Pathetic, insignificant people, panicky. Mikhail Samuelevich Panikovsky - a man without a passport

One of the oldest Russian cities (now the village of St. Izborsk), 30 km west of Pskov. First mentioned in 862. In 13-16 centuries. a fortress that defended the Pskov and Novgorod lands from the German crusaders. Walls and towers of the fortress of the 14th and 15th centuries, monuments... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

IZBORSK- IZBORSK, one of the oldest Russian cities (now the village of Stary Izborsk), 30 km west of Pskov. First mentioned in 862. In 13-16 centuries. a fortress that protected the Pskov and Novgorod lands from the crusaders. Walls and towers of the fortress 14-15 centuries, ... ... Russian history

Izborsk- noun, number of synonyms: 1 city (2765) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Izborsk- (Izboresk, Sboresk, Sborsk and Sborts) one of the oldest Russian cities, mentioned by the initial chronicler as the center of the Kriv population along with the cities of Smolensk and Polotsk. According to legend, it was founded by Sloven, the son of Gostomysl, who gave it the name... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

Izborsk- one of the oldest Russian cities (now the village of Old Izborsk), 30 km west of Pskov. First mentioned in 862. In the XIII-XVI centuries. a fortress that protected the Pskov and Novgorod lands from the crusaders. Walls and towers of the fortress of the 14th-15th centuries, monuments... encyclopedic Dictionary

Izborsk- one of the oldest Russian cities (now the village of Old Izborsk), located 30 km west of Pskov, on Lake Gorodishchenskoye; in the chronicle it is mentioned under 862. In 1303 it was moved from the so-called Truvorov settlement 1/4 km east, to so ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Izborsk- IZBORSK (Izbork, Izborsko, Izborovsk, Izboresk, Izborsko), a city in the Pskov land, now the village of Pskov. lips and u. In 862, Prince Truvor sat here. In 1233 the city was taken into exile by the prince. Yaroslav Vladimirovich with the Germans, but the Pskovians... ... Military encyclopedia

IZBORSK- one of the oldest Russians. cities (located 30 km west of Pskov, on Lake Gorodishchenskoye); mentioned in the chronicle under 862. In 1303 it was transferred from the so-called. Truvorov settlement 1/4 km east, on the so-called. Zheravy Gora, where a stone was built in 1330... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

Izborsk- (Stary Izborsk, Staroizborsk), a village in the Pskov region, on the Pskov-Tartu highway, 30 km west of Pskov. First the city. One of the oldest Russian cities, mentioned in chronicles in 862. The foundation is associated with the legend about the calling of the Varangian to Rus'... Geographical encyclopedia

Izborsk- 181518, Pskov, Pechora... Settlements and indexes of Russia

Books

• According to ancient Russian cities: Novgorod. Staraya Russa. Pskov. Old Izborsk, . The guide introduces you to the present and past of ancient Russian cities - Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Stary Izborsk. A visit to them gives a broad understanding of historical path Russian... Buy for 480 RUR
• Along the Silver Ring by car. Guide, Golomolzin, Evgeniy. Are you planning a short vacation by car and don’t know where to go? Do you love ancient cities? Check out the Silver Ring Guide! Velikiy Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Great...

A lot of time has passed since the publication of this article, a lot has changed... For example, I began to write on the blog much less often, and devote maximum attention to my big new project -. Check it out, you'll like it!

A little background

Izborsk owes its name to Prince Izbor - according to legend, who lived even before the arrival of Rurik. Tom, in turn, inherited the city from his father, Sloven (under whom the name was, accordingly, Slovensk). And Izbor’s grandfather was the legendary Gostomysl - the leader of a number of northern Slavic tribes long before Baptism and the emergence of Russian statehood.

The distant past of Izborsk is shrouded in hundreds of unsolved mysteries regarding who exactly the Slavs were and how Rus' came into being. Ivankin’s dad shared with me some of the most daring historical hypotheses, according to which Rurik was the grandson of Gostomysl - accordingly, a Slav, and not at all a foreign Varangian. There is an opinion that our ancient ancestors were not wild tribes at all - but a civilized nation with a highly developed culture, the memory of which was decided to be burned with fire and carved with a sword immediately after the adoption of Christianity at the instigation of Western and Byzantine protectors.

A hefty knot of history is tied in Izborsk. This is probably the main reason why the place is absolutely overflowing with ancient energy. Here, like nowhere else, you feel close to the mysterious past of Rus'.

Izborsk Fortress

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3. A cozy alley on the way to the fortress.

4. In the times of Rus', Izborsk was, although not identical in importance, quite comparable to Kiev, Vladimir and Novgorod. However, much earlier than everyone else, it began to experience decline - primarily due to the rapid development of neighboring Pskov, which, fortunately, was located at the intersection of trade routes. Of course, the degradation of Izborsk is all quite sad. However, it is thanks to her that many traces of a bygone era have been preserved here, like no other place. For example, in the next photo you can clearly see traces of the old stone road along which people entered the fortress back in the Middle Ages.

5. View from the fortress. There is much more nature in Izborsk than houses.

Over the past three hundred years, since the fortress lost its strategic importance, the entire complex has become significantly dilapidated. But it was not so much time that harmed the fortress as the actions of local swindlers and thieves, who, a couple of years ago, started in words - reconstruction, but in reality - cutting up the billion-dollar budget. Unskilled migrant workers patched holes in the walls with ultra-cheap material, while drilling and scraping centuries-old stone. As a result, during the restoration work, several collapses occurred in the fortress. The historical path under the walls of the complex is littered with fragments of stone, and the remake contrasts disgustingly with the background of the surviving elements of the defensive structures. But the most interesting thing... Attention! Despite all the terrifying picture that you will see next, the governor of the Pskov region signed an act of acceptance of the work, indicating that the budget of hundreds of millions of rubles has been successfully spent, and the restoration... is completed! Corruption is immense in the capitals, but what is happening in the regions is quiet, utter horror! In Izborsk, on this occasion, there is now a real battle between good and evil, which I will talk about later, but a little later. For now, let's talk about pleasant things.

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7. Inside the defensive structures, the territory of the fortress is not improved in any way. In April, for a couple of weeks after the snow melts, you can only walk on the washed-out ground in boots. However, we arrived just in time - the ground had dried out and the first grass had already appeared. There is not much to see in the fortress itself so far except for one thing - I highly, highly recommend climbing the tower from the next photo. By the way, she has a very cute Russian name- "Onion". This is what the tower was called back in the Middle Ages.

The fortress at one time was an unconquerable stronghold. During its entire existence, Izborsk was taken only once - in the Time of Troubles by King Stefan Batory, for reasons that were quite understandable. The enemy army was confronted by incredibly high walls - together with the hill, these are tens of meters - a ditch filled with water. The gates of the fortress were its most fortified place. Having hardly knocked out the hefty gate with a battering ram, the enemy ran triumphantly through it, and, without even realizing it, found himself in a trap. The fact is that before getting inside the fortress, you had to go through two gates, separated from each other by a long and narrow passage in the wall. This type of structure is called a zahab or, more ominously, a “death corridor.” Once inside, the enemy became helpless. Hemmed in by walls on all sides, the warriors were subjected to total execution by archers - the defenders of the fortress.

Unfortunately, almost no zahabs have survived to this day. However, it will not be difficult to restore them in your imagination, taking a closer look at the ruins of the fortress.

8. View of the fortress wall from Lukovka.

9. From “Lukovka” there is a simply magnificent view of the Izborsk-Malskaya valley with a clear lake. The nature of these places is unique. The fortress, together with the adjacent valley, is part of a special environmental zone.

10. Notice how stunning the landscape is - even before the greenery blooms; How blue is the water in the lake. Yes, yes, there is not an ounce of Photoshop here. What you see is what originally appeared in the photo.

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12. From above, from the fortress, the valley opens up - no more, no less - just a magical view.

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18. The fact that some part of the restoration work was nevertheless completed is noticeable by the disgusting remake at the top of the “Lukovka”. Well, what kind of cognitive dissonance is it - at the top of a medieval tower to see poor metal-plastic and double-glazed Euro-windows? And also this glass floor, more suitable for a tavern or concert hall- but not for an architectural monument of pre-imperial Russia. I am sure that the curators of the restoration have not only a real tragedy of taste - they completely lack it.

19. Inside "Lukovka".

20. Apparently, to create the appropriate atmosphere, there are two old wooden carts near the tower. Tourists love to take pictures nearby.

21. Territory inside the fortress. I already noticed before that there is absolutely nothing to see here now. Only mountains of construction waste and ditches from equipment. Oh yes, there is a functioning temple, but it didn’t seem at all remarkable or interesting to me.

22. At “Lukovka” a narrow passage has been preserved in the fortress wall. Previously, it served as a portal leading to the dungeons of the Izborsk fortress, where ammunition and food were stored. Time has worn away the stone - the outer walls with the gates have collapsed, and now this passage will only lead the tourist outside the complex.

23. View from under the walls of the fortress to the Izborsk-Mal Valley.

24. The protective walls are bordered by a narrow, dangerous path, in some places unprotected from the cliff. Locals say it was better before - during the restoration, the walls collapsed, and the stone almost completely blocked the former path.

25. Such a sign would have made sense five centuries ago. Regarding the enemies besieging the fortress :)

26. We went down from the walls of the fortress. Once upon a time, the entire hill was lined with stone, and here and there, at the foot, there were hidden secret passages through which, having passed the dungeon system of the Izborsk fortress (a huge number of tunnels with vaults no more than a meter high), one could exit unnoticed. This was actively used by scouts, and in the event of the capture of the fortress, in this way its inhabitants could leave the city. Unfortunately, the base of the walls has not survived to this day - in some places the stone is visible, but for the most part only earthen hills remain here.

At this point, I propose to take a break from the medieval defensive art for now and move on to the second, no less impressive attraction - the Izborsk Springs.

Izborsk (Slovenian) springs

The Izborsk springs were previously called the Slovenian springs (remember, I talked about the Slavic prince Sloven, whose name Izborsk bore in the first years of its existence?), They are also known as the Springs of the Twelve Apostles - because in total there are just twelve of them, and the church calls the water in them saint.

The sources look impressive. The best time to see them is in late April - early May. Then they are most full of water. Locals don’t drink from the Izbor springs - although it is believed that the water is purified as it passes through the soil to the crevices, there is still too much iron left in it. Tourists don't think so. Either out of ignorance, or guided by their own considerations about what quality is, they fill up whole bottles of spring water, and sometimes drink right there - exposing their palms to the stream gushing from under the stone.

27. It’s a stone’s throw from the Fortress to the springs. The path goes through birch grove, it is impossible not to notice it.

28. The road to the springs is generously strewn with tents with souvenirs. Ivanka’s dad said that they wanted to put this chaos in order - to put up a dozen authentic log cabins-kiosks, but the museum staff forbade it. Like, no permanent buildings on the historical trail.

29. Descent to the springs and lake.

30. On the way from the Fortress, you can not only buy souvenirs and handmade items made in Old Russian traditions, but also try early medieval weapons. Here's an onion, for example.

31. The path to the springs.

32. And here they are - the famous Izborsk springs. The water gushes here directly from under the narrow crevices at the foot of the hill. People wash their hands and faces and fill cans with water.

33. Almost no one can resist climbing around the keys or taking pictures in front of the background. I myself can’t stand posing in boring poses in front of landmarks. Spontaneous photos rule! Only they are overflowing with emotions and devoid of falsehood!)

34. Experiments with manual shooting mode. By the way, the springs are quite full of water. Over five liters of water flow into the lake every second.

35. The Izborians very enterprisingly used the strong current - in the photo there are the ruins of an ancient mill, inside of which even the millstones were preserved.

36. Thanks to the excellent ecology of these places, and also due to the fact that the only source The waters are Izborsky Springs, the lake is unusually clean and beautiful. All year round There are swans here.

37. Because of these same streams, the lake has a constantly low water temperature - even on the hottest days. In addition to the springs of the Twelve Apostles, which you have already seen in the photo above, there are a lot of other sources, including underwater ones. According to Ivanka, when you swim, you often acutely feel the ice streams circulating in different places of the lake.

38. Northern nature severe - on the second of May, under the spring sun, the leaves on the trees barely begin to appear. It will become green in the area of ​​St. Petersburg and Pskov no earlier than the 15th.

39. After wandering around the water itself, we returned up to the high bank. This is Izborsk attraction number three. When you look at these landscapes in real life, it takes your breath away.

Izborsk-Mal Valley

Still would, medieval castle, deep blue lake, streams, valleys and hills... An environment quite worthy of a Disney screensaver. No other place in Russia has ever impressed me so much. And if you also take into account the history that took place here, it completely blows your mind.

40. Lake Gorodishchenskoye is not isolated from other water bodies. On one side, a winding stream flows out of it, at the very least, connecting the lake with another, located a little further away - Malsky. That, in turn, has some kind of connection with Pskovsky and the huge Chudsky. According to rumors, many centuries ago the stream with the photo below was a deep river. And it was along it that Rurik and his brothers and squad swam to Izborsk.

41. Young tree.

42. Many people sail on rowing boats on the lake. It costs 200 rubles to rent one for half an hour.

43. On the high shore of Lake Gorodishchenskoye.

Truvorovo settlement

Truvorovo settlement is a high hill with steep slopes and a flat top in the shape of a triangle, rising above the Izborsk-Malskaya valley a kilometer from the fortress being restored. It was here, according to legend, that Rurik erected the first stronghold in Rus', then leaving his younger brother Truvor as its governor. Now there is nothing on the hill except a small church.

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45. The higher you rise, the more fabulous the views become. The beauty, however, on the day that I was in Izborsk, was spoiled by a fire - some vandals set fire to dry grass on a gentle slope, as a result of which part of the hill was covered in acrid smoke.

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47. There was some unmelted snow on the hill. So powerful, right? In the month of May :)

48. View of Gorodishchenskoe Lake and the Izborsko-Malskaya Valley from the heights of the Truvorov settlement.

49. It was here, according to the Izborites, that it began Russian state. Having chosen a picturesque and inaccessible place, Rurik ordered the construction of walls and fortifications here. The fortress existed for several centuries - but after about three hundred years, they began to build a new stronghold on a distant hill. The same one that has partially survived to this day, on the territory of which Lukovka is located.

50. Until recently, the existence of the Rurik fortress, as well as the personality of Truvor, were only beautiful legends. The fact that there really was a fortress on a high hill on the outskirts of Izborsk was proven only in the second half of the twentieth century - during archaeological excavations, a whole system of defensive structures was discovered under a layer of earth. Excavations are still ongoing. The pit is hidden by an awning, significantly frayed by the wind - at the top of the hill it almost constantly literally blows you off your feet.

51. Archaeological excavations. Here she is, ancient wall, slightly covered with a layer of earth. They say that on the Truvorov settlement there are remains of ancient stone fortifications underfoot everywhere.

52. The old fortress probably looked even more beautiful and intimidating from such a high hill. It seems that you are halfway to heaven.

53. A wall element extracted from under a layer of earth. It is believed that the main gate of the fortress used to be here.

A few more photos of Izborsk

54. The fence of one of the houses has been preserved by caring owners since the Middle Ages.

55. A whole arch from the ancient gate has been preserved in the courtyard!

In addition to centuries-old civil buildings, Izborians’ households often contain household items dating back to the times Tsarist Russia. Ivanka’s parents proudly presented me with a perfectly preserved porcelain jug, marked with one of the the best manufacturers household utensils from the late 19th century, marked with the imperial coat of arms as a sign of quality and recognition. Jug for a long time was collecting dust in the barn - the previous owner of the house found it quite by accident.

Some residents of Izborsk even turn the search for antiques into an exciting hobby. Within walking distance from the tourist entrance to the fortress there is a souvenir shop with an adjoining warehouse of rarities!

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It must be incredibly difficult in the modern world to find such a place - where eras intersect so closely. Ancient Rus' and the Middle Ages, the imperial period, the first half of the twentieth century under the flag of Estonia, the Great Patriotic War and the years of Soviet totalitarianism - all these completely different times are captured by Izborsk and seem to exist here in parallel. Just a few steps are enough to move between them, to change the atmosphere of one to the other. Where else is time travel as easy? I have never seen another place like this before.

Near the Izborsk fortress

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58. The new building adjacent to the fortress - the reconstruction of the zahab - is an eyesore, contrasting strikingly against the background of ancient defensive structures. Pathetic consequences of the intervention of illiterate officials.

59. The main entrance to the fortress for tourists. Let me remind you once again, according to the documents, restoration work worth hundreds of millions has been completed, and an acceptance certificate has been signed.

60. Consequence of wall collapse during construction work. Previously, there was a convenient path that allowed you to go around the fortress along the very edge of the hill, in front of the cliff.

61. At the walls of the fortress. Trade tents.

62. It is important to note that the terrible waste of funds for the restoration of the fortress is perhaps the only thing that disappoints in Izborsk. I have no idea who was responsible for landscaping the approach to the main attraction, but the path and adjacent area turned out just right. The cobblestone street, bordered by a wooden palisade, with wooden houses make an excellent impression on a person who comes to Izborsk for the first time.

63. A little further away, about forty steps from the fortress, is a reconstructed square of a Russian provincial town from the end of the century before last: cobblestones, stylized lanterns, small one-story houses. It turned out great, if not for one thing - cars that introduce cognitive dissonance into environment. The most interesting thing is that according to the signs, vehicle entry is prohibited here. But many, very many do not even pay attention to the “forbidding brick”. There are no tow trucks on them!

64. The houses on the square are magnificently restored. The painted wooden cladding of the buildings gives them a very well-kept appearance - as if the houses were only recently built. Some of the yards are open - you can go in, there is something to see there.

Most of the buildings in the square near the fortress belong to the museum. In one of them there is an exhibition dedicated to the small Estonian people living in these parts, the other two are called the house of the merchant Shvedov and the house of the merchant Anisimov. I was just about to offer to go inside, when Ivanka pulled me back and said that there was absolutely nothing to see there. Although if you are interested in jars and samovars...

Ivanka’s parents, when we returned, also waved their hands at my question about the exhibitions from the square - nothing interesting. The pride of one of the museums is an interactive screen (something like a Qiwi terminal), where it is the center of attention, and there are almost no exhibits. The guys probably don’t know about the prevalence of the Internet :)

Generally speaking, I was told enough to not regret missed opportunities to explore local museum exhibitions.

65. In the yard.

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67. In the far corner of the square.

I’m glad that I was so mistaken in imagining Izborsk in advance as a small, super boring village far from civilization. In reality, everything turned out to be exactly the opposite - this place seemed to me a real find, one of the best that I have seen so far in Russia. It’s doubly nice that, one might say, I now have relatives living there, which means Ivanka and I will visit the fabulous Izborsk quite often.

I would highly advise everyone who lives nearby to go to those places for a weekend and see for themselves the exceptional uniqueness of this town, touch the majestic past and slightly recharge with patriotism - just as it happened to me.

If you decide to go to Izborsk and Pskov, the following instructions will come in handy.

How to get to Izborsk and Pskov from St. Petersburg or Moscow

Another option to get from St. Petersburg to Pskov is Railway. This way you will certainly protect yourself from the gigantic traffic jams that often form on narrow roads. Leningrad region- from St. Petersburg to Luga. The direct train takes almost eight hours, but there are electric trains. However, you will have to travel with a transfer - from the Baltic station to Luga, then from Luga to Pskov. It will take longer than a minibus, but there is no risk of getting into an accident or getting stuck in a traffic jam.

The cost of travel per person one way is 500 rubles. Yes Yes,

A settlement not far from Pskov on the shore of Lake Gorodishchenskoye is called Old Izborsk. There is also locality with the name New Izborsk, in fact, is a residential area of ​​Izborsk, so the adjective “old” began to be added to the usual name of the town of Izborsk.

History of Old Izborsk

Judging by ancient chronicles, Izborsk was founded in the 860s. Its first prince was Truvor, Rurik's brother. Later, Princess Olga annexed Izborsk to Pskov.

At the beginning of the 13th century and until the 16th century, the order of German knights attacked Izborsk, destroying and besieging it. Residents of Izborsk moved from place to place more than once.

In 1330, the Izborsk fortress was built and since then the city has withstood German siege 8 times. They couldn't take him anymore. Only once did the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupy the fortress of Izborsk at the end of the 16th century, but according to the peace treaty the city still remained in the Moscow state.

In 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed between Soviet Russia and Estonia, according to which Izborsk began to belong to one of the Estonian counties. During the Great Patriotic War, the city was occupied by the Nazis; in 1945, after liberation, it was transferred to the RSFSR.

Now Izborsk is a tourist center, as well as a museum-reserve, historical and cultural center.

The feature films “Star of Captivating Happiness”, “Andrei Rublev”, “Open Book” were filmed in Izborsk.

Izborsk city attractions

1. is the most famous, oldest and most honored landmark of the city. The fortress was built on Zheravya Mountain; it is an example of Russian defensive architecture, as it is truly impregnable. It was never captured by the enemy and repelled all assaults. The shape of the fortress is an irregular triangle with rounded corners; on both sides the fortress is protected by inaccessible mountain slopes, and on the third side there were protecting ditches. The height of the walls is almost 8 meters, their thickness is 4 meters, the length of the walls is 623 meters, and the material from which they are made is local limestone. There is an opinion that the fortress existed in this form since the 11th century, and it was not actually rebuilt - its construction was so successful and perfect.
   
2. In the vicinity of Izborsk and in the city itself there are clusters of stone crosses. This is explained by the fact that the local soil contains a lot of flagstone and limestone, which served as the main material for virtually all buildings, including tombstones. The earliest burials over which there are stone crosses date back to the 11th century.
3. Truvorov cross— before the entrance to the Truvorov settlement there are ancient burials with two stone slabs on them. Behind one of them there is a stone cross 2.28 meters high, now it has already leaned back somewhat. This cross was carved from a single slab of limestone. Legend says that Truvor, the first prince of Izborsk, is buried here, and the cross marks the place of his burial. However, this legend is not confirmed by facts, but it is not refuted either.
   
4. Secret passage to the springs— its depth is 16 meters, it is covered with earth on top, lined with turf, and the niche itself in the wall was filled with masonry without mortar. When those besieged in the fortress found themselves in a difficult situation, the masonry was dismantled and messengers were sent for help, or people went to the springs to draw water.
5. Spaso-Onufriev Skete founded in 1471 by the Monk Onufry. Two churches worked at the temple - the Nativity of the Savior and the Refectory. The latter was for the monks both housing, a refectory, and a church. After the destructive raids of the Poles and Swedes, churches and other buildings were completely destroyed; in 2000, the ruins were transferred to the Pskov-Pechora Monastery. Today there are 15 monks serving in the monastery.
   
6. Truvorovo settlement- in the 9th century, the Krivichi settlement on Zheravya Mountain defended itself with a wooden fortress. This settlement began to be called Truvorov Settlement. Later - in the 14th century, the fortress was rebuilt in a slightly different place - and it received the name of the impregnable Izborsk fortress.
7. St. Nicholas Cathedral was built and operating already in 1341. It is located at the gates of the Izborsk fortress. This cathedral is a monument of early Pskov architecture; it also housed the chapel of St. Savior. Several buildings were added to the cathedral in the 19th century, which distorted its appearance.
   
8. Talavskaya Tower— its height is 15 meters, it is located above the cliff. The loopholes of the tower were adapted for the use of cannons, the upper tier had access to the Talavsky zahab or “corridor of death” - the enemy, having passed through the first gate of the tower and getting there, was squeezed in a narrow place where the defenders of the fortress exterminated him. The lower tier of the tower had access to the inner courtyard of the fortress.
9. Lukovka Tower located inside the fortress - it was the last stronghold of the besieged in the event of the capture of the fortress by the enemy. It was mainly used to store gunpowder and was also used as a watchtower. Now this is the best observation deck for tourists.

The healing waterfalls of Izborsk have been known since the 17th century. These are very powerful and highly mineralized springs. It is believed that you need to wash and drink from each of them in order to be healed.

Festivals held in the vicinity of Izborsk:

• art song festival “Izborsk Fortress”,
• “Iron City” is a festival of fighters from military-patriotic clubs for the restoration of military operations,
• “Isaborg” is a festival of the association of early medieval clubs “Gardarika”.

All of these festivals are extremely spectacular and interesting, so those who visit them once, as a rule, return again.

The history of the city of Izborsk is directly related to the history of the most ancient cities of Rus', such as Slavensk the Great, Staraya Russa and others, the memory of whose creation is preserved in some Russian chronicles.

V.N Tatishchev in “Russian History” wrote: “Prince Slaven, leaving his son Bastarn in Thrace and Illyria near the sea along the Danube, went to midnight (to the north) and created the GREAT CITY, named SLAVENSK in his name.<…>After the construction of the Great City, Prince Slaven died, and after him his sons and grandsons ruled for many hundreds of years. And there was Prince Vandal, he ruled the Slavs<…>Having conquered many lands on the sea coast and subjugated peoples, he returned to the Great City.” (Slavensk the Great)<…>He had three sons: Izbor, Vladimir and Stolposvyat. He built a city for each of them and named it in their names, and dividing the whole land for them, he himself stayed in the Great City for many summers and died in old age.”<…>From the above, we can approximately establish the time of the founding of Izborsk - about 4500 years ago! In the Mazurin chronicler there is an indication that the Great City of Slavensk was revived after the second devastation and Gostomysl ruled in it. He also revived Rusa and “renovated MANY other cities,” including Izborsk. The son of Gostomysl, called Sloven the Young, “this one went to Chud and there built a city in his name<…>and he called the name of the city Slovenesk,” and after his death his son Izbor returned the former name of the city Izborsk. In 862 Izborsk went to Truvor younger brother Rurik, in the Tale of Bygone Years the events are described as follows: “And three brothers were chosen from their generations, girding all of Rus' around themselves, and came; the oldest, Rurik, is in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, is on Bela Lake, and the third is Izborst, Truvor.”

Initially, Izborsk was located on an old settlement. In the 8th-9th centuries, Izborsk, according to the chronicler, became “big and glorious city", where, as in Novgorod, Russian princes ruled. The development of crafts is evidenced by the iron smelting furnaces discovered on the Slavyansky field for processing swamp ore and a large number of molded clay ceramics. The high development of trade relations is confirmed by archaeological finds: jewelry, weapons. Until now, archaeologists have found Arab coins of the 8th century, objects from Byzantium brought to Izborsk in the 9th century, coins and medals of German and Anglo-Saxon origin. The Izborians traded with the Chud land, with which they were connected by a system of rivers and lakes. Lake Peipsi was part of the famous trade route"from the Varangians to the Greeks." In the 10th century, with the development of trade, the position of Pskov on the Velikaya River turned out to be more advantageous, and the importance of Izborsk as an administrative and commercial center began to decrease. It turned into a suburb of Pskov, but it retained independent governance. Izborians took part in the Pskov veche. The names of the place near Izborsk - Slovenian Keys, Slovenskoe Pole - indicate that this land has always been inhabited by the Slavs. “The city of Izborsk stands on the Slovenian Springs” - this is what is said about the position of Izborsk in the ancient geographical description Rus' - in the “Big Drawing” of the 16th century. The Slovenian field, or Slovenets, extends to the west of the village. Mounds overgrown with bushes rise above it. According to local legend, this is where the first settlement was located. And now, plowing the land, residents of Old Izborsk sometimes find shards of ancient utensils, women’s jewelry, and more often, arrowheads and the remains of chain mail on the Slovenian field.

During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, almost all Russian lands were conquered. Only the northwestern regions escaped this, but they were in danger from the west.

In the 12th century, Bishop Albert established the knightly Order of the Swordsmen. Having captured the Baltic states in the 13th century, the order set off to conquer the rich Russian lands. After the capture of Yuryev (Tartu) in 1224, the road to Pskov and Novgorod was open. Izborsk was captured for the first time in 1223, but the Pskovites came to the rescue, and Izborsk was liberated. In 1237, a new knightly order was formed - the Livonian Order. And in 1240, violating the peace treaty with Pskov, the knights captured Izborsk, and then captured Pskov without hindrance. In 1242, during the famous Battle of the Ice, in which Izborsk warriors took part, the knights were expelled from Russian lands. After 80 years, danger arose again: the constant threat from German knights, who could attack Russian soil at any moment. For Izborsk it was necessary to find a place that was more advantageous militarily, and in 1303 “Izborsk was quickly placed in a new place.” The location was chosen on Zheravya Mountain and from that time until the 15th century the new fortress withstood eight sieges and was never taken by the enemy. Livonian knights repeatedly invaded Russian soil, but Izborsk always stood in their way. The siege of Izborsk in 1349 was especially long and stubborn, as a result of which the Livonians, having failed to capture the fortress, left many of their fallen soldiers at its walls and, retreating, abandoned all their siege engines. The German poet Suchenwart, who took part in this siege, called Izborsk “ iron city" And in 1368, large German forces, using numerous battering guns, tried to make a hole in the wall for 18 days, but retreated without achieving success. The Pskov chronicler of that time noted that the Germans “worked a lot of madness in their lives,” and could not do anything evil.”

“In the summer of 6811 (1302) there was a warm winter without snow, and bread was dear. That same summer, Izborsk was quickly moved to a new location,” that is, after constant clashes with the Germans, it was necessary to update the masonry where it was necessary in order to further strengthen the walls and towers of Izborsk for a successful confrontation against enemies constantly encroaching on the western borders of Rus'.

The stone fortress of Izborsk is built of dolomite and in plan is an irregular triangle with rounded corners. To date, the fortress has retained six battle towers, two entrances, two “outs,” that is, secret exits, and a secret passage to the river. Important evidence that there was no new construction inside the fortress or “moving it from another place” is confirmed by the entry in the chronicle: “In the summer of 6388 (1330), the mayor of Pskov and the Izborians established the city of Izboresk on the mountain on Zheravia; the same summer, a stone wall with a slab was built and ditches were dug under the city, during the reign of Alexandrov.” The text of the chronicle definitely describes RENOVATING THE WALL, and not its new construction, after another attack by the Order of the Swordsmen. To better protect the city and the fortress, ditches were dug even deeper. Seloga Posadnik was a major public figure in Pskov. He built the fortifications of Pskov, negotiated with the Moscow Grand Duke, Ivan I Kalita, who demanded that the Pskov people hand over Alexander, the Tver prince, who fled to Pskov after the uprising against the Tatars in Tver in 1327. The renovation of the walls and towers was subsequently carried out several times, they were built in height, and in width on the side of the courtyard. The walls erected by mayor Seloga are visible near the main Nikolsky Gate.

Here, before the latest restoration, you can clearly see how thin and low the original walls were. With the advent of firearms, the fortress underwent additional strengthening.

In 1510, Izborsk, together with Pskov, was annexed to Moscow. At the beginning of the 16th century, the fortress of the Pskov-Pechersky Monastery was built, and it was it that began to receive the first attacks from enemies. During the campaign against the Pskov land of the Polish king Stefan Batory, the surrounding area was devastated, in particular the Malsky Monastery. The fact of the capture of Izborsk can only be judged by the results of the peace treaty of 1582, where among the cities that “King Stephen captured” was Izborsk. At the end of the 17th century, Izborsk turned from a suburb of Pskov into a small town, and then into a village, which became part of the Pechora district.

During the era of Peter I, as a result of the Northern War, the border moved to the west. Izborsk lost its border position and in the 18th century its garrison was abolished.

Izborsk Fortress-temple.

For a more detailed study of this unique archaeological site, in addition to the classical one, it is necessary to resort to an additional method. An additional method includes two types of photography, aerial photography (including satellite) and regular photographing of the object, in this case the walls, towers and hill on which the fortress stands - this is required to verify the exceptional antiquity of Izborsk.

Unfortunately, over the past 200 years, historians and archaeologists who explored Izborsk paid little attention to studying the ancient city and were content only with studying some sections of the fortress territory. As a rule, the reports always stated that this ancient settlement was founded around the 8th century AD, which coincided with the state ideology of the “youth” of the Slavic-Russians in comparison with others European ethnic groups, which appeared, according to the “statement” of German Norman historians, on the historical scene also around the 8th century AD! This continues to this day...

But let's try to study Izborsk on our own, at least in some detail. The photograph helps to reveal the subtle chiaroscuro that forms the various inscriptions laid out in the walls and towers of this miraculously preserved fortress city, a fortress-temple of Russian Vedic culture. Thanks to photography, it is quite easy to study the unique inscriptions made of rubble and earth, which over time become overgrown with grass, thereby forming dendroglyphs. They always accompany places dedicated to the Slavic-Russian Vedic gods in abundance.

Since prehistoric times, Slavic fortresses had a dual function: protection from enemies and a temple cult complex. The settlement was built around the sanctuary and connected to it, forming a single architectural ensemble, which contained a deep religious meaning - the entire universe revolves around the luminaries and the world of people unites and lives around God as the source of life and reason. In archeology, such a culture is called Nuragic or Nuragic culture. Nuragha comes from Italian (Italian Nuraghe, plural Nuraghi) - a type of megalithic tower. Most likely, this Italian word came from Latin, which in turn came from Old Russian - NYRISCHE, NYR, NORA. In the dictionary V.I. Dahl has an explanation for ancient word“NORA” = “NYRA” = “NYR” = “NYRISCHE”, which means ‘a tower in a fortification where one hides’ [from enemies].

Photo No. 1a

In the first photo (Photo No. 1/1a), circles indicate dedicatory inscriptions in honor of the Vedic Slavic gods Rod and Mary. At the bottom of the photo on the right you can see Rod’s “wheel” to the left of Mary. On the hillside on which the fortress stands, many inscriptions and “circles” of Rod are visible, and also, and this is extremely important, the stone base and walls, the lower part of the towers also have dedicatory inscriptions mainly in honor of the god Rod, and a traditional refrain is also often visible in the walls glorifying RUSSIA as the property of Heaven, and as the source of life on earth, written in Makashi runes - “RS” = RUSSIA. On the territory of the fortress on the left side there is an inscription-dendroglyph of ARIA in a circle. From this we can conclude: the hill on which Izborsk stands was an altar back in the Paleolithic era: the time of exploration of the Eurasian continent by the ARIES - SLAVS.

Photo No. 2a

In the foreground you can see the wall of the fortress, where the inscriptions are made of stone: ROD. The topmost circle has the inscription “RS” Rus', on the hillside there are two “wheels” of Rod and Mary. Photo No. 2/2a and Photo No. 3/3a.

Photo No. 3a

In front of us is one of the towers of the Izborsk fortress. There are inscriptions laid out in the masonry of the natural stone walls, from bottom to top: five are dedicated to Rod. The topmost inscription reads from left to right: TEMPLE!

Photo No. 4/4a, With many inscriptions dedicated to the god Rod above, as was shown, the topmost inscription consists of three words: TEMPLE OF PEACE OF THE ROD.

Photo No. 4a

In the next photograph No. 5/5a, duplicate inscriptions from the bottom to the top are also visible: Rod, on the right and left “RS” Rus'.

Photo No. 5a

Photo No. 7/7a and Photo No. 9/9a. Other towers also have sacred Vedic inscriptions, the top ones “RS” = Rus', below TEMPLE, all subsequent ones from right to left Rod, and on the right, if you look at the right edge of the rings, the third middle circle: right-sided svastka-yarga.

Photo No. 7a

Photo No. 9a

Another row of towers and walls again show the unity of the plan for the construction of this complex, where one can clearly see the fundamental purpose of this complex, first of all, as a cult and ritual, and then only as a protective structure. An important conclusion can be drawn when examining the proposed photographs: The Izborsk fortress-temple is a unique archaeological site that bears evidence of the continuous cultural relationship of Russian Vedic culture from the prehistoric era, around the 25th - 20th centuries BC. before Medieval Rus' late 15th century AD

Photo No. 8a

Photo No. 8/8a: The base of the hill, the lower part of which is made of dolomite, has “grown” into the ground since ancient times - this is the Paleolithic era. This is the first cultural layer. The second layer is the era of the revival of Izborsk after the “first desolation” around the 5th century BC. The third layer is a revived fortress-temple built by Gostomysl after the “second desolation”; the lower part of the walls and towers has been preserved from it. In time, this is the second half of the first millennium AD. The fourth layer, the smallest, is very striking with its extremely rough and inept masonry - this is the upper edge of the towers and the strengthening of the walls from inside the fortress of the X-XV centuries AD. The rough completion of the upper tiers of the walls and towers is very clearly visible in the photographs, which contrasts sharply with the ancient, very high-quality masonry. This is the time of the Russian Middle Ages, when the Vedic faith disappears everywhere, which by the end of the 17th century disappears throughout the entire territory of Rus'.

Nuraghe or nuragha (Italian Nuraghe, plural Nuraghi) is a type of megalithic tower common on the island of Sardinia from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. until the capture of the island by the Romans. In total, scientists found about 7,000-8,000 nuraghe on the island. It is estimated that at one time their number could reach 20-30 thousand. Nuraghes are mainly found in the northwestern and south-central parts of the island. Sardinia abounded in large stone structures even in the pre-Nuragic period, in the 3rd millennium BC. e. (see Domus de Janas, Tombs of the Giants). At this time, the developed Arzachena and Ocieri cultures existed in Sardinia. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e., presumably as a result of the invasion of people from the Eastern Mediterranean, the so-called peoples of the sea or PELESTIM - PELAZGI, who are the ancestors of the Slavs with advanced knowledge of metallurgy, the local megalithic culture is transformed, and instead of richly painted, but primitive in architecture, tombs, numerous nuraghes arise. Similar cultures existed in the Bronze Age in the Balearic Islands (Talaiota) and Corsica (Torre).

The first, primitive proto-Nuragic or pseudo-Nuraghi, belong to the archaeological cultures of Bonnanaro and Sub-Bonnanaro (the former belonged to the pre-Nuragic population, while the latter, apparently, was the direct ancestor of the Nuragic builder culture). According to Academician A.I. Nemirovsky, Sardinia during the era of the construction of the Nuraghes was an intermediate point in the migration of the ancestors of the Etruscans from Asia Minor to Italy.

Artworks of the Nuragic culture show similarities both with Etruscan art and with products of the Eastern Mediterranean. Some nuraghes reach 20 meters in height.

The purpose of the nuraghi was varied - they were temples, ordinary dwellings, residences of rulers, military fortifications, meeting places for leaders, and holding public meetings. Some of the nuraghi are located in strategically important places from which it was possible to control important roads. Dating of the construction of the nuraghi dates back to around 3500 BC. e., that is, the time of the emergence of the Nuragic culture, but most were built during the Middle Bronze Age, XVIII-XV centuries BC. e., or in the late Bronze Age. Nuraghe continued to be used until the Roman invasion in the 2nd century BC. e.

According to the Etruscanist Massimo Pallottino, the architecture of the Nuragic culture was the most progressive of all the civilizations of the western Mediterranean for its time, even in comparison with the Magna Graecia region of southern Italy. Of the approximately 8 thousand existing nuraghes, archaeological excavations have been carried out in only a few.

The photographs presented here convincingly show how “fortress” Izborsk is same type with the South European Slavic culture, which is usually called Etruscan. Fortress-like temples were also built in central Europe and on the Baltic coast. On the territory of modern Russia, apparently, Izborsk was miraculously preserved as a unique artifact of extreme antiquity dating back to the era Late Paleolithic! To compare the absolute unity of the culture of the Nuraghi and Izborsk temple complex I present below paired photographs of various surviving nuraghes for visual research and comparative analysis types of buildings for a convincing conclusion about the UNITY OF CULTURE and LANGUAGE ancient civilization, which, as any reader can see, is a Slavic-Russian civilization. Photo: No. 10/10a, 11/11a, 12/12a, 13/13a, 14/14a.

Photo No. 10a

Photo No. 11a

Photo No. 12a

Photo No. 13a

Photo No. 14a

Discussion.

The fundamental Slavic civilization was gradually developed towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. supplanted by newcomers who settled on European continent Asian foreigners. They, in turn, used construction material stone of Slavic settlements, temples and cities. Among this number, many of the nuraghi suffered and were destroyed, some disappeared and today represent a pile of stones.

From the given examples presented in modern photographs from 2010-2012, one can see a complete coincidence of the type of so-called. “cult” masonry. This method is unique in its technology; it is found everywhere in those territories in ancient world where the Slavs lived. The technique of performing the work itself is extremely simple - when performing construction work at the base of buildings or towers and other types of structures and in the masonry of walls, dedicatory inscriptions to the Vedic gods were created by adjusting the outer front part of the building material. Granite or dolomite was usually used as the most reliable building material, which is quite often found on the surface of the earth.

At the end of the article we can conclude:

1. Since ancient times, Izborsk has been one of the religious centers of the Slavic-Russians, along with such world-famous sanctuary cities as Slovensk and Arkona.

2. In view of the fact that in the base, walls on the territory of the fortress-temple and on the outer sides of the hill on which Izborsk stands there are mainly dedicatory inscriptions to the Vedic god Rod, it means that Izborsk is a city-temple dedicated to this god.

3. The age of Izborsk, judging by its identity with the buildings of the Nuraghi culture, is 3500 BC! This culture is Etruscan.

Etruscans (Italian Etruschi, Latin Etrusci, Tusci, other Greek τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί, self-name Rasenna, Raśna) are representatives of one of the southern Slavic peoples to the ancient tribes that inhabited the 1st millennium BC. e. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers and created a developed culture that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it. There are two versions of the appearance of the Etruscans on the Apennine Peninsula: according to one of them, the Etruscans came from Italy, according to the other, this people migrated from the Eastern Mediterranean. The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were people from Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time it collapsed Mycenaean civilization and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians on the Apennine Peninsula should be dated to the 13th century BC.

It should be noted that very often in the Etruscan culture there is a symbol in the form of a “tower” and this symbol-sign is key in this culture. A similar symbol was very common in the first Slavic state - Norik. The symbol of the mother of all gods - Makozhi - Alive - Kobely - Cybele is also a “tower”.

According to Herodotus, the homeland of the mother of the gods was Great Scythia and its servants could only be Scythians, i.e. Slavs! The widespread cult of the Foremother - Kobely, who gives life to everything, has been found everywhere among the Slavs since the Paleolithic era. In the culture of Trypillia, fetishes were common - tattooed female figures of Kobela. Through the Trypillian and Vincan cultures, this cult penetrated into Phrygia, and became the main one in the Hittite state. The name of the goddess was pronounced here - Cybele. From the Hittites, this cult spread to Greece, Rome and other countries, becoming one of the dominant ones, since here she was revered as the ancestor of all gods. The ancient Slavs had a special priestly class of “cap-bearers” - the Enareans, servants of the goddess Cybele, known throughout the ancient world for their gift of providence. Herodotus in “History” and Lucian of Samosata (120-180 AD) in the work “Toxaris, or Friendship” wrote about the famous priests - the Enareans, who “alone tend to turn people into immortals...” Testimony of the ancient historian Herodotus and the famous the sophist Lucian, who lived at the beginning of the new era, shows the continuity and constancy of the cult of Cybele among the Slavs over many centuries.

The common sign-symbol of the Polabian Slavs, uniting them into one religious family, was the “tower” - the coat of arms of Arkona religious and cultural capital Western Slavs. On the map of Europe discovered by Conrad Miller (1844 - 1933) in the writings of Blessed Jerome (+ 420), which once belonged to Saint Eusebius of Caesarea (270 - 338), Arkona is indicated by a three-pillar and three-pronged “tower”!

4. Examples of comparison of South European, Central European and East European Slavic culture show the unity of religious (Vedism), linguistic (Old Russian language) and cultural heritage over 4500 years, from the 25th century BC. to the 16th century AD! This is an exceptional phenomenon in the history of mankind. The adoption of Orthodoxy, and the starting point of Christianization, should be considered the second half of the 1st century AD, inextricably linked with the name of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called. In the history of the Slavic-Russians from the 1st century AD, one can trace the continuous service Orthodox Church, the representatives of the priesthood of which were Slavic-Russians. Only starting from the 10th century, Greeks and Bulgarians began to form part of the episcopate and priesthood. Russian Vedism has always occupied leading place in the religious life of the people. The situation began to gradually change after the 11th century, when Orthodoxy was officially proclaimed state religion. In the middle of the 17th century, Old Believers who professed ancient Vedism and Old Believers who did not accept the “new” rituals” from the Greeks began to be systematically persecuted and destroyed during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich “the quietest”... The most severe persecution was under Peter I. As a result of persecution, they died from deprivation, hunger and persecution of more than 1.5 million Russian people.

Literature

1. Mazurin chronicler // PSRL. T. 31. M.: Nauka, 1968.

2. Tatishchev V.N. From the Scythians to the Slavs: Russian History in its entirety. M., 2011.

3. V.N. Tatishchev noted in a note: “Equally Helmold and Vinulem, i.e. "He called Vinuliyev prince." Tatishchev V.N. From the Scythians to the Slavs: Russian History in its entirety. M., 2011. P. 66. In “Dictionary of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries.” The Old Russian word “pillar” means tower. The origin of the personal name Stolposvyat is associated with the religious Vedic concepts of the ancient Slavic-Russians. The pillar is dedicated - it means honoring the holy temple-pillar of the god Rod. The tower-pillars of the Nuragic culture of both the Etruscans and Slavic-Russians were Vedic temples of the god Rod.

4. Tatishchev V.N. From the Scythians to the Slavs: Russian History in its entirety. M., 2011. P. 67. In the explanation V.N. Tatishchev wrote: “Izborsk in the name of Izbor, which the Sarmatians Kunigardi Shuya called Vladimir in the Pskov region, now the village of Vladimirets, where we can see the ancient rampart<…>Stolbovo on the Tikhvin River, another on the Tvertsa River between Vyshny Volochok and Torzhok, called Pillar. Both of these are in the Novgorod region...” Further V.N. Tatishchev writes: he once had communication with a monk of the Nilo-Stolobensk Hermitage and when asked why the island has such unusual name, he answered: in the ancient monastic legends it is written that the island received its name from the ancient city, which stood on the site of the present city of Ostashkov and it was called in honor of Prince Stolp or Stolbov! Ibid., p.67.

5. Under the year 862 it is indicated that Rurik settled in Ladoga; in the Laurentian Chronicle the name of the city is omitted; in the First Novgorod (N1L), Novgorod Fourth (N4L) and First Sofia (S1L) chronicles the city of Novgorod is named.

6. The Tale of Bygone Years according to the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377 / Prep. text, translation and com. D.S. Likhacheva / Ed. V.P. Adrianova-Peretz. LP series. Ed. 2nd. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996.

7. Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. M.: Russian language, 1998. Rep. edition 1880-1882 T. 2.

8. Nuraghi - stone fortified dwellings of the Bronze and Early Iron Age in the form of towers.

9. Soviet encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1980.

10. Jacques Ergon. Daily life of the Etruscans. M.: Young Guard, 2009. The ancient historians Herodotus (5th century BC), Strabo (1st century BC), Titus Livius (59 BC) wrote about the Slavic origin of the Etruscans. - 17 AD). Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century BC) wrote about the Etruscans as a completely separate people, who differed not only from the Lydian Asians, but also from the autochthonous population of the Apennine Peninsula. He writes: “They (the Etruscans) and the Lydians have different languages<…>. They (the Etruscans) worship different gods than the Lydians; they have different laws..."

11. The Byzantine grammarian and ethnographer Stefan of Byzantium (527-565 AD) in the geographical dictionary “Ethnica” noted the SLAVIC origin of the Etruscans.

12. Herodotus. History: In 9 books / Trans. and approx. G.A. Stratanovsky. M.: Ladomir, 1993. Book. IV, 20. // Herodotus was convinced that Hellas was once called PELASGIUM; The Pelasgians BEFORE the Hellenic tribe SPEAKED and WRITE IN THEIR OWN LANGUAGE." Preserved fragments of Pelasgian writing were discovered on the Lemnos Stele and the Piraeus Lion. Pelasgic writing is completely identical to the Etruscan writing that has survived in large numbers, which indicates the blood relationship and unity of these ancient Slavic peoples. The population of Attica also belonged to the Pelasgians and were called Cranai.<…>“PELASGIANS WERE AT A HIGHER STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT THAN THE GREEKS”

13. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. M., 1973. T. 12. P. 75. // Cybele, Phrygian goddess, revered in Asia Minor, Greece, throughout the Roman Empire (since 204 BC, the cult of Cybele as a state goddess was established in Rome). In honor of Cybele, the priests performed mysteries with rituals in which important role They played self-torture, washing with the blood of victims and self-castration.

14. Konrad Miller (21. November 1844 in Oppeltshofen; † 25. July 1933 in Stuttgart) war ein römisch-katholischer Theologe, Naturwissenschaftler und Kartographiehistoriker. Er war maßgeblich an der Wiederentdeckung der Tabula Peutingeriana, einer kartografischen Karte, die das römische Straßennetz im spätrömischen Weltreich aus dem 4. Jahrhundert n. Chr. abbildet, und weiterer Karten beteiligt. Miller Konrad. Die altesteWeltkarten/K.Miller. - Berlin, 1895.