identifying a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language may not exist as grammatical, and in another language as lexical. From here, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is the conceptual category of gender and the grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female gender. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, China. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of expressing it. In the Ukrainian language, as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category because there are formal means of expressing it: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater “father”, die Mutter “mother”, dae Kind “child”, fr le rege “father” ", la x and Romance languages ​​are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by designated and indefinite articles. So, in particular, German der Tag"day", die Blume"flower", das Fenst er"window" mean specific concepts, objects , are already known to the speaker and the listener, while the same nouns with the indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some flower, some window. Similarly in English, French, Italian: certainty is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English French un, une, Italian l un, una. In the Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of definiteness / indefinite, because there is no formal expression for it, but a conceptual category of definiteness /. There is no certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some book) and this category of meaning/insignificance is also expressed lexically (this book, this book).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Thus, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​there is a category of the grammatical class of “person” and “thing”, in the Japanese and Korean languages ​​there is a category of politeness, etc. Languages ​​also differ in the number of opposing members within categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - about thirteen, in Tabasarai - forty-six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological categories include the category of gender, number, case, aspect, tense, method, person, to the syntactic - the category of activity / passivity, to the communicative orientation (narrativeness, nutritional, spontaneity), verbatimity / verbosity, syntactic time and syntactic method.

Classification (word-formation, derivation) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of the gender of nouns and the category of the type of verb, therefore nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one specific gender), and verbs are distributed between three species groups - perfect or imperfect verbs. bispecies.

Inflectional (relative) categories are grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the category of gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classified, but are declined by gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deal, great impression). Purely relational is also cat. Egoriya case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.

In the languages ​​of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, definite/indefinite, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It is not found in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In the Ukrainian language, every noun has a gender category (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessives, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and verbs in the past tense, this category is dependent on the noun with whom the classes of words are named are combined. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The category of gender has a formal expression. In Slavic languages ​​- tse endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for neuter, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for the ancestral gender, la, una for the feminine gender.

The number of cases in different languages ​​is not the same. There are languages ​​in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages ​​of the world, the category of number does not coincide. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there are duals and trinities. There was a duality in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two is an element, etc.). The trinity appears in some Papuan languages ​​on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages ​​- Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic there were three numbers: singular, dual and plural.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the situation being described (determination) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is characteristic of Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages ​​and is expressed using articles of definitions is English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (last for set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, un. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages ​​there are postpositive art kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg stol "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato"certain table"; village "some village" - village "certain village"; village "like a village" - village "pevne village".

In languages ​​without articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language they use the demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!),. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty:. The boy went out into the street;. On a boy went out into the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing meaning or uncertainty is context. As we see, in the Ukrainian language the category of definiteness/indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of expressing it.

There are normal, high and high degrees. In some languages ​​there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of higher and higher. superlatives. Highest degree indicates the presence of some quality in an object more than in another, high - more than in all others. Positive degree means quality regardless of degree.

Adjectives and adverbs have degrees of comparison (heavy, heavier, heavier; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o “can do”, kuzhodzhik “can do more more than vmie”.

Degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "big" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more famous - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages ​​there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukrainian good - best - best; rus good - better - the best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. good - better - the best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

The category of time is the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves for the temporal localization of the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech. Most languages ​​have three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages ​​have sp. SPECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the present time, before the future, the time of the upcoming time in the past, then the last time).

In Slavic languages, perfective and imperfective forms are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates reaching the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (made noise, wrote). The imperfect form does not indicate the extreme nature of the action (noise, wrote). In Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) for expressing it.

State category - grammatical category of a verb expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics there is no generally accepted classification of states yet, but all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier verbal signs corresponds to the object (The song is performed by the students.

This is the speaker’s assessment of the action as desirable, possible, expected (assumption), etc.

Different languages ​​have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages ​​have actual (represents the action as a real fact), conditional (represents the action as possible, desired, expected, conditional) and imperative (serves to convey an order, incentive or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, created special forms conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumption, possibility, desirability and non-categorical statement (German Ich w. Igawa, and translates it from the mouths of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubt, doubt.

In agglutinative languages ​​(for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I am writing, you are writing, you are writing)

The category of person belongs to the coordinating, inflectional category. It is expressed by personal endings (I say, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages ​​(Samoyedic, Paleo-Asian), the category of person is characteristic not only of verbs, but also of names in the predicate position. So, in. In the Koryak language gyolyaygym “man-I”, gyolyaygyt “man-ti”, gyolya “man-he”; nytuygym "y-ti", nytuikyn "young-on" However, there are also languages ​​in which the category of person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian and some others... Before them lie Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian and other languages.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are made up of collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, etc.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some compound nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-xia (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, material names, names of creatures / inanimate do not have formal indicators (city. Eagle and eagle flying, oil and window, crow and crown));

3) interact with associated grammatical categories. Thus, the category of state depends on the reflexiveness of verbs (reflexive verbs do not relate to the active state), the category of case depends on the creature / inanimate (in the names of creatures the accusative case form coincides with the genitive form, in inanimate names the accusative case form coincides with the nominative form), from persons / neoso - category of gender (names in ru have, as a rule, a category of masculine or feminine, names neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - category of number (names have only the singular form or only the plural (Kiev ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms opposed within the category. If, for example, names are contrasted with general names, names of creatures with inanimate names, transitive verbs- intransitive. Diez words, then within material and collective nouns there is a similar opposition. NO.