What did Gogol mean when he called nozdreva. The image of Nozdryov, topic: can Nozdryov - a restless, lively, historical person - be considered a dead soul? (Gogol N

Mandelstam Osip Emilievich- (18911938), poet. In St. Petersburg since 1897. Studied at Tenishevsky School(190007), in 191117 at the department of Romance languages ​​of the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg University (did not graduate). The family moved often, not... Encyclopedic reference book "St. Petersburg"

- (1891 1938), Russian. owls poet. In M.'s poetry and prose there are numerous references to L., reminiscences from his works. In the essay “Bookcase” (published 1925), M. wrote about L.: “He never seemed to me like Pushkin’s brother or relative. But Goethe and... Lermontov Encyclopedia

- (1891 1938) Russian poet. He started as a representative of Acmeism. Poetry is culturally rich historical images and motives, is marked specifically by the material perception of the world, the tragic experience of the death of culture. Collections Stone (1913), Tristia ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Russian Soviet poet. Born in Warsaw in the family of a merchant. He studied at the Romano-Germanic department of St. Petersburg University. Began publishing in 1910. The first book of poems is “Stone” (1913; 2nd, expanded edition, ... ... Big Soviet encyclopedia

- (1891 1938), poet. In St. Petersburg since 1897. He studied at the Tenishev School (1900 07), in 1911 17 at the department of Romance languages ​​of the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg University (did not graduate). The family moved often, without staying for… St. Petersburg (encyclopedia)

Mandelstam, Osip Emilievich- Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891–1938; repressed) directed his experimentation primarily to the rhythm of verse; the exquisite play with omissions and shifts of stress was already appreciated by his contemporaries. In metrics, I was guided by classical forms... Russian poets Silver Age

The term “Mandelshtam” has other meanings. Osip Mandelstam Birth name: Joseph Emilievich Mandelstam Date of birth: January 3 (15), 1891 Place of birth: Warsaw, Russian empire Date of death... Wikipedia

- (1891 1938), Russian poet. He started as a representative of Acmeism. In a semantically complex, rich literary associations and cultural images different eras Mandelstam’s poetry combines the eternal meaning of the “word”, culture and history of existence,... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Acmeist poet, b. 3 Jan 1891 as a merchant. family, student Ptg. un. (Vengerov) Mandelstam, Osip Emilievich Rod. January 3 (15), 1891, in Warsaw, d. December 27, 1938, in the camp. Symbolist poet, prose writer, translator, essayist. He made his debut in literature in... Large biographical encyclopedia

Mandelstam Osip Emilievich- (1891 1938) one of the largest Russian. poets of the 20th century Genus. in Warsaw, in the family of a merchant tanner. Graduated from the Tenishevskoye School in St. Petersburg. (1907), studied at the Sorbonne (1907-08), Heidelberg (1909-10) and St. Petersburg. (1911 17) un tah. Youth poems reflecting... ... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic dictionary

Books

• Osip Mandelstam. Complete collection of works and letters. In 3 volumes. Volume 1. Poems, Mandelstam Osip Emilievich. Volume 1. The poetry of Osip Mandelstam belongs to the classics of Russian culture of the Silver Age. Alexander Blok called Osip Mandelstam “Artist”. “Enchantment” and “magic” - these are the words that define…
• Osip Mandelstam. Poems, Mandelstam Osip Emilievich. Osip Emilievich Mandelstam is one of the most significant Russian poets of the Silver Age. “Of course, our first poet...,” Anna Akhmatova said about him. The fate of Mandelstam, who died in...

Osip Mandelstam - life and work

Introduction

Baratynsky once called a painter, sculptor, and musician happy:

Incisor, organ, brush! Happy is he who is at ease

To them sensually, without going beyond them!

There is hops for him at this worldly festival!

Poetry, alas, in this small list not enrolled. Even if we pay attention to how long artists live, what kind of longevity they are given. For example, Titian lived 100 years, Michelangelo lived 89 years, Matisse - 85 years, Picasso - 92 years...

Still, let’s not be upset. After all, it is precisely to them that poetry and prose are given the great ability to penetrate into the depths human soul, to comprehend the tragedy of the world, to shoulder all the burdens, all the pain, all the sorrow.

And at the same time, do not despair, do not retreat, do not give up. Little of! In the fight against historical, social and personal fate, poetry found the strength (especially Russian poetry of the 20th century) to find joy and happiness...

The twentieth century brought unheard-of suffering to man, but in these trials it taught him to value life and happiness: you begin to appreciate what is taken out of your hands.

It is characteristic that not in the 30s, in the era of terrible state pressure on people, but in much easier times - in the 70s - the spirit of despondency and denial penetrated into our poetry. disappointments. “The whole world is a mess” - this is the simple slogan proposed by this poetry to man.

Looking back at the 20th century, I would like to say that in Russia it passed not only “under the sign of losses suffered,” but also under the sign of acquisitions. Not material values What we have accumulated is not prosperity, not self-confidence, “a peace not full of proud trust,” but we have accumulated experience. Historical, human. To think otherwise is to betray our friends who passed away during this era and helped us cope with it.

The purpose of writing my essay is to tell about a person who lived a difficult, but at the same time wonderful life leaving a legacy the best part himself in his poems, which true connoisseurs of poetry often called genius.

The work of Osip Mandelstam is usually attributed to the poetry of the “Silver Age”. This era was distinguished by its complex political and social situation. Like each of the poets of the “Silver Age,” Mandelstam tried painfully to find a way out of the impasse that created at the turn of the century.

Osip Emilievich Mandelstam was born in Warsaw on the night of January 14-15, 1891. But not Warsaw, but another European capital– Petersburg, he considered his city – “dear to tears.” Warsaw was not the hometown of the poet’s father, Emilius Veniaminovich Mandelstam, a far from successful merchant who constantly expected his leather business to end in bankruptcy. In the fall of 1894, the family moved to St. Petersburg. However, early childhood The poet's meeting took place not in the capital itself, but 30 kilometers from it - in Pavlovsk.

The sons were raised by their mother, Flora Verblovskaya, who grew up in a Russian-speaking Jewish family, not alien to the traditional interests in literature and art of the Russian intelligentsia. The parents had the wisdom to send their contemplative and impressionable eldest son to one of the best educational institutions in St. Petersburg - the Tenishev School. Over seven years of study, students acquired large volume knowledge than the average modern 4-year college provides.

In high school, in addition to his interest in literature, Mandelstam developed another interest: the young man tries to read “Capital”, studies the “Erfurt Program” and makes passionate speeches in the crowd.

After graduating from the Tenishev School, Mandelstam in the fall of 1907 went to Paris, the Mecca of young, artistically minded intellectuals.

Having lived in Paris for a little over six months, he returns to St. Petersburg. There, true luck for him was a visit to V. Ivanov’s “Tower” - the famous salon, where the best representatives of the literary, artistic, philosophical and even mystical life capital of the empire. Here V. Ivanov taught a course on poetics, and here Mandelstam could meet the young poets who became his life’s companions.

While Mandelstam was living in Zehlendorf near Berlin in the summer of 1910, the St. Petersburg magazine Apollo published five of his poems. This publication was his literary debut.

The very fact of the first publication in “Apollo” is significant in the biography of Mandelstam. Already the first publication contributed to his literary fame. Let us note that the literary debut took place in the year of the crisis of symbolism, when the most sensitive of the poets felt a “new trepidation” in the atmosphere of the era. In the symbolic poems of Mandelstam, published in “Apollo”, the future Acmeism is already guessed. But it took another year and a half for this school to fully develop in its main features.

The time preceding the publication of the poet’s first book (“Stone” 1930) was perhaps the happiest in his life. This small collection (25 poems) was destined to be one of the outstanding achievements of Russian poetry. In the early poems of Mandelstam the Symbolist, N. Gumilyov noted the fragility of well-calibrated rhythms, a flair for style, a lacy composition, but most of all, Music, to which the poet was ready to sacrifice even poetry itself. The same willingness to go to the end at the same time the decision taken visible in the acmeistic verses of “Stone”. “He loves buildings in the same way,” wrote Gumilyov, “as other poets love grief or the sea. He describes them in detail, finds parallels between them and himself, and builds world theories based on their lines. It seems to me that this is the most successful approach...” However, behind this success one can see the innate qualities of the poet: his grandiose love of life, a heightened sense of proportion, obsession with the poetic word.

Like most Russian poets, Mandelstam responded in poetry to the military events of 1914–1918. But unlike Gumilyov, who saw the world war as a mystery of the spirit and volunteered to go to the front, Mandelstam saw war as a misfortune. He was released from service due to illness (asthenic syndrome). He told one of our memoirists about his attitude towards the war: “My stone is not for this sling. I wasn't preparing to feed on blood. I didn't prepare myself to be cannon fodder. The war is being waged without me.”

On the contrary, the revolution aroused tremendous enthusiasm in him as a person and as a poet - to the point of losing mental balance. “The revolution was a huge event for him,” Akhmatova recalled.

The culminating event of his life was a clash with the security officer Yakov Blumkin. Prone to dramatic effects, Blumkin boasted of his unlimited power over the life and death of hundreds of people and, as proof, pulled out a stack of arrest warrants, signed in advance by the chief of the Cheka, Dzerzhinsky. As soon as Blumkin entered any name into the warrant, the life of an unsuspecting person was decided. “And Mandelstam, who trembles in front of the dentist’s machine as if in front of a guillotine, suddenly jumps up, runs up to Blumkin, snatches the warrants, tears them into pieces,” wrote G. Ivanov. In this act the whole of Mandelstam is both a man and a poet.

The years of the civil war passed for Mandelstam on the road. He lives in Kharkov for about a month; in April 1919 he came to Kyiv. There he was arrested by counterintelligence of the Volunteer Army. This time Mandelstam was rescued from arrest by Kiev poets and put him on a train going to Crimea.

In Crimea, Mandelstam was arrested again - as unreasonably and accidentally as the first time, but with the difference that now he was arrested by Wrangel intelligence. Far from those in power of any stripe, poor and independent, Mandelstam aroused distrust on the part of any authorities. From Tiflis Mandelstam makes his way to Russia, to Petrograd. About this four-month stay in hometown- from October 1920 to March 1921 - many memoirs were written. By the time he left Petrograd, the second collection of poems “Tristia” had already been completed - a book that brought its author world fame.

In the summer of 1930 he went to Armenia. Arriving there was for Mandelstam a return to historical sources culture. The cycle of poems “Armenia” was soon published in the Moscow magazine “ New world" E. Tager wrote about the impression made by the poems: “Armenia appeared before us, born in music and light.”

Life was filled to the limit, although throughout the 30s it was life on the brink of poverty. The poet was often in a nervous, excited state, realizing that he belonged to another century, that in this society of denunciations and murders he was a real renegade. Living in constant nervous tension he wrote poems, one better than the other - and experienced acute crisis in all aspects of my life, except for creativity itself.

In external life one conflict followed another. In the summer of 1932, the writer S. Borodin, who lived next door, insulted Mandelstam’s wife. Mandelstam wrote a complaint to the Writers' Union. The court of honor that took place made a decision that was not satisfactory for the poet. The conflict remained unresolved for a long time. In the spring of 1934, having met the writer A. Tolstoy at the publishing house, under whose chairmanship the “court of honor” was taking place, Mandelstam slapped him in the face with the words: “I punished the executioner who issued a warrant to beat my wife.”

In 1934, he was arrested for an anti-Stalinist, angry, sarcastic epigram, which he carelessly read to his many acquaintances.

Nervous, exhausted, he did not behave very stoically during the investigation and named the names of those to whom he read these poems about Stalin, realizing that he was putting innocent people in a dangerous situation. A sentence soon followed: three years of exile in Cherdyn. He lived here with the knowledge that at any moment they could come for him and take him away to be shot. Suffering from hallucinations and awaiting execution, he jumped out of a window, hurt himself and broke his shoulder. We find details of these days in the memoirs of A. Akhmatova: “Nadya sent a telegram to the Central Committee. Stalin ordered the case to be reconsidered and allowed him to choose another place. It is unknown who influenced Stalin - perhaps Bukharin, who wrote to him: “Poets are always right, history is for them.” In any case, Mandelstam’s fate was eased: he was allowed to move from Cherdyn to Voronezh, where he spent about three years.

Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) first appeared in print in 1908. Mandelstam was among the founders, but occupied a special place in Acmeism. Most of the poems pre-revolutionary period included in the collection (first edition - 1913, second, expanded - 1916). Early Mandelstam(until 1912) gravitates towards themes and images.

Acmeistic tendencies were most clearly manifested in his poems about world culture and architecture of the past (, and others). Mandelstam proved himself to be a master of recreating the historical flavor of the era (, and others). During the First World War, the poet writes anti-war poems (, 1916).

The poems written during the years of the revolution and civil war reflected the difficulty artistic comprehension poet new reality. Despite ideological hesitations, Mandelstam looked for ways to creatively participate in a new life. His poems of the 20s testify to this.

New features of Mandelstam’s poetry are revealed in his lyrics of the 30s: a tendency towards broad generalizations, towards images that embody the forces of the “black soil” (the cycle “Poems 1930-1937”). Articles on poetry occupy a significant place in Mandelstam's work. The most complete presentation aesthetic views the poet is placed in the treatise “Conversation about Dante” (1933).

Biography from Wikipedia

Osip Mandelstam was born on January 3 (January 15, new style) 1891 in Warsaw. Father, Emily Veniaminovich (Emil, Khaskl, Khatskel Beniaminovich) Mandelstam (1856-1938), was a master glove maker and was a member of the first guild of merchants, which gave him the right to live outside the Pale of Settlement, despite Jewish origin. Mother, Flora Osipovna Verblovskaya (1866-1916), was a musician.

In 1897, the Mandelstam family moved to St. Petersburg. Osip was educated at the Tenishevsky School (from 1900 to 1907), the Russian forge of “cultural personnel” of the early twentieth century.

In 1908-1910, Mandelstam studied at the Sorbonne and the University of Heidelberg. At the Sorbonne he attends lectures by A. Bergson and J. Bedier at the College de France. Meets Nikolai Gumilyov, is fascinated by French poetry: Old French epic, Francois Villon, Baudelaire and Verlaine.

In between trips abroad, he visits St. Petersburg, where he attends lectures on poetry at the “tower” by Vyacheslav Ivanov.

By 1911, the family began to go bankrupt and studying in Europe became impossible.

In order to bypass the quota for Jews when entering St. Petersburg University, Mandelstam was baptized by a Methodist pastor. On September 10 of the same 1911, he was enrolled in the Romance-Germanic department of the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg University, where he studied intermittently until 1917. He studies carelessly and never finishes the course.

In 1911, he met Anna Akhmatova and visited the Gumilyov couple.

The first publication was the magazine “Apollo”, 1910, No. 9. He was also published in the magazines “Hyperborea”, “New Satyricon”, etc.

In 1912 he met A. Blok. At the end of the same year, he became a member of the Acmeist group and regularly attended meetings of the Workshop of Poets.

He considered his friendship with the Acmeists (Anna Akhmatova and Nikolai Gumilev) to be one of the main successes of his life.

The poetic searches of this period were reflected in the debut book of poems “Stone” (three editions: 1913, 1916 and 1922, the contents varied). He is at the center of poetic life, regularly reads poetry in public, visits Stray Dog, becomes acquainted with futurism, and becomes close to Benedict Livshits.

In 1915 he met Anastasia and Marina Tsvetaev. In 1916, Marina Tsvetaeva entered the life of O. E. Mandelstam.

After October revolution works in newspapers, in the People's Commissariat for Education, travels around the country, publishes in newspapers, performs poetry, and gains success. In 1919, in Kyiv, he met his future wife, Nadezhda Yakovlevna Khazina.

Poems from the time of the First World War and the Revolution (1916-1920) made up the second book “Tristia” (“Sorrowful Elegies”, the title goes back to Ovid), published in 1922 in Berlin. In 1922, he registered his marriage with Nadezhda Yakovlevna Khazina.

In 1923, the “Second Book” was published and with a general dedication to “N. X." - to my wife.

IN civil war wanders with his wife around Russia, Ukraine, Georgia; been arrested.

From May 1925 to October 1930 there was a pause in poetic creativity. At this time, prose was written, to the “Noise of Time” created in 1923 (the title plays on Blok’s metaphor “music of time”), the story “The Egyptian Brand” (1927), varying Gogol’s motifs, was added.

He makes his living by translating poetry.

In 1928, the last lifetime edition was published. poetry collection“Poems”, as well as a book of his selected articles “On Poetry”.

In 1930 he finished work on the “Fourth Prose”. N. Bukharin is concerned about Mandelstam’s business trip to Armenia. After traveling to the Caucasus (Armenia, Sukhum, Tiflis), Osip Mandelstam returned to writing poetry.

Mandelstam's poetic gift reaches its peak, but it is almost never published. The intercession of B. Pasternak and N. Bukharin gives the poet small breaks in everyday life.

Independently studies Italian language, reads in the original “ Divine Comedy" The programmatic poetological essay “Conversation about Dante” was written in 1933. Mandelstam discusses it with A. Bely.

IN " Literary newspaper", "Pravda", "Zvezda" published devastating articles in connection with the publication of Mandelstam's "Travel to Armenia" (Zvezda, 1933, No. 5).

In November 1933, Osip Mandelstam wrote an anti-Stalin epigram, which he read to fifteen people.

B. Pasternak called this act suicide.

One of the listeners denounces Mandelstam. The investigation into the case was led by N. Kh. Shivarov.

On the night of May 13-14, 1934, Mandelstam was arrested and sent into exile in Cherdyn (Perm region). Osip Mandelstam is accompanied by his wife, Nadezhda Yakovlevna.

In Cherdyn, O. E. Mandelstam attempts suicide (throws himself out of the window). Nadezhda Yakovlevna Mandelstam writes to all Soviet authorities and to all her acquaintances. With the assistance of Nikolai Bukharin, Mandelstam is allowed to independently choose a place to settle. The Mandelstams choose Voronezh.

They live in poverty, and occasionally a few persistent friends help them with money. From time to time O. E. Mandelstam works part-time at a local newspaper and in the theater. Close people visit them, Nadezhda Yakovlevna’s mother, artist V.N. Yakhontov, Anna Akhmatova.

The Voronezh cycle of poems by Mandelstam (the so-called “Voronezh notebooks”) is considered the pinnacle of his poetic creativity.

In a 1938 statement by the Secretary of the USSR Writers' Union V. Stavsky addressed to the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs N. I. Yezhov, it was proposed to “resolve the issue of Mandelstam”; his poems were called “obscene and slanderous.” Joseph Prut and Valentin Kataev were named in the letter as having “spoken sharply” in defense of Osip Mandelstam.

Soon Mandelstam was arrested a second time and sent along a convoy to a camp in the Far East.

Osip Mandelstam died on December 27, 1938 from typhus in the Vladperpunkt transit camp (Vladivostok). Rehabilitated posthumously: in the case of 1938 - in 1956, in the case of 1934 - in 1987. The location of the poet's grave is still unknown.

Osip Mandelstam is a Russian poet, prose writer and translator, essayist, critic and literary critic. His works have had big influence on Russian poetry of the Silver Age.

Mandelstam is considered one of the greatest Russian poets of the 20th century. There is a lot of tragedy in it, which we will talk about in this article.

So, in front of you short biography Osip Mandelstam.

Biography of Mandelstam

Osip Emilievich Mandelstam was born on January 3, 1891 in Warsaw. It is interesting that the future poet was initially named Joseph, but after some time he decided to change his name to “Osip”.

The boy grew up in an intelligent Jewish family.

His father, Emil, was a professional glover and was a merchant of the first guild. His mother, Flora Ovseevna, was a musician, so she managed to instill in her son a love of music.

Later Osip Mandelstam will say that poetry in its essence is very close to music.

Childhood and youth

In 1897, the Mandelstam family moved to. When the boy turns 9 years old, he enters the Tenishev School.

It is worth noting that this educational institution called the Russian forge of “cultural personnel” of the early 20th century.

Soon, 17-year-old Osip goes to Paris to study at the Sorbonne. In this regard, he has been in the capital of France for 2 years.

Thanks to this, he great interest studies works French poets, and also reads Baudelaire and Verlaine.

During this period of his biography, Mandelstam met with whom he immediately found a common language.

Soon he begins to write his first poems. From his pen comes the poem “Tenderer than Tender,” dedicated to.

It is interesting because it is written in the style love lyrics, since Mandelstam wrote little in this direction.

In 1911, the poet experienced serious financial problems, so he has to leave his studies in Europe. In this regard, he decides to enter St. Petersburg University in the department of history and philology.

It is worth noting that Osip Mandelstam had little interest in studying, so he received low grades. This resulted in him never receiving a college degree.

IN free time the poet often goes to visit Gumilyov, where he meets. He will consider friendship with them one of major events in his biography.

Soon Mandelstam begins to publish his works in various publications.

In particular, he read the poem “We live without feeling the country beneath us,” where he directly ridicules. Soon someone denounced the poet, as a result of which Mandelstam began to be subjected to constant persecution.

Less than a year later he was arrested and sent into exile in Cherdyn Perm region. There he attempts to jump out of the window. After this incident, Mandelstam's wife began to do everything possible to save her husband.

She wrote to various authorities and described the state of affairs to friends and acquaintances. Thanks to this, they were allowed to move to Voronezh, where they lived in deep poverty until the end of their exile.

Returning home, Osip Mandelstam still experienced many difficulties and persecution from the current government. Soon, members of the Writers' Union labeled his poems "obscene and slanderous."

Every day Mandelstam's position became more and more difficult.

On May 1, 1938, he was arrested again, and on August 2, he was sentenced to five years in a forced labor camp. The poet's heart could not stand this.

Death

Osip Emilievich Mandelstam died in a transit camp on December 27, 1938. He was only 47 years old. Official reason death was named typhus.

Mandelstam's body, along with the other deceased, lay unburied until spring. Then the entire “winter stack” was buried in a mass grave.

To date, the exact burial place of Mandelstam remains unknown.

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Nozdryov ("Dead Souls")

Many writers of the first half of the 19th century assigned a huge role to the theme of Russia in their work. Like no one else, they saw the gravity of the situation of the serfs and the ruthless tyranny of officials and landowners.

Moral values ​​fade into the background, and money and position in society come to the fore. Serfdom underlies state system Russia. People do not strive for the best, are not interested in sciences and art, and do not try to leave their descendants any spiritual heritage. Their goal is wealth. In his quest for profit, a person will stop at nothing: he will steal, deceive, sell.

All this cannot but worry thinking people who are not indifferent to the fate of Russia. And, of course, NVG could not ignore this. The meaning of the name "M's souls" is very symbolic. G spares no color, showing the reader the spiritual misery that threatens Russia. We can only laugh at what we cannot fix.

A whole gallery of landowners passes before the reader as the plot of “The M-th Souls” progresses; the direction of this movement is very significant. Having begun the image of the landowners with the empty, idle dreamer and dreamer Manilov, G. completes this portrait gallery with “a terrible hole in humanity” - Plyushkin.

Somewhere in the middle between them is Nozdryov. There is something in him from Manilov’s crazy fantasies and something from Plyushkin’s greed. We first meet N in the city of NN and do not learn anything special about him, except that he is a card sharper. But on the way to Sobakevich’s estate, the roads of N-va and Ch-va intersect once again. And here G did not spare colors to describe the habits and character of this landowner. In my opinion, N is one of the most ridiculous characters in the poem. Everything about him is absurd: his funny manner of boasting, the obvious nonsense that he sometimes talks without thinking about the consequences, and much, much more. G calls him a broken guy, and he is. N lives for today and does not think about tomorrow: having won at cards, he exchanged all his winnings for all sorts of unnecessary things, which the very next day were lost to another, more successful player.

The author says that this was due to some kind of “restless agility and liveliness of character.” This same glibness forced N to commit other rash acts, such as his excessive boasting. Everything that N has is the best, the most purebred dogs, the most expensive horses, however, in fact, often boasting does not even have a real basis. His domain ends in someone else's forest, but this does not stop N from calling it his own. This landowner constantly gets into all sorts of stories: either he will be removed from the assembly of the nobility, or he will participate in “inflicting a personal insult on the landowner Maximov with rods while drunk.”

There is one more trait N that deserves special attention: he loved to spoil the people he knew, and the closer he knew the person, the more the landowner bullied him. He upset weddings, trade deals, never considered his pranks to be offensive, and was often surprised to learn about the offense of an acquaintance. Despite the fact that there is a fair amount of humor in the work, “M d” can be called “laughter through tears.”

What awaits Russia: a complete loss of spirituality or a complete inability to take serious actions? This question torments the author. People have changed little, so “Md” is a warning for us too.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://ilib.ru/ were used