Two roots of Christian culture. Orthodox roots of Russian culture

For almost a thousand years Russian state was formed under the influence of Orthodox ideals and Christian moral values. The entire cultural and historical fate of the Russian people is inextricably linked with the Orthodox religion. This found its expression in the field of literature, architecture, painting, pedagogy, in folk life and even in the form of political governance of the country.

The Russian Church became for Rus' the basis of its church and cultural unity. Both Vyatichi, and Novgorodian, and resident of the Carpathians, coming to pray in an Orthodox church, heard the commemoration of the Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Rus'. Already in this he felt his connection with the center of the state and heard the word “Rus”, common for Kyiv and for himself.

The tribes of the Eastern Slavs, which had not yet formed into a single whole, began to unite through Christianity and the Church, through culture and a single literary language. Christianity influenced various aspects of both the state-legal and social system of Kievan Rus. The adoption of Byzantine church law and, in particular, the Nomocanon as the legislative basis transformed our civil, criminal, property, family and marriage law. Christianity rebuilt the family on the principles of evangelical morality. The Orthodox ideals of love, peace, patience, and compassion entered deeper and deeper into the soul of the people. The importance of the Church was great in economic life ancient Russian society. Parishes, and especially monasteries, played important role in the economic life of the country. They developed forest wilds and swamps, raised virgin lands, developed crafts and trade, through them the news of the Risen Christ reached the tribes that were still in the darkness of paganism.

Christianity determined the basis of the culture of our country and thus connected Slavic world And Kievan Rus with the enlightened circles of the Christian peoples of the East. The culture that came to Rus' with the adoption of Orthodoxy from Byzantium received a new creative impulse and development based on the original Russian culture. The Russian soul turned out to be ontologically ready to accept the Gospel Gospel. Mental purity, sincerity, openness, courage, love of freedom, justice, inner striving for highest ideals existence made our ancestors fertile soil, bearing rich spiritual fruits to their Creator.

Over time, the Christian ideal of morality became more and more strengthened in the soul, life and traditions of the people. According to the testimony of foreign guests, in particular from the notes of the Greek protodeacon Paul of Aleppo, we learn that Russia in the 15th-17th centuries was like a large monastery, where church life stood at the center of the life of the state. Everything that Russian people did or did, he tried to do everything for the glory of God, for the sake of Christ, guided by the Word of God and patristic tradition. Hence such an unbridled striving for the ideal, even at the risk of one’s material well-being, for one’s earthly existence.

The great writers, poets, artists, philosophers, scientists of our Motherland, as a rule, were believers. Faith not only did not slow down their creativity, but, on the contrary, was a constant source of inspiration. It is enough to recall such names as Gogol, Leskov, Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Repin, Vasnetsov, V. Solovyov, Khomyakov, Lomonosov, Mendeleev, Pavlov and many others to understand the significance of the Orthodox faith in the spiritual life of the Russian person.

As a result of the October Revolution of 1917, there was a radical breakdown of all the spiritual and moral values ​​of Christian Rus'. It was replaced by the ideology of Marxism-Leninism, which, as a result of its false spiritual orientation, interrupted a thousand-year-old cultural and historical tradition and tore the people away from the life-giving sources of the Orthodox faith.

Orthodox quiz “Our faith is our salvation”

The fierce enemy will not hide from us.
Let him tremble, let him run.
Holy Mother of God.
He will protect our land.

1. From time immemorial, the Orthodox people of Rus', in times of trouble - enemy invasions, unrest and social upheavals, natural disasters, famines and pestilences - resorted to the intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos. This is how it continues to this day: the miraculous icons of the Mother of God, the Intercessor of our land, protect the Russian land. Name which miraculous icons of the Mother of God, the Intercessor of our land, protect the Russian land.
- The Tikhvin image preserves and blesses the northern borders of the Fatherland.

2. Tell me, who painted and on what is the Vladimir image of the Mother of God, which illuminates our Motherland with unfading light in the capital city of Rus'?
- The Vladimir image of the Mother of God, written with Her blessing by the Apostle and Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Last Supper was celebrated - the first Eucharist, which marked the beginning of the salvation of mankind on the Blood of our Lord, the beginning of a new life.

Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary St. Tatsinskaya Rostov region

Fly, Russian eagles,
Punish the destroyers of peace!
Praises thunder in all countries
And rumors of your heroism...
Carrying heroic heat in our hearts,
Oh Russians! surpass your ancestors,
And to us in solemn crowns
And come with a peaceful branch!
Mikhail Kheraskov “Ode to the Russian Army”

7. Tell me, whose names of saints revered in Rus' were also borne by military orders?
- Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called,

10. Tell me, what is the “Corporal Notebook”? What did A.V., selflessly devoted to the Fatherland, teach? Suvorov his miracle - heroes in his “Corporal Notebook”?
- “Corporal Notebook” is a manual written by A.V. Suvorov for Russian soldiers.
We read from the Corporal's Notebook:
Miracle heroes, peace, support, glory of the Fatherland - God is with us. Pray to God, victory comes from Him.
“Most Holy Mother of God, save us! Saint Father Nicholas, pray to God for us!” - without this prayer, don’t draw your weapon, don’t load your gun, don’t start anything.
Start every business with God's blessing.
Until your dying breath, be faithful to the Sovereign and the Fatherland. Avoid luxury, idleness and greed, seek glory through truth and virtue. Strengthen your spirit in the fatherly, Orthodox faith.
To teach a faithless army is to sharpen burnt iron. Like a tree without a root, so is reverence for earthly power without reverence for the power of God.
Give honor to Heaven and then to earth.
Love true glory. Distinguish noble ambition from arrogance and pride.
Learn to forgive the mistakes of others in advance, but never forgive yourself your own.
Conquer yourself and you will be invincible.
See the family in the unit, the father in the boss, the brothers in the comrades. The leg strengthens the leg, the hand strengthens the arm.
Shoot rarely, but shoot accurately. The bullet is stupid, but the bayonet is great. The enemy has the same hands, but doesn’t know the Russian bayonet. Taking a long step leads to victory. Work quickly, quickly, in Russian.
Bayonets, speed, surprise. The enemy does not like us: attack with what God sent us.
The uncut forest grows again. The Cossacks will get through everywhere, their speed will complete the victory. The enemy surrendered - mercy.
Show mercy to a prisoner - a soldier is not a robber. It’s a sin to kill in vain - they are the same people.
To defeat the enemy with philanthropy. God guides us. He is our general. Here, brothers, is military training.

Your whole life is an open book,
Can lead by example
How to make yourself honored in the world,
Not your ancestors - to shine with yourself,
Fatherland, glorify yourself
And never die for generations and generations.
I.I.Dmitriev

11. Name the wise thoughts and catchphrases of A.V. Suvorov.
- Great is the Russian God! We will go with him along the paths of ancient glory!
You swore an oath. Die for the faith, the Tsar and the Fatherland. Defend the banner to the last drop of blood.
Almighty God! Grant that evil will not be revealed to Russia before 100 years, but even then the basis for this will be harmful.
Everyone should have a good name honest man, I personally saw this good name in the glory of my Fatherland. My successes had the sole purpose of his well-being.
He who loves his Fatherland sets the best example of love for humanity.
Die for the House of the Mother of God, for the Mother Queen, for the Enlightened House. The Church prays to God. To those who remained alive, honor and glory!
The bayonet, speed, surprise - these are the leaders of the Russians.
We are Russians, we will overcome everything.
No army in the world can resist the brave Russian grenadier.
Prepare in war for peace, and in peace for war.

“I’m proud that I’m Russian!.. I ask my descendants to follow my example... to be faithful to the Fatherland until the end.”
A.V. Suvorov.

From the editor. According to the author himself, the materials of A.L. Dvorkin do not claim the status of fundamental scientific research. Rather, it is a compilation that acts as an auxiliary teaching aid. However, the usefulness of this kind of work is undeniable, since there are almost no textbooks for this course in Russian. The best thing that exists is the textbook by V.V. Bolotov, recently republished in the form of a four-volume set. However, this work, without which, undoubtedly, not a single person who wants to seriously engage in general history Church, is designed for those who have some training in the field of history (to a greater extent than that offered by modern high school), and in the field of theology (at least as part of a seminary course). In other words, this course is designed for students of theological academies. It can be said that decades have passed since Bolotov’s history was written, enriching historical science, and that its author is limited to the time frame of the Ecumenical Councils. Meanwhile, A.L. Dvorkin’s course is accessible to readers with a modern secondary education, uses 20th-century literature and includes the history of the Byzantine and Balkan Churches.

The following sources are used in the chapter we publish:

Chadwick H. The Early Church // Penguin Books, 1980;

Protopresbyter Alexander Shmeman. The historical path of Orthodoxy // YMCA-Press, Paris, 1989;

Walker W. A History of the Christian Church // Charles Scribner’s Sons, N.Y., 1959.

The Apostle Paul writes: “When the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His only begotten Son” (Gal. 4:4).

Fullness of times is a very important term. The Lord entered history when humanity was “ripe” to accept the good news, when everything was in place for this the necessary conditions. We sing in the Christmas stichera that Christ was born when there was a single reign of Augustus throughout the entire earth.

“To Augustus, the sole ruler of the lands

The multiplicity of people is over.

And to You, I will become human from the Pure

The polytheism of idols has been abolished

Under one worldly kingdom there were cities,

And in one sovereignty of the Divine the Gentiles believe.”

The Church has not forgotten that its beginning coincided with a decisive moment in world history - the completion of the creation of the Roman Empire, universal in spirit and design. Never before (and, by the way, never in the future) these huge territories, embracing everything that a common person of that time knew about civilized life, were not in the sphere of a single culture. The Roman Empire then embraced, as its inhabitants saw it, the entire civilized world, the entire o„koumљnh - the universe. Beyond its borders only wild or, at best, semi-civilized tribes were known. At the same time, Roman statehood did not develop out of nowhere. Thanks to the campaigns of Alexander the Great, most of the territories that became part of the Roman Empire had already been united common culture- Hellenistic culture and a common (at least for representatives of the educated class) international language - Greek.

The unifying element of the Empire was obligatory allegiance to a single emperor and a unified military system subordinate to him. The Roman army, although relatively small compared to the military forces of a modern militaristic state, was sufficient to maintain order and preserve the famous Roman world - pax romana. Thanks to this peace, trade flourished, excellent roads and safe seas greatly facilitated travel, and a single international language facilitated intellectual exchange. It was in this empire, despite the fact that many of its rulers were far from ideal and its officials were corrupt, that justice, albeit rough, was ensured to a degree never before seen in the world. The citizens of the Empire were proud of her and her achievements.

Nevertheless, with all the imperial unity and with all the military control, Rome never sought to destroy local institutions. In all local affairs the inhabitants of the provinces were given the widest degree of self-government. All local religious beliefs, customs and rituals were respected and preserved. The peoples spoke their own languages ​​and adhered to their own customs. Local rulers whose lands were part of the Empire were given significant autonomy (as, indeed, in modern empires, for example, under the rule of the British Empire in India); Local principalities were often preserved. Palestine was precisely such a principality within the Empire at the time of Christ. The vitality of the Roman Empire was largely the result of respect for local rights and beliefs. This diversity of the Empire, no less striking than its unity, was almost most clearly manifested in the field of religious thought.

Christianity did not appear in an empty world. At that time, the concepts of the universe, religion, sin, punishment, redemption and retribution had already developed, which Christianity had to take into account and offer its answers. The Church did not build its temple from scratch. The concepts that existed in the world before her appearance were the material that she used to build her earthly structure; they gave the forms in which she clothed her Sacred Tradition.

What did the average inhabitant of the Empire believe? He believed in the existence supernatural power or forces, invisible, eternal, far superior to man in their capabilities. These forces controlled human destiny and were objects of worship performed in prayers, rituals and sacrifices. The Earth was at the center of the Universe. The sun, planets and stars revolved around her. Above the universe there was heaven, and below it was the abode of deceased people or evil spirits. The concept of some kind of universal moral imperative did not exist. Everything that happened in nature was seen as the result of the activity of invisible spirits of good and evil, ruling the world absolutely arbitrarily. Consequently, miracles were felt not just as an abstract possibility - the world was full of miracles and supernatural phenomena: higher powers resorted to them whenever they needed to draw people's attention to something important or unusual. The world was filled with countless spirits, both righteous and good and malicious and destructive. These spirits constantly affected a person’s life, some could even inhabit a person and force him to do both good and evil deeds.

It must be said that in that world there was an extremely acute dissatisfaction with this state of affairs, a feeling of tragedy, impasse and deep dissatisfaction with the existing living conditions reigned. This manifested itself in the most diverse forms of religious life, and the need to find other, better relationship with the spiritual, invisible world and a person’s desire to find help greater than he has ever received from anyone.

In addition to these general concepts inherent in folk religiosity, it is necessary to remember the influence of Greek philosophy on the world into which Christianity came. Christianity appeared in a world that was intellectually extremely developed, a world in which a powerful philosophical tradition constantly lived and developed. Philosophy, it would seem, provided answers to many of the main questions of existence. And although the philosophical tradition was very esoteric, since serious education was the lot of only a very narrow circle of intellectuals, nevertheless, the influence of philosophers on the formation of the intellectual atmosphere of the era was decisive.

The most educated people of the Roman Empire, brought up on Platonism and Stoicism, in religion leaned towards a kind of pantheistic monotheism, towards the concept that God is good (which, naturally, contrasted with the non-moral character of the Roman and Greek deities) and to the belief in ruling the world divine providence, to the idea that the meaning of real religion is not in ceremony, but in imitation moral qualities God. The last premise entailed the idea of ​​the need for more humane treatment to people. In this enlightened philosophical system First of all, there was a lack of faith in Divine revelation, and therefore in a Personal God.

However, the ordinary person was far from such an enlightened view. He still professed polytheism, and often in the crudest forms. Each city had its own patron, god (or goddess), as did every profession, latifundia, spring, house, every event in a person’s life. The profession of fortuneteller and magician was extremely profitable. And above all, people were convinced that the preservation of the historical religious cult of the ancient gods was necessary for the safety and security of the state, the only guarantor of their own well-being in a complex and unpredictable world. If the cult is not observed, the gods will take revenge and send disasters. This belief was one of the reasons for the persecution of Christianity.

These views were not refuted by enlightened intellectuals, who believed that ancient religions were useful for maintaining order among the masses and that state ceremonies and cults for common man necessary. Seneca expressed this idea directly, declaring that “a wise man will observe everything religious ceremonies as prescribed by law, and not as pleasing to the gods.”

None of the pagan cults excluded the others, and the only limitation for the initiation of a person into many different religions was the financial side. The belief that the various deities were merely names of the same god or local representatives of the supreme deity gave pagan diversity a semblance of unity.

Some emperors tried to strengthen and modify ancient folk cults, giving them the character of worship of the state and its head. This patriotic deification of the Roman state began during the Republic. The cult of “Dea Roma” was practiced in Smyrna as early as 195 BC. This cult was noticeably strengthened due to the popularity of the empire in the provinces, which were pleased with the increased level of government under the imperial order. In 29 BC there was a temple of Rome and Augustus in Pergamon. This cult, the object of which was the ruler, who is the embodiment of the state, or more precisely, his “genius,” that is, the spirit living in him, quickly spread. Soon he acquired a developed hierarchy of priests, existing on state subsidies, organized on a territorial basis and taking the widest part in public life. Of course, the early Christians considered worship of the emperor fundamentally incompatible with fidelity to Christ. Their attitude to this is well expressed in the description of Pergamum in the book of Revelation of John the Theologian. “I know your works, and that you live where Satan’s throne is, and that you hold My name, and have not denied My faith...” (Rev. 2:13). The refusal of Christians to sacrifice to the emperor looked like high treason and entailed persecution.

People needed a religion deeper than philosophy or external rites, since philosophy can satisfy only a few intellectuals, and external rites and ceremonies meet the religious needs of more people, but not those who are acutely aware of their own imperfections and are actively trying to find the meaning of life.

The state of the world at that moment is well expressed by Harnack, who stated that in one there were empires one World language, one culture, unity lines of development towards monotheism and one general longing for the Savior.

A number of attempts were made to revive ancient pagan cults. Many of the early emperors actively built temples and constantly donated to them. However, the most significant attempt to revive and purify the ancient religion was made by Plutarch (d. about 120 AD). His methodology was quite typical. He sharply criticized traditional mythology and rejected anything that attributed cruel or morally unworthy actions to the gods. There is only one God. All pagan deities are personifications of His qualities or serving spirits. Plutarch believed in predictions, divine providence and future reward. He preached strict morality. But alas, his attempt to awaken the best elements of dying ancient paganism was an artificial intellectual construction, and therefore a hopeless and obviously losing cause. It did not find a wide response: Plutarch had no followers, except perhaps a narrow circle of students.

The vast majority are religious looking for people most often tried to find answers to their questions in Eastern religions. Particularly popular were religions that promised redemption, religions that had developed mystical and sacramental systems. The ease of communication in the Roman world and especially the large number of eastern slaves in the markets of the western part of the “universe” during the period late republic made this process easier. The spread of eastern religions in the first three centuries AD, independent of Christianity and even in many respects its rivals, nevertheless greatly deepened religious feelings throughout the empire and in this sense facilitated the eventual triumph of Christianity.

One of these eastern religions that attracted people was Judaism, which we will talk about below. Many pagans, looking for solid moral foundations of life, turned to the religion of the Jews. However, more often people turned to other eastern cults, which had a much more pronounced mystical character, or, more precisely, greater redemptive and sacramental significance. The most popular of these eastern religions were the cult of the Great Mother Cybele and Attis, originating in Asia Minor; mother goddesses Isis and Serapion - from Egypt; Persian cult of the god of light Mithras. At the same time, there were many syncretic systems in which these religions were mixed and intertwined, and also imbued with elements of the more ancient religions of the lands from which they originated. All these religions enjoyed certain sympathy among the people.

The cult of the Great Mother Cybele, which was based on primitive worship of nature, accompanied by the most unbridled rituals and orgies, reached Rome in 204 BC and became the first Eastern cult to gain a significant foothold in the West. He was widely known for his traveling priests engaged in self-flagellation and public ceremonies on March 15–27, in the days after the fast and the Day of Blood (March 22), when Attis was mourned, the sadness transformed into exuberant joy in the celebration of his resurrection on March 25.

Cult of Isis and Serapion, characteristic feature which was great importance, attached to rebirth and future life, had strong positions in Rome by 80 BC, but the Roman government did not favor it for quite a long time, and therefore its distribution was at first somewhat limited. The deep emotions evoked by initiation into the exotic mysteries of Isis, the mother nursing the holy child, are described in last book“The Golden Ass” by Apuleius.

The most attractive of all eastern cults, the cult of Mithra, although it had a long history in the East, became any noticeable in the West only around 100 AD, and widely known only from the second half of the 2nd century. Mithra is the god of light who was identified with the sun. This ascetic religion for men was especially popular among army officers. Mithraism practiced sacred meals that were superficially similar to the Christian Eucharist. The Mithraists believed that after death they would be able to make their way to the Milky Way, access to which was blocked by seven planetary spirits. However, the cult of Mithras was too esoteric to become a truly popular religion. Later it transformed into the cult of Sol Invictus - the “invincible sun” of the predecessor emperors of Constantine the Great. Like other religions of Persian origin, Mithraism was characterized by pronounced dualism.

All these religions preached a deliverer god and originated from the cult of nature. They used various mythological systems, which were based on the idea of ​​​​a dying and resurrecting god, associated with natural cycles. The natural cycle of birth and decay was transferred to the soul, which had to be born again in order to defeat death. All of these cults claimed that the initiate shared the experience of the god himself: he died with him, was resurrected with him, partook of his nature (usually through a ritual meal), after which he could share in his immortality; in all there were secret rites for initiates and sacramental cleansing from sins. In the cult of Isis and Serapion, water was used for purification and initiation; in the cults of Mithra and Serapis, the blood of a calf was used, with the help of which, as we read in the surviving inscriptions, the initiate “was born again forever.” All these religions promised followers happiness in the afterlife. Mithraism taught brotherhood and equality of all its adherents. Of course, the religious atmosphere of that time, largely determined by these cults, had an impact on the forms of preaching Christianity.

To sum up, we can formulate obvious religious demands, which, despite the great errors and diversity of external forms, had matured in the pagan world by the time Christianity came to it.

1. Religion must preach one righteous personal God, but there must also be room for many spirits, good and evil. 2. It must clearly express the revelation of the will of God and the inspired Scripture, as in Judaism. 3. It must contain moral teaching based on imitation of God. 4. There must be room in it for a future life with rewards and punishments. 5. It must contain the sacrament of initiation and the promise of forgiveness of sins. 6. There must be a God-deliverer in it, in whose existence people can take part through the sacraments. 7. She must preach the equality of all people, or at least the equality of all her followers.

All these features are present only in Christianity and, therefore, no other religion could conquer the world. So, Christianity really came into the world in the fullness of times. No person who believes in Divine Providence will deny the fundamental importance of this preparation of the world to receive the Good News. In the Christian consciousness, history cannot be a mechanical chain of causes and effects, and the birth of the Church precisely in that world, at that moment, cannot be an indifferent accident.

Of course, this world met Christianity with hostility and persecution, but the Church was able to overcome this hostility, and the world heard the Christian preaching. It is no coincidence that the Gospel was written in Greek, and the theology of the Church is embodied in Greek mental categories and in terms developed by Greek philosophers.

But Christianity had two homelands: Jewish roots and the Greco-Roman world, that is, Roman statehood combined with Hellenistic culture. We started with the second homeland of Christianity, now it’s time to consider the first.

The first Christians were Jews. They differed from most of their fellow tribesmen in their belief that Jesus of Nazareth was exactly the Messiah that all the people were waiting for. For them it was self-evident that His coming was the fulfillment of all previous history, and that it, being natural continuation all past revelations of God to His people, did not mean a break with the Old Covenant made with Abraham, symbolized by circumcision, nor with the law given to Moses on Mount Sinai. The new thing that happened was the action of the same God, the Lord of history, the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and other forefathers. His new word to His people was in complete agreement with the word that had previously been spoken through the prophets.

Because of this deep sense of continuity, various ideas and approaches characteristic of traditional Judaism organically entered into Christian thought and still remain an integral part of it. The Jews believed in Divine election: God chose Israel to become a special society, untouched by pagan influences and uncorrupted by them. However, this chosenness had two characteristic features: it did not depend on any merit of the people themselves, but was entirely rooted in the supreme and incomprehensible will of God, and it meant that Israel had to perform priestly functions in relation to all humanity. Extremely committed to their law, which they believed was given to Moses on Mount Sinai by God Himself, the Jews had a very negative attitude towards pagan religions, which they considered the cult of evil spirits. In Greco-Roman society they kept themselves apart, but it responded in kind to them: they were the object of vulgar mistrust and often hostile prejudices. The Jews refused to take part in the imperial cult. The maximum compromise they could make was a daily sacrifice for the emperor in the Temple of Jerusalem; some synagogues were dedicated “to God in honor of the emperor.” Jews were socially different from other peoples: they were distinguished by circumcision and an absolute refusal to eat pork and other unclean foods. In the second century BC, the Maccabean martyrs preferred death to eating pork. Jews could neither sit at table with pagans, nor take part in official ceremonies, for this meant, albeit indirectly, recognition of pagan deities.

The development of Judaism in the last six centuries before the Incarnation was largely determined by the external outline of events. After the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC, Judea came under foreign political control for many centuries. Its fate followed that of the ancient Assyrian empire and its successors: Babylon, Persia and the empire of Alexander the Great. After the collapse of the latter, Judea found itself within the boundaries of the Egyptian Ptolemaic empire, and then the Antiochian Seleucid dynasty.

However, despite the political dependence of Judea, its religious institutions functioned without difficulty after the conquest of Babylon by the Persians and the return of the people from captivity: foreign rulers did not interfere with their activities. The hereditary temple priesthood constituted the aristocratic class. Its characteristic feature was the growth of interest in politics and indifference to the spiritual essence of religion. Particular intrigues were associated with the ascension to the high priestly throne, for the high priest not only had significant political influence and enormous financial resources, but also appointed members of the Sanhedrin - an advisory and religious-legislative council that existed at least from the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Typically the Sanhedrin consisted of 71 members. The temple and its priesthood thus administered gradually became increasingly formalized and came to represent the official aspect of the religious life of the Jewish people.

On the other hand, as we have already said, the Jews themselves recognized themselves as a holy people, living under the holy law of Yahweh, and remembered that there was a huge difference between them and all other peoples. Judaism was a religion of the Book to a degree unknown to any other ancient religion. The reconstruction of Israelite society after the catastrophe of the Babylonian captivity was firmly rooted in the law of Moses. There were no more prophets proclaiming the word of God: their era was over. Awareness of this fact directed the people's interest in the law. God's revelation to His people was recorded in writing and required interpretation, the tradition of which was constantly evolving. Jewish law was both a religious concept and a civil code; We see something similar today in Muslim states. The learned “scribes” and “legalists” developed an exegetical tradition in the rabbinical schools that complemented the original biblical documents (the status of this tradition became the subject of intense disagreement between the Church and the synagogue in the first century). The interpreters of the law enjoyed enormous authority and gradually became real religious leaders of the people. And in the religion of the Holy Scriptures, which became Judaism, a decisive role gradually passed to them.

For a deeper study of the law and its more correct implementation, as well as for prayers and worship, a network of synagogues was gradually created, appearing everywhere where Jewish colonies appeared. We do not have exact data about the origin of the first synagogues: most likely they appeared during the Babylonian captivity. Typically, the synagogue community included all Jews living in a given area. The prayer meetings were presided over by a group of elders with the “ruler of the synagogue” at their head. The presiding officers had the power to excommunicate and punish those who were guilty. Divine services were performed according to a very simple pattern. They could be led by any Jew, although all preparations and control over the development of events remained in the hands of the “synagogue leader.” The service included prayer, readings from the law and the prophets, their translation into the local language, and sometimes interpretation (sermon) and blessing. As a result of the non-representative character of the priesthood and the growing importance of the synagogue, the temple, although extremely highly venerated by all the people, by the time of Christ had lost much of its importance for the religious life of the Jews.

During the reign of the Seleucid kings, Hellenistic influence entered Judea. The forcible introduction of Hellenism under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC) and the accompanying persecution of Jewish worship and customs caused the great Maccabean revolt (167). The Jews eventually won the protracted war and won their independence, which lasted until the Roman conquest in 63 BC.

This clash with Hellenism caused a deep split in the life of the country and people. The Maccabean rulers secured the throne of the high priest. However, although the Maccabean clan came to power thanks to the struggle against Hellenism and zealous religiosity, it gradually fell under Hellenistic influence and began to be guided by purely political interests.

During the reign of John Hyrcanus (135–105), religious and political parties crystallized, which we already encounter in the period of late Judaism. The aristocratic political party, which included John Hyrcanus himself and leading priestly families, became known as Sadducees. The etymology of the word “Sadducee” and its antiquity have not been fully determined. Most often the word is interpreted as coming from the name of Zadok, the founder of the dynasty of high priests (1 Kings 22:35). Basically it was a completely secular party without strong religious beliefs. Many of the views held by the Sadducees were very conservative, representing ancient Judaism. Thus, they adhered to the letter of the law and did not recognize its traditional interpretations. They denied personal immortality. On the other hand, they denied the existence of spirits, both good and evil, although the concept of spirits is inherent in the earliest Judaism.

Although the Sadducees were politically very influential, they were not very popular among the people, who firmly adhered to the law in its traditional interpretation. The most typical representatives of this democratic-legalistic worldview were Pharisees, which means “separated.” It is obvious that the origins of the Pharisaic party go back to the time of Ezra, but the name itself is first mentioned in documents immediately preceding the reign of John Hyrcanus. During his reign, the historical rivalry between the two parties begins.

In general, despite the fact that they came from the Pharisees zealots- fighters for political independence - they were not a political party. Although they were deeply respected by the entire people, their numbers were never too large. U an ordinary person there was neither sufficient education nor free time to receive it and join the Pharisees. Among the Pharisees one could find a rather contemptuous attitude towards the common people; for example, in John 7:49 we find the words of the Pharisees addressed to Nicodemus: “This people are ignorant of the law, cursed are they.” Nevertheless, the views they held were very widespread and in many ways represented the natural result of the religious development of the Jewish people after the Babylonian captivity. The Pharisees mainly emphasized the need to observe the smallest details the entire law in its traditional interpretation. They believed in the existence of spirits, good and evil - that is, angels and Satan. They believed in a bodily resurrection and in future rewards and punishments, a belief that was widely developed during the two centuries before the coming of Christ. Like the rest of the people, they eagerly awaited the coming of the Messiah. The Pharisees deserved real respect in many ways. It was from circles brought up on their ideas that many of Christ’s disciples came. Many Pharisees converted to Christianity. The most learned of all the apostles was a Pharisee, and continued to call himself by that name many years after his conversion (Acts 23:6). Their piety came from a genuine and deep religious feeling. However, there was also a deep error in the Pharisaic ideology: the approach to religion as observance of an external law that guaranteed divine rewards. This approach could easily lead to a loss of inner spiritual righteousness and a loss of warm personal communication with God. He also excluded from the divine promise all those who failed to reach the standard of the Pharisees because of mistakes, sins, and imperfect observance of the law. He disinherited “the lost sheep of the house of Israel.” It is because of this that the Savior warned in the harshest form against the “leaven of the Pharisees.”

The messianic hope that the Pharisees shared with common people, has grown on the basis of strong national identity and faith in divine intercession. It was especially evident in times of oppression. At the beginning of the reign of the Maccabees, when fidelity to the religion of the fathers brought independence to the people, the messianic hope manifested itself very weakly. Later, the Maccabees, however, broke away from family traditions. In 63 BC the land was conquered by the Romans. From the Jewish point of view, the situation did not get much better when the half-Jewish adventurer Herod, son of the Idumean Antipater, ruled a vassal kingdom under Roman protectorate from 37 BC to 4 BC. Despite all the prosperity that Judea experienced thanks to his rule, and the magnificent reconstruction of the temple he carried out, the people perceived him as a Roman puppet and a conductor of Hellenistic influence. The Pharisees and Sadducees alike hated the Herodians. After Herod's death, the kingdom was divided between his three sons. Archelaus (4 BC - 6 AD) became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria and Idumea; Herod Antipas (4 BC - 39 AD) became a tetrarch (in the New Testament - tetrarch) Galilee and Perea, and Philip became tetrarch of the predominantly pagan region to the East and Northeast of the Sea of ​​Galilee. Archelaus was hated by his subjects, deposed by Emperor Augustus and replaced by a Roman procurator. From 26 to 36 this post was held by Pontius Pilate.

From a human point of view, in such an extremely difficult political situation, there could simply be no hope of deliverance. The Messianic hope could only be fulfilled by the direct intervention in history of God Himself. In the time of Christ, the fulfillment of this hope was seen as the destruction of Roman rule through the supernatural intervention of the divine Messiah and the establishment of the Kingdom of God, in which, under the leadership of a righteous Messianic king from the house of David, a liberated and all-powerful Judaism would flourish, all the Jews of the dispersion would be reassembled and a golden age would begin. An ordinary person of that time most likely believed that the Messiah, with God's help, would drive the Romans out of the country and restore the kingdom of Israel. There was a widespread belief, based on the prophecy of Malachi (3:1), that the coming of the Messiah would be foretold by his Forerunner.

These hopes were expressed in the apocalyptic literature widely read at the time, pessimistic about modernity, but describing in the most bright colors the coming century. These writings were often attributed to ancient authorities. The prophecy of Daniel (Dan 7–12), included in the Old Testament canon, as well as the “Book of Enoch”, “The Ascension of Moses” and a number of other books belong to this period. An example of this type of literature in Christian scripture is the Book of Revelation, which makes extensive use of Jewish concepts. Apocalyptic literature was characterized by a hopeful, optimistic religious outlook, in some way serving as a counterbalance to the strictly legalistic interpretation of the Law by the Pharisees.

There were other religious movements in Palestine. In remote areas of the country, far from the centers of official Judaism, genuine mystical piety existed. It is precisely this that fills the later psalms; from them came such a New Testament expression as “poor in spirit,” as well as the song of the Virgin Mary and the song of Zechariah (Luke 1:46–55; Luke 1:68–79). The author of the so-called “Odes of Solomon” came from these same circles. This type of piety produced end-time prophets of repentance, of whom John the Baptist is the most famous.

There was another group in Judaism distinct from the Pharisees and Sadducees. This group or family of related groups was called Essenes. A description of their lives can be found in Pliny the Elder, Philo and Josephus, who had personal contact with them. The Essenes were a strictly separatist community who considered themselves the only faithful remnant of true Israel. The Essenes revered the Law, but believed that they alone were truly enlightened to its true interpretation and preservation of its true meaning.

Their main settlements were on the west bank Dead Sea, although followers of their teachings could be found in other places in Judea. The Qumran community, which owned the library found by archaeologists in the middle of our century, most likely belonged to the Essene movement. The Essenes rejected sacrifices and the priesthood, as well as the entire official temple cult in Jerusalem. They deeply revered their founder, the “Teacher of Righteousness,” who was tortured to death by the “unkind wicked priest” ruling Israel.

In some aspects the Essene groups resembled the early Church. They were a very closely knit community with common property. Money was given to everyone according to their needs. They led an ascetic life. Any member of the community who had two clothes had to give the second to a brother in need. Clothes were not changed and were worn until they were completely unusable. There appears to have been disagreement among the Essenes on the issue of passive resistance to the Romans. Most of them refused to bear arms, but some zealots emerged from their circles and devoted themselves to armed struggle against the Roman occupiers. The area near Qumran became the site of bloody battles in the Jewish War of 66–70 AD.

The Essenes rejected slavery as something fundamentally incompatible with the equality of all people before their Creator. Although they did not deny marriage as something sinful, all full members of the community adhered to celibacy. Entry into the community was preceded by trials and solemn vows taken after a period of novitiate. Violation of vows was punishable by exclusion from communication. The Essenes very strictly observed all the rules of ritual purity and performed frequent ritual ablutions. Their rituals also included sacred sharing a meal using specially blessed bread and wine, to which the uninitiated were not allowed. The Essenes completely rejected any oaths.

On the other hand, there were a number of very profound differences between the Essenes and the early Church. The Essenes took Sabbath observance especially seriously and took extreme care to avoid ritual pollution. According to Greek sources, community members rose before sunrise to say a prayer to the rising sun. The same sources claim that the Essenes had esoteric teachings about the properties of roots and stones and the secret names of angels. They devoted a lot of time to revealing and interpreting secret meanings The Scriptures also dealt with predictions of the future.

The content of the Qumran scrolls differs from the Greek sources on a number of points; it is possible that the Greek documents somewhat adjust the portrait of the Essene to the image of the Pythagorean ascetic familiar to the Hellenistic world. The materials of the Qumran scrolls provide scant evidence of the background against which the early Church could have arisen, except to confirm the very fact of the existence of a group deeply studying the Old Testament, especially messianic prophecies, and expecting a great divine intervention in human history. There is something vaguely common in the atmosphere of anticipation, for example, the so-called “War Scroll”, which describes last fight between the sons of light and the sons of darkness, reminiscent of the Armageddon of the Apocalypse. However, it should be noted that in general the number of parallels between the Qumran documents and the New Testament writings is very small, and the “Teacher of Righteousness” in the thought of the Qumran community does not come close to the role played by Jesus in the faith of the early Church. In other words, we can say that even if the New Testament and the Qumran documents partially illuminate each other, in any case, they do not explain each other in any way. We can assume with a high degree of probability that individual Essenes became Christians, but group conversions are not documented. As we know from the book of the Acts of the Apostles, the early Christians had a much more positive attitude toward temple worship than the Essenes. It seems unlikely that Christians would be able to achieve unity with a community preoccupied with the desire to achieve absolute ritual purity to such an extent that its members performed several ritual ablutions a day.

Speaking about the roots of Christianity, we should mention another concept of late Judaism, extremely important for the development of Christian theology. This is the concept Wisdom(in Hebrew joke) God's. In this tradition, Wisdom is seen as a personified attribute of God. Wisdom exists next to God, it is one with Him, it is His eternal “property”, which was with Him even before the creation of the world, and everything was created by Him through it. This concept may have been influenced by the Stoic philosophical concept of an all-present Logos, but the ethical side is much more developed in Jewish teaching. However, there are many points of agreement between both views.

Of course, consideration of Judaism of that time should begin with its homeland - Palestine, the birthplace of Christianity. Nevertheless, the significance of the Jewish dispersion cannot be underestimated both for the religious life of the entire Roman Empire and for Judaism itself, which thus encountered Greek thought.

The chain of foreign occupations and the poor economy of Palestine were the reason for the mass emigration of Jews from the country and the emergence of the phenomenon diaspora, or scattering. Jewish colonies could be found in every corner of the Mediterranean world - from Cadiz to the Crimea. In total, up to 4 million Jews lived in dispersion, out of a total population of the Roman Empire of 50 million.

In the first century A.D. there were 11 or 12 synagogues in Rome. The Jews made up a particularly large percentage of the population in Alexandria: about a million Jews lived in all of Egypt (including Alexandria), and municipal authorities had to take them into account, although their social isolation did not allow them to participate in local government. Wherever they lived, they refused to join the life of the pagan environment, strictly adhering to their own religion and customs. Every Sabbath they met to sing psalms, read Scripture followed by a sermon on the Bible passage read, and pray together.

The Jews maintained a sense of unity with the land of their fathers: they often made pilgrimages to the holy city of Zion and annually sent donations to the temple.

But, of course, not all Jews observed their native customs as strictly as their religious leaders would have liked, and many of them were strongly tempted to give in to the temptation and live no different from their neighbors.

However, the influence also spread in the other direction. Although both Greeks and Romans perceived circumcision as a disgusting, anti-aesthetic custom, a great many pagans were drawn to Judaism by its strict monotheism, the purity of its moral life, and the antiquity (if not the style) of its Scriptures. Judaism did not teach asceticism (except for a few marginal groups), but it did prescribe chastity and fidelity in family life. In their communities, Jews were constantly engaged in charity, visiting the sick, and giving alms to the poor.

Groups of pious pagans often formed around many synagogues in the dispersion, whom the Jews usually called afraid God(in fact, this term was also applied to every full-fledged pious member of the synagogue). A pagan could undergo circumcision and the ritual washing (immersion head-first into a pool of water required to accept a convert to Judaism), but this did not happen often. As a rule, the Hellenized Jews of the Diaspora, much more open to the outside world than their stricter Palestinian brethren, unfortunately for the latter, accepted Gentile converts into their circle without insisting that circumcision was necessary for their salvation.

The network of synagogues that covered the empire turned out to be a providentially prepared place for Christian preaching. Through it, Christianity penetrated among those who approached Judaism and were open to its spiritual influence. Among these groups of former pagans, Christian missionaries found their first uncircumcised followers. They could really be compared ripe fruit, for they had the advantage not only of high moral education, but also of knowledge of the Scriptures. From them the first Christian communities were formed. They consisted of the most different people, and not only from the proletarians and lower classes of society who despaired of finding justice in this life, as was commonly thought before. St. Paul in his Epistle to the Romans conveys greetings from Erastus, the city treasurer; in Athens, Dionysius, a member of the Areopagus (city council), was converted; in Thessalonica, “there are many noble women.” The governor of Bithynia, Pliny the Younger, in a letter to Trajan, writes about the many “Christians of different classes.” Many of these people were educated pagans who came to Christianity from near-Jewish circles.

Since Judaism was a religion of the Holy Scriptures, the Jews of the Diaspora, who no longer spoke Hebrew, were in dire need of translating the Scriptures into Greek. A number of translation attempts have been made. The most famous (and most successful) of them led to the creation Septuagint- the so-called Translations of seventy interpreters, or translation LXX. It was this translation that became the main biblical text for the first Christian churches of the pagan world.

The translation was created in Alexandria in the middle of the 3rd century. BC, according to legend, by order of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Philadelphus. For the Alexandrian Jews, the Septuagint was surrounded by a special mystical aura. They celebrated an annual religious festival in her honor. The history of the creation of the translation was instantly overgrown with legends emphasizing its inspiration. The Alexandrians said that Ptolemy chose 72 elder interpreters to translate and that each of them independently translated the entire Scripture in 72 days. When all 72 texts were compared, it turned out that they matched to the letter. The great Jewish philosopher Philo firmly believed that the translation was created with direct divine participation. At the time of Christ, the legend of the 72 interpreters was very widespread in the Jewish world. But even those who regarded it with a certain degree of skepticism did not deny that the Septuagint was an inspired translation, incomparable in its authority to any other.

It was only when Christian references to this text made it inconvenient for Jews that the Greek-speaking synagogue began to use other, more literal translations. Some fundamentalist rabbis, hostile not only to Christianity but also to liberal, Hellenized Judaism, began to openly express regret that the Bible had been translated into Greek at all, and called the creation of the Septuagint a sin similar to the worship of the golden calf. Nevertheless, in the Diaspora and especially in Egypt, the homeland of the Septuagint, Judaism, thanks to it, was very strongly influenced by Hellenism and especially classical Greek philosophy. In Alexandria, an attempt was made for the first time to combine Old Testament religious ideas with Greek philosophical concepts, primarily Platonic and Stoic. The result of this connection was very strange syncretic systems.

The most influential among the creators of new systems was the one already mentioned above Philo of Alexandria(c. 20 BC - c. 54 AD) - Jewish Neoplatonist philosopher. Philo considered the Old Testament the wisest of books, a true divine revelation, and Moses the greatest and wisest of teachers. However, using the allegorical method of interpretation, Philo proves that the Old Testament is in complete agreement with the best tenets of Platonism and Stoicism.

The belief that the Old Testament and Greek philosophy were talking about the same things, were essentially in agreement and did not contradict each other, had far-reaching consequences for the development of Christian theology. Subsequently, the allegorical method of biblical exegesis also had a profound impact on the Christian approach to Scripture and its interpretation. Philo taught that the creation of the world by one God was an expression of His love for His creation. Between God and the world there are certain intermediate unifying connections. This is a group of divine powers, interpreted by Philo sometimes as properties of the Creator God, and sometimes as personal beings. Of these beings, the highest is the Logos, flowing from the being of God Himself and being not only the instrument through which God created the world, but also the source and focus of all other divine powers.

Through the Logos, God created an ideal man, a corrupted copy of which is the ordinary man, created only partly by the Logos, and partly by a number of lower and more corrupt spiritual forces. But even from his fallen state, man can rise to communicate with the true God through the Logos, the instrument of divine revelation. However, Philo's concept of the Logos is much more philosophical than the same Wisdom from the Book of Proverbs. Undoubtedly, the source of the New Testament teaching about the Logos is rooted precisely in the Old Testament concept of “Wisdom”, and not in the thought of Philo. However, the Jewish philosopher became the forerunner of the future synthesis of Hellenistic and Jewish thought in Christian theology. And Alexandria became the birthplace of this synthesis.

Non-standard forms of education at school include: lectures, seminars, consultations, excursions, conferences, workshops, business games, didactic games, test lessons, group work.

No less important are the forms of control of knowledge, skills (current control, final control). The forms of such control are also different. This can include tests, independent homework, defense of essays, projects, and an individual interview, as well as a comprehensive interview and defense of the topic.

To develop students' interest in the subject being studied and, as a result, improve the quality of knowledge, modern innovative technologies are used, such as:

* technology of level differentiation of training

* technology of problem-based and developmental education

* health-saving technologies

* cooperation technology

* gaming technologies

The program includes a list of necessary types of work on speech development: vocabulary work, different kinds retelling, oral and written presentations, reviews, reports, dialogues, creative works.

Main content of the program

Program “Spiritual Local History of the Moscow Region”

Part 1. Subject “Spiritual local history of the Moscow region”

(History of the Christian Orthodox culture)

What is “religious culture”?

Name of the subject. Concepts: local history, spirituality, spiritual local history, culture, cultured person, historical memory, religion, religious culture. Basic concepts of the subject. Spiritual culture. Its characteristics. Examples of phenomena of spiritual culture. What does spiritual local history study in the Moscow region? Definition of the concept “spiritual” within the framework of a religious worldview. Ethical standards of Christianity. Definition of good and evil.

What does Christian Orthodox culture talk about?

When did the Christian religion emerge? Definition of "our era". Its definition is from the Nativity of Christ. Basic concepts of Orthodox Christianity. Contents of the Orthodox religion. Basic principles of Christianity: the dogma of the Trinity, the Absolution of God. Sources of Christian spiritual culture. Bible as a source religious knowledge and culture. Old Testament. Exposition of the teachings of Jesus Christ in the Gospels. Evangelists. Reflection of the Christian worldview in cultural phenomena. Christian anthropology is about human nature. The provisions of Christian anthropology in the works of Russian teachers, thinkers, and poets. Reflection of the Christian teaching about man in Russian folklore. Etymology about the Christian meaning of some words in the Russian language. Reflection of the Christian teaching about salvation in Russian spiritual poetry different centuries.

The Baptism of Rus' and the spread of Christianity in the lands of the Moscow region.

Christian saints. What does veneration of saints mean? Christian feat of the saints. Literature ancient Rus' talks about the Christian understanding of the beauty of the Russian land. Depiction of saints in icon painting. Icon “All the saints who have shone in the Russian Land. Portrayal of saints in poetry. What saints were revered on the lands of the Moscow region. Route of spiritual local history: “Temples of the Moscow region, named after saints.”

Features of Orthodox culture.

What types of art does Orthodox culture unite? The ecclesiastical character of the art of ancient Rus'. The relationship between different types of Christian art. The salvation of man by God is the main content of Orthodox culture. The Creator and His creations. How does Christian culture explain the possibility of creativity? Creation theory of the creation of the world. Its representatives are scientists, writers, poets, composers, and artists. Two roots of Christian Orthodox culture. Holy Land. The Gospels tell about events that took place in the Holy Land. Historical evidence of the events described in the Gospels. Shroud of Turin. Byzantine Christian culture and Orthodox culture of Rus'.

The Old Russian monastery is the center of Christian Orthodox culture.

Orthodoxy – traditional culture Russia. Christianity in the life of Russian people. The meaning of life for Christians. Sin and virtue. Christian virtues: faith in God, hope in God, love of God and the blessed, moderation, chastity. Christians talk about talent - a gift of love given to a person. Parable of the Talents. Paths to a virtuous life. Monastic path. The meaning of monastic life. Monastery in the history of Christian Orthodox culture. History of Russian monasticism. Pechersk, holy warrior - hero Ilya Muromets, Venerable Nestor the chronicler. Cultural enlightenment of Christian Rus'. How were Russian monasteries built? Beauty is man-made and miraculous. Beauty is external and internal.

What is the beauty of an Orthodox monastery? Name of the monastery. Monasteries of the Moscow region and the names of saints associated with them. Luzhetsky Mozhaisk Monastery and the Monk Ferapont of Belozersky. Russian poets from different centuries reflect on the meaning of beauty and its reflection in objects of Orthodox culture: K. Balmont, N. Rubtsov, F. Sollogub. Lukino F. Sollogub's estate near Moscow. Its history and the customs of Christian piety which it relates. Reflection of the Christian worldview in the works of F. Sollogub. about the significance of monastic culture for Russian history and Pushkin’s Christian worldview. Poetic correspondence between the saint and the poet, the saint and the poet discuss issues of Christian behavior. Christian ethics. Places in the Moscow region associated with the names of St. Philaret and.

Bible stories in works of Christian Orthodox culture.

How was the Bible created? Books included in the Bible. Reflection of Biblical history in works of Orthodox culture: choral music, spiritual poetry, religious and secular painting, literature. The arrangement of the events of Sacred history around four main themes: Creation of the world - Incarnation (Nativity of Christ) - Crucifixion (Sacrifice of the Cross) - Resurrection of Christ - creation of the Church. Reflection of the plots of these themes in works of Orthodox culture and in the traditions of Christian life: icon painting, spiritual poetry, music, Christian holidays and others. Reflection of the content of Sacred history in Orthodox worship. All-night vigil. Description of the All-Night Vigil service in poetry. The route of spiritual local history of the Moscow region, indicated by the poet - the village of Kholmy. Study of an object of Orthodox culture - an Orthodox church.

The language of ancient Russian art.

Symbols of Christian Orthodox culture are the cross, dove, fish, halo, etc. Sacred history tells about the meaning of veneration of the cross. Forms of veneration of God in the history of world religious culture: Old Testament and New Testament times. From the history of Christian spiritual culture: The Exaltation of the Cross. Temples in the Moscow region, named in honor of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. What is the meaning of the beauty of Orthodox art? Russian poetry talks about the symbols of Orthodox culture. Veneration of the shrine. Sacrifice, sacrifice, sacrifice. What is more difficult, what is easier? How did Christians understand the veneration of a shrine?

Old Russian architecture: appearance and spiritual meaning of an Orthodox church.

Temple is a house dedicated to God. The external beauty of the temple and the spiritual beauty of its creator. Architect's dictionary: main parts of the temple. Symbolic meaning temple. Iconostasis, quadrangle, altar, Throne, High Place. Christian temple in the sacred topography of the Moscow region. The names of Orthodox churches in the Moscow region tell about the events of Sacred history. Stories of churches near Moscow. Their architectural styles. Russian poets talk about Orthodox churches, their structure, worship, bell ringing, Christian joy. Rules of behavior in the temple.

Written sources of Christian Orthodox culture.

Church Slavonic language.

Letters on icons and objects of ancient Russian applied art. Church Slavonic alphabet. Its creators are Saints Cyril and Methodius, Equal to the Apostles. Who are called educators? The meaning of the word "enlightenment". What do the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet tell about? The beauty of capital letters, the spiritual meaning of capital letters. How book literacy came to Rus'. The Psalter and Gospel are the first books in Rus'. Chronicles. Lives of the Saints. Russian chroniclers talk about the meaning of church books. Monasteries are centers of education and book learning. Literary monuments ancient Rus'. Works of spiritual literature and their authors. The first Russian Christian writers. , Metropolitan Hilarion, Metropolitan Nikifor, Bishop Kirill of Turov. What do the works of ancient Russian literature tell about? Ostromir Gospel. "A Word on Law and Grace."

What books did the children of ancient Rus' learn from? Biblical stories in the works of Russian poets and writers. Places in the Moscow region where they created their works. Which of the written works belong to the works of spiritual literature?

Part 2. Christian culture in the lands of the Moscow region: samples and spiritual meaning.

Northern Moscow region. To the abbot of the Russian land - St. Sergius of Radonezh.

How was the spiritual culture of Russia formed? Holy Rus'. The feat of the saints. Holy Blessed Prince Daniil Alexandrovich of Moscow. The life of St. Sergius of Radonezh is told by St. Epiphanius the Wise. Saint Alexy - Metropolitan of Moscow. Blessing of the Holy Prince Dmitry Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo. Assistants are the holy monks Alexander Peresvet and Rodion Weakening. Travel to holy places native land– Trinity – Sergius Lavra. From the history of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. Archimandrite Dionysius and Elder Abraham Palitsyn. Shrines of the Lavra. Cathedrals. Architectural and artistic values. Presentation of the Trinity icon. . How the Monk Andrei Rublev painted the Trinity icon. Disciples of Rev. Andrei Rublev. Paintings of Lavra temples. From the sources of Christian spiritual culture - Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Ermogen. Cross kissing. Cultural heritage - the novel “Bogomolye” about the traditions of Christian life. Russian spiritual poetry is about the lives of saints.

ChapterIV. Contents of the academic subject program for the 5th year of study

Fundamentals of Orthodox culture

Religious culture in human life. What is “religious culture”?

We study and repeat. Spirituality, culture, cultured person, historical memory, religion, religious culture. Spiritual culture. Its characteristics. Examples of phenomena of spiritual culture. Definition of the concept “spiritual” within the framework of a religious worldview. Ethical standards of Christianity. Definition of good and evil. Love to motherland. Fatherland. Father's house.

What does Christian Orthodox culture talk about?

When did the Christian religion emerge? Definition of "our era". Its countdown is from the Nativity of Christ. Basic concepts of Christian culture. The content of the Orthodox religion: the salvation of man by God. Happiness in the life of Christians. Basic provisions of the Christian faith: the dogma of the Trinity, the Incarnation. Examples of the pious life of the saints. The ladder of man's spiritual ascent to God. Sources of Christian spiritual culture. The Bible as a source of religious knowledge and culture. Old Testament. New Testament. Exposition of the teachings of Jesus Christ in the Gospels. The parables of the Good Shepherd, the Prodigal Son, the Publican and the Pharisee - as revealing the paths of salvation. Reflection of the Christian worldview in cultural phenomena. Christian anthropology is the study of man. The provisions of Christian anthropology in the works of domestic teachers, thinkers, and poets. Reflection of the Christian teaching about man in Russian folklore. Etymology about the Christian meaning of some words in the Russian language. Reflection of the Christian teaching about salvation in Russian spiritual poetry of different centuries.

What does the Bible talk about? Biblical subjects in works of Christian Orthodox culture.

How the Bible was created. Books included in the Bible. Holy Bible as the main liturgical book. About God, about the world and man. The concept of good and evil in people's lives. The first rules given in Paradise to Adam and Eve. The Fall. How God saved people: the Ten Commandments. What Christ taught people: the Beatitudes. Christ talks about the Kingdom of Heaven. Parable of the mustard seed. Miracles of the Savior, their meaning. How could a person return to God? Concern for decorating the soul with virtues. The Sacrifice of the Cross is the Redemption of Man. Resurrection of Christ. Creation of the Church. How did people learn about Christianity? The Gospel is about the Christian understanding of the future of people and the world. Last Judgment. Human responsibility.

Four main themes of the Sacred History of the Old and New Testaments: the creation of the world; Nativity of Christ (Incarnation); Sacrifice of the Cross; The Resurrection of Christ and the creation of the Church. Reflection of Biblical history in works of Orthodox culture: choral music, spiritual poetry, religious and secular painting, literature, temple architecture, Christian holidays.

The monastery is the center of Christian Orthodox culture.

About Christian joy. The meaning of life for Christians. Sin and virtue. Christian virtues: faith in God, hope in God, love in God and in others, moderation, chastity. Christians talk about talent - a gift of love given to a person. Parable of the Talents. Paths to a virtuous life. Monastic path. The meaning of monastic life. Monastery in the history of Christian Orthodox culture. Revival of monasteries? Beauty is man-made and miraculous. Beauty is external and internal. What is the beauty of an Orthodox monastery? Name of the monastery. Monasteries and the names of saints associated with them. Russian poets from different centuries reflect on the meaning of beauty and its reflection in objects of Orthodox culture.

The language of Christian Orthodox culture.

Christian Orthodox culture talks about God. What types of art does Orthodox culture unite? The ecclesiastical character of Christian art. The salvation of man by God is the main content of Orthodox culture. The Creator and His creations. How Christian culture explains the possibility of creativity. Creation theory of the creation of the world. Two roots of Christian Orthodox culture. Holy Land. The Gospel tells about the events that took place in the Holy Land. Historical evidence of the events described in the Gospels. Shroud of Turin. Byzantine Christian culture and Orthodox culture of Rus'.

Why was the Orthodox church built and how is it structured.

The Orthodox Church in the life of Christians. Temple is a house dedicated to God. The external beauty of the temple and the spiritual beauty of its creator. Architect's dictionary: main parts of the temple; clergy and their clothing (vestments); liturgical items. The symbolic meaning of the temple. Worship. Sacraments of the Church. How the Sacrament of Communion was established. Last Supper. Iconostasis, quadrangle, altar, Throne, High Place. The sacred topography of the world is Orthodox churches named after the events of Sacred history. The names of Orthodox churches tell about the events of Sacred history. History of the creation of temples. Their architectural styles. Russian sweats tell about Orthodox churches, their structure, worship, bell ringing, Christian joy. Rules of behavior in the temple.

Religious painting. What does the icon say?

How a person perceives the beauty of the world around him. The Christian religion is about the material and immaterial world. An icon is a window into the invisible world. An icon is a Christian shrine. To whom were Christian icons dedicated? What does veneration of an icon mean? Why is an icon a sacred image? The history of the creation of the first icon. Savior Not Made by Hands. Iconographic images. Fresco. Mosaic. Dictionary of the Iconographer. Iconography of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Spiritual beauty of the icon. Painting and icon. Their differences. We study the iconography of icons.

The beautiful world of the Church Slavonic alphabet.

Written sources of Christian Orthodox culture. Church Slavonic language. Letters on icons and objects of ancient Russian applied art. Church Slavonic alphabet. Its creators are Saints Cyril and Methodius, Equal to the Apostles. The meaning of the word "enlightenment". What do the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet tell about? The beauty of capital letters. Spiritual meaning of initial letters. How the book alphabet came to Rus'. The Psalter and Gospel are the first books in Rus'. Chronicles. Lives of the Saints. Monasteries are centers of education and book learning. Works of spiritual literature. Ostromir Gospel. What books were used to teach children to read and write in Ancient Rus'? Biblical stories in the works of Russian poets and writers. Which of the works they wrote are works of spiritual literature.

History of the Christian Church in the lives of its saints

The beginning of the Christian era. The Apostolic Age.

How Christianity began to spread throughout the world. The election of the apostles by Jesus Christ. Formation of the Church. The descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles. The first sermon of the Apostle Peter. Formation of the first Christian communities. The life of the first Christians. The Works of the Apostles. The calling of the Apostle Paul. Christian holidays: Trinity Day, Feast of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, Council of the Twelve Apostles.

The teaching of Jesus Christ is revealed in the phenomena of Orthodox culture: the Gospel in Church Slavonic, spiritual poetry, architectural monuments.

Holy children are martyrs for the faith.

Reasons for the persecution of Christians by Jewish and Roman authorities. The first to suffer for Christ were the infants of Bethlehem. First Martyr Stephen. The meaning of the word "blessing". The meaning of the gospel episode “The Blessing of the Children.” Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer. Young martyr Aquilina. Holy youth Vit. The holy youth-martyrs and their teacher - the holy Bishop of Babylon of Antioch. The meaning of martyrdom. Why did Christian children show courage? Prayer. Lives of young martyrs. Works of spiritual poetry talk about children's prayer. Holy Scripture on the grounds for Christians’ veneration of the sacrifices of martyrs (Psalm 115). Church hymns. Litany - prayers of petition.

Christian virtues are faith, hope and love in the lives of the saints.

About the holy young martyrs Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia. About the Holy Virgin Tatiana. Christian virtues. Reflection on spiritual beauty. The Gospel text about Christians’ understanding of beauty as perfect likeness to the Heavenly Father (Gospel of Matthew, chapter 5, verses 44-48). How did Christians show their love for their enemies?

Wisdom of Christian life.

Holy Great Martyrs Catherine, Barbara. How was the life of Christians different from the lives of other people? The main values ​​of Christian life. Parables of Christ about the Kingdom of Heaven: the pearl of great price, the leaven, the mustard seed. Christian wisdom. Worldly wisdom. Holy Scripture is about the wisdom of the world (1 Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Corinthians). Christian joy. Spiritual poetry reflects on human wisdom. Church hymns - troparia to the great martyrs. Christian virtues and the name of the Great Martyr Barbara “all-honorable.” Reflections on the precious qualities of the human soul. Traveling to holy places - monasteries and churches in honor of Saints Catherine and Barbara.

Holy warriors.

Great Martyrs George the Victorious, Demetrius of Thessalonica, Theodore Stratelates. Holy Martyr Sebastian. Feats of confession of faith and defense of the Fatherland. Who were called the soldiers of Christ? Military valor. What virtues did you demonstrate (in childhood, in military service, in Christian deeds)? About the veneration of holy warriors. Reflections on the Gospel texts about love for enemies, Christian joy, military feat. Answer of Emperor Constantine the Great about the attitude of Christians towards personal enemies and enemies of the Fatherland. The Apostle explains to Christians about the military armor of a Christian: the armor of love for God, faith in His help, the helmet of hope for salvation. Spiritual beauty of a person. The struggle of a Christian with internal enemies: sins - the passions of his soul.

Holy healers Cosmas and Damian. All-merciful healer Panteleimon.

The selflessness of holy doctors. The Gospel is about gifts: “Freely you have received, freely give.” The parable of talents - God's gifts to man. The battle of selflessness and greed. What virtues did the saints exhibit in childhood? What Christian virtues and deeds were you famous for? Reflection on God's gifts to the saints while reading Church Slavonic texts of the Holy Scriptures.

Defense of the Christian Faith. Ecumenical Councils. Saints Equal to the Apostles Constantine and Helen. Holy Fathers of the Church.

The end of the persecution of Christians during the reign of Constantine the Great. Finding and Exaltation of the Holy Cross by Saints Constantine and Helena. Preservation of pagan habits by newly converted Christians. Defense of Christian doctrine from heresies. Seven Ecumenical Councils. Approval by the Ecumenical Councils of the main dogmas of the Christian faith: On the Trinity, the Incarnation, and veneration of the Mother of God. Statement of the Creed. Works of Saints Athanasius the Great, Cyril of Alexandria, Pope Leo the Great, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian. The period of iconoclasm. Christian veneration of icons. Saint John of Damascus.

Affirmation of Christian teaching. Teachers of the faith - Saints Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom.

Why was it necessary to defend the teachings of the Church? By what works for the good of the Church did Saints Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, and John Chrysostom become famous? What virtues did the saints demonstrate in childhood? Who are called Orthodox Christians? About the worship of the Orthodox Church. Divine Liturgy. All-night vigil. The contribution of the saints to the composition of the hymns of the service. John Chrysostom teaches Christian thanksgiving. The meaning of the words “thanksgiving” and “blessing”.

Paths to salvation. Great ascetics of the desert: Saints Anthony the Great, Pachomius the Great, Paul of Thebes.

The meaning of monasticism. Spiritual exploits. Their meaning is the salvation of the soul. Different paths to salvation. Monasticism is the path of the perfect. The founder of monasticism is Anthony the Great. Life. How life in ancient monasteries was structured. Laurels, monasteries. The spiritual leader is Abba (father). Spiritual kinship of saints. Brothers in Christ. Monastic vows of obedience, non-covetousness, chastity. Examples of Christian virtues in the lives of holy ascetics. The Holy Scriptures are about virtues, about God’s reward to the righteous and sinners, about the saints.

Paths to salvation. Holy Venerable Mary of Egypt, Ephraim the Syrian.

Glorifying God through faith and good deeds. God's providence in the matter of man's salvation. Paths: monastic, family life, others. The fight against the passions of the soul is the path to salvation. In what way did Saint Ephraim the Syrian see the action of God's Providence for man? The action of God's Providence in the life of Saint Mary of Egypt. Christian virtues demonstrated by saints on the path of salvation. Repentance. Repentant prayer of Saint Ephraim the Syrian. Great Lent in the life of Christians. The Great Penitential Canon of St. Andrew of Crete. Reflection of the themes of repentance in Russian classical literature. Church Slavonic texts of the Holy Scriptures about overcoming passions.

The path to salvation. Venerable Dosifei. Saint Paul the Merciful.

The responsibility of a Christian. What should a person be responsible for? How can a Christian be saved? Holy Scripture talks about Last Judgment. How Saint Dositheus chose the path to salvation. Christian virtues of humility, obedience, meekness, patience, moderation are the path to the salvation of the soul. About God's mercy to man. The atoning Sacrifice made by Christ for people. Christ shows examples of mercy and forgiveness: the Gospel episode “Christ and the Sinner.” The mercy and mercy of a Christian. Gospel parable about the merciful Samaritan. The virtue of mercy in St. Paulinus the Merciful. Reflection of the commandment “Do not judge, lest you be judged” in the phenomena of Orthodox culture: the Church Slavonic language, the traditions of Christian life (alms, non-judgment), spiritual poetry, painting on religious themes.

Enlighteners Slavic Kirill and Methodius.

The Gospel comes to the Slavic lands. Monks are missionary preachers. The difficulty of missionary feat among pagan tribes. Works of the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius. The childhood years of the saints. Christian virtues demonstrated by them in childhood. How the youth Konstantin (Kirill) reflected on the values ​​of human life; how he determined his life path. What were the difficulties of enlightening the Slavic tribes? Apostolic works of the saints.

ChapterV. Forms and controls

Test No. 1 - Appendix No. 1;

Final test – Appendix No. 2.

Evaluation criteria for the subject “Orthodox Culture”

Based on the totality of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities, the assessment should be qualified as follows:

"excellent" (5)

When answering, follow the norms of the Russian language.

"good" (4)

assimilation of deep, lasting knowledge, logical and evidence-based answer, knowledge of basic facts, concepts, terms, dates, events and personalities;

the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, independently analyze and compare written sources, know the periodization of events in the history of Orthodox culture, a historical map, and the ability to draw reasoned conclusions.

When answering, follow the norms of the Russian language. The answer may contain minor inaccuracies.

"satisfactory" (3)

mastering basic concepts, terms, knowing factual material.

the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships and give detailed definitions; be able to present material, analyze problems, processes, facts and phenomena in the history of Orthodox culture, use written sources and draw conclusions.

When answering, follow the norms of the Russian language. The answer may contain significant errors and inaccuracies.

“unsatisfactory” (2) is not given.

ChapterVI.

List of educational and methodological teaching aids

Main literature

1. L.L. Shevchenko. Orthodox culture. Textbook for middle classes of secondary schools, lyceums, gymnasiums. 5th year of study. Book 1. - M.: Center for Support of Cultural and Historical Traditions of the Fatherland, 2007.

2. L.L. Shevchenko. Orthodox culture. Textbook for middle classes of secondary schools, lyceums, gymnasiums. 5th year of study. Book 2. - M.: Center for Support of Cultural and Historical Traditions of the Fatherland, 2007.

3. Shevchenko L.L. Orthodox culture: Methodological manual for teachers (program, plans, lesson development). 5th year of study. – M.: Center for Support of Cultural and Historical Traditions of the Fatherland, 2008.

4. L.L. Shevchenko. Orthodox culture: Concept and program of the academic subject. 1-11 years of study. - M.: Center for Support of Cultural and Historical Traditions of the Fatherland, 2008.

Orthodox churches of the Oskol land [Text]./Auth.-comp. P.E.Shishkin, N.I.Murashov. Ed. V.A. Verbkin. - Stary Oskol, 2008.

Multimedia supplement to the textbook “Orthodox Culture” [Electronic resource] V.D. Skorobogatov, T.V. Ryzhova, O.N. Kobets. "INFOFOND", Ulyanovk, 2007.

additional literature

Borodina A.V. History of religious culture: Fundamentals of Orthodox culture. Textbook for basic and senior levels of education /A.V. Borodin.- M.: OPK, 2007.- 187 p.

Voskoboynikov V.M. Encyclopedic Orthodox Dictionary / V.M. Voskoboynikov. - M.: EKSMO Publishing House, 2005. - 544 p.

Koshmina I.V. Fundamentals of Russian Orthodox culture: Textbook. manual for students. and senior school Age t/ I.V. Koshmina.- M.: Humanit. ed. VLADOS center, 2001. - 160 p.

Kuraev A.V. Fundamentals of the spiritual and moral culture of the peoples of Russia. Fundamentals of Orthodox culture. 4-5 grades / A.V. Kuraev. - Education, 2010.

Maslov N.V. . Orthodox education as the basis of Russian pedagogy: Based on the works of schemamandrite Ioann Maslov / N.V. Maslov. - M.: Samshit-izdat, 2006. - 504 p.

Matsukevich A.A. Venerable Seraphim of Sarov: Illustrated biography of the great Russian Elder, Venerable Seraphim, Sarov Wonderworker / A.A. Matsukevich. - M.: OLMA-PRESS, 2004. - 208 p.

Orthodox Encyclopedia: Russian Orthodox Church /Ed. Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy 2 - M.: Church and Scientific Center "Orthodox Encyclopedia", 2000. - 656 p.

Easter gospel: Reader. Easter rituals and customs. A book for reading in the family, school, kindergarten / E.Yu. Farkova. - M.: Publishing house "GNOM and D", 2004. - 160 p.

Opryshko N.Orthodox saints: Veneration and glorification / N. Opryshko. - M.: OLMA-PRESS, 2002. - 304 p.

Smolich I.K. . History of the Russian Church. Book 8, part 1: 1700-1917/ I.K. Smolich. - M.: Publishing House of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Valaam Monastery, 1996. - 800 p.

Smolich I.K. . History of the Russian Church. Book 8, part 2: 1700-1917/ I.K. Smolich. - M.: Publishing house of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Valaam Monastery, 1997. - 800 p.

Formation spiritual world the younger generation: Educational and methodological materials; Materials of the regional competition "Teacher's Creative Workshop" / Department of Education and Science of the Belgorod Region; Center for Spiritual Enlightenment. - Belgorod: IPC "POLITERRA", 2004. - 272 p.

Shipov Y. Orthodoxy: a schoolchild's dictionary / Y. Shipov. - M.: ROSMEN, 2004. - 320 p.

Shurupova T.A., Yanushkyavichene O.L. . Methodological guide to the book “Fundamentals of Morality” / T.A. Shurupova, O.L. Yanushkyavichene. - M.: PRO-PRESS, 2003. – 230 p.

Yanushkyavichene O.L. Fundamentals of morality. Methodological manual for teachers / O.L. Januskevicien. - M.: PRO-PRESS, 2006.-357 p.

Literature on local history

Belgorod studies: Textbook for educational institutions. – Belgorod, 2002. – 410 p.

Belgorod Encyclopedia: pages of the history of the Fatherland, the Russian Orthodox Church, culture, military and labor feats of Belgorod residents / ch. ed. V.V. Ovchinnikov. – Belgorod, 2000. – 463 p.

Spiritual local history of the Belgorod region: Methodological recommendations for lessons on the course / Department of Education and Science of the Belgorod Region; BelRIPKPPS; Center for Spiritual Enlightenment; Author: S.S. Chernova. Belgorod: Logia LLC, 2005. – 104 p.

Spiritual local history of the Belgorod region: A brief dictionary / Department of Education and Science of the Belgorod Region; BelRIPKPPS; Center for Spiritual Enlightenment; Author: S.S. Chernova. Belgorod: Logia LLC, 2005. – 40 p.

History of Slobozhanshchina and the Belgorod region: Textbook edited by: V.V. Ovchinnikova, N.N. Oleinik. – Belgorod: Belgorod. Regional typ., 2011. – 336 p.

Local history in the preschool system, overall average, additional education: regional experience and prospects. Methodological recommendations for the use of local history in the educational process / Edited by N.S. Serdyukova. – Belgorod, 2011. – 69 p.

Seven wonders of the Belgorod region / prepared. Ex. Information and mass communications of the administration of the governor of Belgor. Region and Belgor. Region. Department of general Organizations of the Knowledge Society of Russia. – Belgorod, 2010. – 36 p.

Springs of Belogorye (Journey into the history and culture of my people). Collection of programmatic, methodological, didactic materials on local history / Scientifically edited by V.A. Maslova, T.A. Pristavkova. – Belgorod: IPC “POLITERRA”, 20100. – 150 p.

Official information resources : - website of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, - official website of the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, - official website of the Belgorod and Stary Oskol diocese, omcbelgorod@- website of the Educational and Methodological Center “Preobrazhenie”, – official website of the Department of Education, Culture and Youth Policy of the Belgorod Region, - website of the Belgorod Institute for Advanced Training and Professional Retraining of Specialists, - website of the Belgorod Orthodox Theological Seminary with a missionary orientation; - the official website of deacon, professor of the Moscow Theological Academy Andrei Kuraev, - an information and educational Orthodox portal.

Orthodox libraries: , (Orthodox Christian library, books; audio library; video library), .ua, (library of spiritual poetry), (Apologetics; Dogmatics; Rhetoric; Holy Scripture; Comparative Theology; Lives of the Saints), (library of Christian texts), (collection of recordings of radio broadcasts on Orthodoxy), , (Orthodox Christian library).

Orthodox multimedia resources:, / Digital library, Orthodox Media Library , / Video archive; Music Archive; Forum; mp3 archive; / - Electronic library "Faith and Orthodoxy"; - Orthodox media library, - Small electronic library of Orthodox texts "."; - Orthodox Music Archive; - Orthodox library- Religious literature. Reviews of sites, collection of digital images of Orthodox books

Publishers' websites: Electronic catalog of educational publications (/); publishing house Enlightenment ( /) .; Vlados Humanitarian Publishing Center (/). Bookstore of the University of RAO (/).

Museums, galleries and art catalogues: Catalog of Russian Museums (/); Hermitage ( /) ; Russian Museum (/); Museum named after Pushkin (/gmii/); State Historical Museum (/); Tretyakov Gallery (/); Gallery visual arts(/); Gallery of Russian artists of the 20th century (/); Museum of Architecture named after. Shchuseva A.V. (/); Russian culture (/).

Websites of teachers of Orthodox culture: ; › pravoslawya/setevy; ; / - Network of creative teachers.

List of ICT tools required for program implementation

Computer– universal information processing device; The basic configuration of a modern computer provides the student with multimedia capabilities.

Projector, connected to a computer, VCR; the technological element of new literacy - radically increases: the level of visibility in the teacher’s work, the opportunity for students to present the results of their work to the whole class, the effectiveness of organizational and administrative performances.

(base level) Teacher: Elena Krylova...