Different character traits in works. Character and type in literature: features, examples

Epics about Ilya Muromets

HeroIlya Muromets, son of Ivan Timofeevich and Efrosinya Yakovlevna, peasants of the village of Karacharova near Murom. The most popular character in epics, the second most powerful (after Svyatogor) Russian hero and the first Russian superman.

Sometimes a real person, the Venerable Ilya of Pechersk, nicknamed Chobotok, buried in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and canonized in 1643, is identified with the epic Ilya of Muromets.

Years of creation. XII–XVI centuries

What's the point? Until the age of 33, Ilya lay, paralyzed, on the stove in his parents’ house, until he was miraculously healed by wanderers (“walking kalikas”). Having gained strength, he equipped his father’s farm and went to Kyiv, along the way capturing the Nightingale the Robber, who was terrorizing the surrounding area. In Kyiv, Ilya Muromets joined the squad of Prince Vladimir and found the hero Svyatogor, who gave him a treasure sword and mystical “real power”. In this episode, he demonstrated not only physical strength, but also high moral qualities, without responding to the advances of Svyatogor’s wife. Later, Ilya Muromets defeated the “great force” near Chernigov, paved the direct road from Chernigov to Kiev, inspected the roads from the Alatyr-stone, tested the young hero Dobrynya Nikitich, saved the hero Mikhail Potyk from captivity in the Saracen kingdom, defeated Idolishche, and walked with his squad to Constantinople, one defeated the army of Tsar Kalin.

Ilya Muromets was not alien to simple human joys: in one of the epic episodes, he walks around Kyiv with “tavern heads,” and his son Sokolnik was born out of wedlock, which later leads to a fight between father and son.

What it looks like. Superman. Epic stories describe Ilya Muromets as a “remote, portly, kind fellow,” he fights with a “ninety pounds” (1,440 kilograms) club!

What is he fighting for? Ilya Muromets and his squad very clearly formulate the purpose of their service:

“...to stand alone for the faith for the fatherland,

...to stand alone for Kyiv-grad,

...to stand alone for the churches for the cathedrals,

...he will take care of Prince and Vladimir.”

But Ilya Muromets is not only a statesman - he is at the same time one of the most democratic fighters against evil, as he is always ready to fight “for widows, for orphans, for poor people.”

Way of fighting. A duel with an enemy or a battle with superior forces enemy.

With what result? Despite the difficulties caused by the enemy's numerical advantage or disdainful attitude Prince Vladimir and the boyars, invariably wins.

What is it fighting against? Against internal and external enemies of Rus' and their allies, violators of law and order, illegal migrants, invaders and aggressors.

2. Archpriest Avvakum

"The Life of Archpriest Avvakum"

Hero. Archpriest Avvakum worked his way up from a village priest to the leader of the resistance to the church reform of Patriarch Nikon and became one of the leaders of the Old Believers, or schismatics. Avvakum is the first religious figure of such magnitude who not only suffered for his beliefs, but also described it himself.

Years of creation. Approximately 1672–1675.

What's the point? A native of a Volga village, Avvakum from his youth was distinguished by both piety and violent disposition. Having moved to Moscow, he accepted Active participation in church educational activities, he was close to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, but sharply opposed the church reforms carried out by Patriarch Nikon. With his characteristic temperament, Avvakum led a fierce struggle against Nikon, advocating for the old order of church rites. Avvakum, not at all shy in his expressions, conducted public and journalistic activities, for which he was repeatedly imprisoned, cursed and defrocked, and exiled to Tobolsk, Transbaikalia, Mezen and Pustozersk. From the place of his last exile, he continued to write appeals, for which he was imprisoned in an “earth pit.” He had many followers. Church hierarchs tried to persuade Habakkuk to renounce his “delusions,” but he remained adamant and was eventually burned.

What it looks like. One can only guess: Avvakum did not describe himself. Maybe the way the priest looks in Surikov’s painting “Boyarina Morozova” - Feodosia Prokopyevna Morozova was a faithful follower of Avvakum.

What is he fighting for? For the purity of the Orthodox faith, for the preservation of tradition.

Way of fighting. Word and deed. Avvakum wrote accusatory pamphlets, but he could personally beat the buffoons who entered the village and break them musical instruments. He considered self-immolation a form of possible resistance.

With what result? Avvakum's passionate preaching against church reform made resistance to it widespread, but he himself, along with three of his comrades-in-arms, was executed in 1682 in Pustozersk.

What is it fighting against? Against the desecration of Orthodoxy by “heretical novelties”, against everything alien, “external wisdom”, that is, scientific knowledge, against entertainment. Suspects the imminent coming of the Antichrist and the reign of the devil.

3. Taras Bulba

"Taras Bulba"

Hero.“Taras was one of the indigenous, old colonels: he was all about scolding anxiety and was distinguished by the brutal directness of his character. Then the influence of Poland was already beginning to exert itself on the Russian nobility. Many had already adopted Polish customs, had luxury, magnificent servants, falcons, hunters, dinners, courtyards. Taras did not like this. He loved the simple life of the Cossacks and quarreled with those of his comrades who were inclined to the Warsaw side, calling them slaves of the Polish lords. Always restless, he considered himself the legitimate defender of Orthodoxy. He arbitrarily entered villages where they only complained about the harassment of tenants and the increase in new duties on smoke. He himself carried out reprisals against them with his Cossacks and made it a rule that in three cases one should always take up the saber, namely: when the commissars did not respect the elders in any way and stood before them in their caps, when they mocked Orthodoxy and did not respect the ancestral law and, finally, when the enemies were the Busurmans and the Turks, against whom he considered in any case permissible to raise arms for the glory of Christianity.”

Year of creation. The story was first published in 1835 in the collection “Mirgorod”. The 1842 edition, in which, in fact, we all read Taras Bulba, differs significantly from the original version.

What's the point? All his life, the dashing Cossack Taras Bulba has been fighting for the liberation of Ukraine from its oppressors. He, the glorious chieftain, cannot bear the thought that his own children, flesh of his flesh, may not follow his example. Therefore, Taras kills Andria’s son, who betrayed the sacred cause, without hesitation. When another son, Ostap, is captured, our hero deliberately penetrates into the heart of the enemy camp - but not in order to try to save his son. His only goal is to make sure that Ostap, under torture, does not show cowardice and does not renounce high ideals. Taras himself dies like Joan of Arc, having previously given Russian culture the immortal phrase: “There is no bond holier than comradeship!”

What it looks like. He is extremely heavy and fat (20 pounds, equivalent to 320 kg), gloomy eyes, very white eyebrows, mustache and forelock.

What is he fighting for? For the liberation of the Zaporozhye Sich, for independence.

Way of fighting. Hostilities.

With what result? With deplorable. Everyone died.

What is it fighting against? Against the oppressor Poles, the foreign yoke, police despotism, old-world landowners and court satraps.

4. Stepan Paramonovich Kalashnikov

“Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young guardsman and swashbuckling merchant Kalashnikov"

Hero. Stepan Paramonovich Kalashnikov, merchant class. Trades silks - with varying success. Moskvich. Orthodox. Has two younger brothers. He is married to the beautiful Alena Dmitrievna, because of whom the whole story came out.

Year of creation. 1838

What's the point? Lermontov was not keen on the theme of Russian heroism. He wrote romantic poems about nobles, officers, Chechens and Jews. But he was one of the first to find out that the 19th century was rich only in the heroes of its time, but heroes for all times should be sought in the deep past. There, in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible was found (or rather, invented) a hero with the now common name Kalashnikov. The young guardsman Kiribeevich falls in love with his wife and attacks her at night, persuading her to surrender. The next day, the offended husband challenges the guardsman to a fist fight and kills him with one blow. For the murder of his beloved guardsman and for the fact that Kalashnikov refuses to name the reason for his action, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich orders the execution of the young merchant, but does not leave his widow and children with mercy and care. Such is royal justice.

What it looks like.

“His falcon eyes are burning,

He looks intently at the guardsman.

He becomes opposite to him,

He pulls on his combat gloves,

He straightens his mighty shoulders.”

What is he fighting for? For the honor of his woman and family. Neighbors saw Kiribeevich's attack on Alena Dmitrievna, and now she cannot appear in front of honest people. Although, going into battle with the oprichnik, Kalashnikov solemnly declares that he is fighting “for the holy mother truth.” But the heroes sometimes distort.

Way of fighting. Fatal fist fight. Essentially a murder in broad daylight in front of thousands of witnesses.

With what result?

“And they executed Stepan Kalashnikov

A cruel, shameful death;

And the little head is mediocre

She rolled onto the chopping block covered in blood.”

But they buried Kiribeevich too.

What is it fighting against? Evil in the poem is personified by the guardsman with the foreign patronymic Kiribeevich, and also a relative of Malyuta Skuratov, that is, the enemy squared. Kalashnikov calls him “son of Basurman,” hinting at his enemy’s lack of Moscow registration. And this person of Eastern nationality delivers the first (aka the last) blow not to the merchant’s face, but to the Orthodox cross with relics from Kyiv, which hangs on the brave chest. He says to Alena Dmitrievna: “I am not some kind of thief, a forest murderer, / I am a servant of the Tsar, the terrible Tsar...” - that is, he hides behind the highest mercy. So Kalashnikov’s heroic act is nothing more than a deliberate murder motivated by national hatred. Lermontov, who himself participated in the Caucasian campaigns and wrote a lot about the wars with the Chechens, was close to the theme of “Moscow for Muscovites” in its anti-Basurman context.

5. Danko “Old Woman Izergil”

Hero Danko. Biography unknown.

“In the old days, there lived only people in the world; impenetrable forests surrounded the camps of these people on three sides, and on the fourth there was the steppe. These were cheerful, strong and brave people... Danko is one of those people..."

Year of creation. The short story “Old Woman Izergil” was first published in Samara Gazeta in 1895.

What's the point? Danko is the fruit of the uncontrollable imagination of the same old woman Izergil, after whom Gorky’s short story is named. A sultry Bessarabian old woman with a rich past tells a beautiful legend: during Ona’s time there was a redistribution of property - there was a showdown between two tribes. Not wanting to stay in the occupied territory, one of the tribes went into the forest, but there the people experienced mass depression, because “nothing - neither work nor women, exhausts the bodies and souls of people as much as sad thoughts exhaust.” At a critical moment, Danko did not allow his people to bow to the conquerors, but instead offered to follow him - in an unknown direction.

What it looks like.“Danko... a handsome young man. Beautiful people are always brave.”

What is he fighting for? Go figure. In order to get out of the forest and thereby ensure freedom for his people. It is unclear where the guarantee is that freedom is exactly where the forest ends.

Way of fighting. An unpleasant physiological operation, indicating a masochistic personality. Self-dismemberment.

With what result? With duality. He got out of the forest, but died immediately. Sophisticated abuse of one’s own body is not in vain. The hero did not receive gratitude for his feat: his heart, torn out of his chest with his own hands, was trampled under someone’s heartless heel.

What is it fighting against? Against collaboration, conciliation and sycophancy before conquerors.

6. Colonel Isaev (Stirlitz)

A body of texts, from “Diamonds for the Dictatorship of the Proletariat” to “Bombs for the Chairman,” the most important of the novels is “Seventeen Moments of Spring”

Hero. Vsevolod Vladimirovich Vladimirov, aka Maxim Maksimovich Isaev, aka Max Otto von Stirlitz, aka Estilitz, Bolzen, Brunn. An employee of the press service of the Kolchak government, an underground security officer, an intelligence officer, a history professor, exposing a conspiracy of Nazi followers.

Years of creation. Novels about Colonel Isaev were created over 24 years - from 1965 to 1989.

What's the point? In 1921, the security officer Vladimirov liberated the Far East from the remnants of the White Army. In 1927, they decided to send him to Europe - it was then that the legend of the German aristocrat Max Otto von Stirlitz was born. In 1944, he saves Krakow from destruction by helping the group of Major Whirlwind. At the very end of the war, he was entrusted with the most important mission - to disrupt separate negotiations between Germany and the West. In Berlin, the hero carries out his difficult task, simultaneously saving the radio operator Kat, the end of the war is already close, and the Third Reich is collapsing to the song “Seventeen Moments of April” by Marika Rekk. In 1945, Stirlitz was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

What it looks like. From the party description of von Stirlitz, a member of the NSDAP since 1933, SS Standartenführer (VI Department of the RSHA): “A true Aryan. Character - Nordic, seasoned. Supports workmates a good relationship. Fulfills his official duty impeccably. Merciless towards the enemies of the Reich. An excellent athlete: Berlin tennis champion. Single; he was not noticed in any connections that discredited him. Recognized with awards from the Fuhrer and commendations from the Reichsfuhrer SS..."

What is he fighting for? For the victory of communism. It’s unpleasant to admit this to yourself, but in some situations - for the homeland, for Stalin.

Way of fighting. Intelligence and espionage, sometimes the deductive method, ingenuity, dexterity and camouflage.

With what result? On the one hand, he saves everyone who needs it and successfully carries out subversive activities; reveals secret intelligence networks and defeats the main enemy - Gestapo chief Müller. However, the Soviet country, for whose honor and victory he is fighting, thanks its hero in its own way: in 1947, he, who had just arrived in the Union on a Soviet ship, was arrested, and by order of Stalin, his wife and son were shot. Stirlitz leaves prison only after Beria's death.

What is it fighting against? Against whites, Spanish fascists, German Nazis and all enemies of the USSR.

7. Nikolai Stepanovich Gumilyov “Look into the eyes of monsters”

Hero Nikolai Stepanovich Gumilev, symbolist poet, superman, conquistador, member of the Order of the Fifth Rome, maker of Soviet history and fearless dragon slayer.

Year of creation. 1997

What's the point? Nikolai Gumilyov was not shot in 1921 in the dungeons of the Cheka. He was saved from execution by Yakov Wilhelmovich (or James William Bruce), a representative of the secret order of the Fifth Rome, created in the 13th century. Having acquired the gift of immortality and power, Gumilyov strides through the history of the 20th century, generously leaving his traces in it. He puts Marilyn Monroe to bed, simultaneously building chickens for Agatha Christie, gives valuable advice to Ian Fleming, due to his absurd character, he starts a duel with Mayakovsky and, leaving his cold corpse in Lubyansky Proezd, runs away, leaving the police and literary scholars to compose a version of suicide. He takes part in a writers' convention and becomes addicted to xerion, a magical drug based on dragon blood that gives immortality to members of the order. Everything would be fine - the problems begin later, when evil dragon forces begin to threaten not only the world in general, but the Gumilyov family: his wife Annushka and son Styopa.

What is he fighting for? First for goodness and beauty, then he no longer has time for lofty ideas - he simply saves his wife and son.

Way of fighting. Gumilyov participates in an unimaginable number of battles and battles, masters hand-to-hand combat techniques and all types of firearms. True, to achieve special sleight of hand, fearlessness, omnipotence, invulnerability and even immortality, he has to throw in xerion.

With what result? Nobody knows this. The novel “Look into the Eyes of Monsters” ends without giving an answer to this burning question. All the continuations of the novel (both “The Hyperborean Plague” and “The March of the Ecclesiastes”), firstly, where in to a lesser extent are recognized as fans of Lazarchuk - Uspensky, and secondly, and this is the most important thing, they also do not offer the reader a solution.

What is it fighting against? Having learned about the real causes of the disasters that befell the world in the 20th century, he struggles primarily with these misfortunes. In other words, with a civilization of evil lizards.

8. Vasily Terkin

"Vasily Terkin"

Hero. Vasily Terkin, reserve private, infantryman. Originally from near Smolensk. Single, no children. He has an award for the totality of his feats.

Years of creation. 1941–1945

What's the point? Contrary to popular belief, the need for such a hero appeared even before the Great Patriotic War. Tvardovsky came up with Terkin during the Finnish campaign, where he, together with the Pulkins, Mushkins, Protirkins and other characters in newspaper feuilletons, fought with the White Finns for the Motherland. So Terkin entered 1941 as an experienced fighter. By 1943, Tvardovsky was tired of his unsinkable hero and wanted to send him into retirement due to injury, but letters from readers returned Terkin to the front, where he spent another two years, was shell-shocked and was surrounded three times, conquered high and low heights, led battles in the swamps, liberated villages, took Berlin and even spoke with Death. His rustic but sparkling wit invariably saved him from enemies and censors, but it definitely did not attract girls. Tvardovsky even appealed to his readers to love his hero - just like that, from the heart. After all, Soviet heroes do not have the dexterity of James Bond.

What it looks like. Endowed with beauty He was not excellent, Not tall, not that small, But a hero - a hero.

What is he fighting for? For the cause of peace for the sake of life on earth, that is, his task, like that of any liberator soldier, is global. Terkin himself is sure that he is fighting “for Russia, for the people / And for everything in the world,” but sometimes, just in case, he mentions Soviet power- no matter what happens.

Way of fighting. In war, as we know, any means are good, so everything is used: a tank, a machine gun, a knife, a wooden spoon, fists, teeth, vodka, the power of persuasion, a joke, a song, an accordion...

With what result?. He came close to death several times. He should have received a medal, but due to a typo in the list, the hero never received the award.

But imitators found it: by the end of the war, almost every company already had its own Terkin, and some had two.

What is it fighting against? First against the Finns, then against the Nazis, and sometimes also against Death. In fact, Terkin was called upon to fight depressive moods at the front, which he did with success.

9. Anastasia Kamenskaya

A series of detective stories about Anastasia Kamenskaya

Heroine. Nastya Kamenskaya, Major of the Moscow Criminal Investigation Department, Petrovka’s best analyst, a brilliant operative, investigating serious crimes in the manner of Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot.

Years of creation. 1992–2006

What's the point? The work of an operative involves difficult everyday life (the first evidence of this is the television series “Streets of Broken Lights”). But Nastya Kamenskaya finds it difficult to rush around the city and catch bandits in dark alleys: she is lazy, in poor health and loves peace more than anything else. Because of this, she periodically has difficulties in relations with management. Only her first boss and teacher, nicknamed Kolobok, had unlimited faith in her analytical abilities; to others, she has to prove that she best investigates bloody crimes by sitting in her office, drinking coffee and analyzing, analyzing.

What it looks like. Tall, thin blonde, expressionless facial features. He never wears cosmetics and prefers discreet, comfortable clothes.

What is he fighting for? Definitely not for a modest police salary: knowing five foreign languages ​​and having some connections, Nastya could leave Petrovka at any moment, but she doesn’t. It turns out that he is fighting for the triumph of law and order.

Way of fighting. First of all, analytics. But sometimes Nastya has to change her habits and go out on the warpath on her own. In this case, acting skills, the art of transformation and feminine charm are used.

With what result? Most often - with brilliant results: criminals are exposed, caught, punished. But in rare cases, some of them manage to escape, and then Nastya does not sleep at night, smokes one cigarette after another, goes crazy and tries to come to terms with the injustice of life. However, there are clearly more successful endings so far.

What is it fighting against? Against crime.

10. Erast Fandorin

A series of novels about Erast Fandorin

Hero. Erast Petrovich Fandorin, a nobleman, the son of a small landowner who lost his family fortune at cards. He began his career in the detective police with the rank of collegiate registrar, managed to visit the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878, serve in the diplomatic corps in Japan and displease Nicholas II. He rose to the rank of state councilor and resigned. Private detective and consultant to various influential people since 1892. Phenomenally lucky in everything, especially in gambling. Single. Has a number of children and other descendants.

Years of creation. 1998–2006

What's the point? The turn of the 20th–21st centuries once again turned out to be an era that is looking for heroes in the past. Akunin found his defender of the weak and oppressed in the gallant XIX century, but in that professional field that is becoming especially popular right now - in the intelligence services. Of all Akunin's stylizing endeavors, Fandorin is the most charming and therefore enduring. His biography begins in 1856, the action of the last novel dates back to 1905, and the end of the story has not yet been written, so you can always expect new achievements from Erast Petrovich. Although Akunin, like Tvardovsky before, since 2000 everyone has been trying to do away with his hero and write the last novel about him. "Coronation" is subtitled "The Last of the Romances"; “Death's Lover” and “Death's Mistress,” written after it, were published as a bonus, but then it became clear that Fandorin’s readers would not let go so easily. The people need, the people need, an elegant detective, knowledgeable of languages and is wildly popular with women. Not all “Cops”, indeed!

What it looks like.“He was a very handsome young man, with black hair (of which he was secretly proud) and blue (alas, it would have been better if he had also been black) eyes, quite tall, with white skin and a damned, ineradicable blush on his cheeks.” After the misfortune he experienced, his appearance acquires an intriguing detail for ladies - gray temples.

What is he fighting for? For an enlightened monarchy, order and legality. Fandorin dreams of new Russia- ennobled in the Japanese style, with firmly and reasonably established laws and their scrupulous implementation. About Russia, which did not go through the Russian-Japanese and First world war, revolution and civil war. That is, about Russia, which could be if we had enough luck and common sense build it.

Way of fighting. A combination of the deductive method, meditation techniques and Japanese martial arts with almost mystical luck. By the way, there is also female love, which Fandorin uses in every sense.

With what result? As we know, the Russia that Fandorin dreams of did not happen. So globally he suffers a crushing defeat. And in small things too: those whom he tries to save most often die, and the criminals never end up behind bars (they die, or pay off the trial, or simply disappear). However, Fandorin himself invariably remains alive, as does the hope for the final triumph of justice.

What is it fighting against? Against the unenlightened monarchy, bombing revolutionaries, nihilists and socio-political chaos, which can occur in Russia at any moment. Along the way, he has to fight bureaucracy, corruption in the highest echelons of power, fools, roads and ordinary criminals.

Illustrations: Maria Sosnina

In a life-like image of a person, character is located at one pole, and type is at the other. These polarities may become closer, but they are far from absolute. In the literary type, the generic or mass origin is more clearly expressed. In character - individual. The type is psychologically one-stringed, “one but fiery passion” predominates in it. Character, as a rule, is multifaceted and complex. However, in living diversity human destinies both are sometimes intertwined. In reality, there are no types in which the general excludes the characteristics of the individual, and there are no characters in which the unique, even if it is presented in its maximum expression, does not contain the generic, all-human. “The deeper we dig into ourselves, the more common,” wrote Leo Tolstoy, and this means that, plunging into ourselves, we ultimately stumble upon the universal, which resides in the hidden spiritual layers of the personality and is, as it were, covered with a veil of the individual. It is also remarkable that these words were spoken by an artist whose human individuality was truly immense.
Speaking about types, it would not be out of place to note that it is completely in vain to attach this concept only to the spheres of psychology and art, believing that only they typify. First of all, life itself typifies, and it “works” on its types (in their mass-like manifestations, first of all) with almost more “zeal” than on the individual. In this sense, life is a consummate artist. Not typical in itself, but only the “idealization” of the typical: purification of the empirically random and evaluation of it from the standpoint of the ideal, involvement of it in the system of the author’s ideas about the world and its refraction in this system - only this belongs exclusively to literature. It does not create types before reality itself begins to form them. And in this respect, a literary type differs from a character: a character can embody an anticipatory, predictive idea of ​​the world and man.
But if there are no “pure” types and “pure” characters in reality, then even more so there are none in literature. The basis for their rapprochement here is precisely this movement into psychological depths, captured in Tolstoy’s paradox, where, oddly enough, it is not so much the individual, but rather the universal, generic one. But the path to the depths, to the prototype human soul literature (at least of recent centuries) lays out, holding in this movement all the completeness and whimsical complexity of the individual. In literature, attraction to types or characters expresses itself only as a tendency, as an attraction to a predominant principle.

Homer's types and characters

Only the early stages of cultural history, when the individual in man was devalued in the face of myth, clan and nation, were marked by a clear dominance of the typical in literature. There are no characters in Homer's poems, despite the fact that the heroes may be dominated by one or another mental inclination. It is presented in Homer as a manifestation of tribal valor. And if Achilles in the Iliad is “swift-footed,” then this attribute, which distinguishes him from the circle of characters in the poem, is nothing more than the transpersonal, generic value projected in a person, one of the manifestations of heroism and strength in the eyes of the ancient Greeks. A generic, ideal property, as it were, “sticks” to the character and becomes his “identifying” sign. Hence the stable epithets: Achilles - “swift-footed”, Odysseus - “cunning”.
Characteristic, however, is the shift of ideal value in the Odyssey from the circle of purely physical virtues to the spiritual realm, to the sphere of mental advantages. The fate of Odysseus, of course, is not yet a personal fate: the gods play with him like a toy. But if in the Odyssey there is no trace of confrontation with the gods and fate, then there is already a daring desire of the hero to take advantage of their weaknesses, as if sanctifying them with a private goal. However, this, of course, does not disagree with the idea of ​​the mythological and “choral” foundations of the ancient worldview. He had what Nietzsche would later call love of fate (amor fati), but there was not even a shadow of the awe of the deity inherent in Christianity, perceived as the highest ethical ideal. The mythological and literary hero could come into almost intimate contact with the gods of antiquity. They themselves violated the sacred distance, showing a desire to “play a joke” on mortals, involving them in their divine game. Already in the Odyssey, a certain psychological aura is superimposed on the monolithic dominant of the hero’s ideal properties.

Type and character in folklore

There are no characters in folklore either. And here the absolutization of generic ideas about man and the sharp demarcation line between good and evil exclude the very possibility of their appearance. A folklore character is always the bearer of one spiritual property, enlarged to such an extent that there is no longer any room left in the character for other movements of the soul.
In animalistic folklore, where the world of animals is a metaphor for the human world, the fox is certainly cunning, the wolf is evil and greedy, the hare is cowardly, the owl is wise, the white swan is the embodiment of purity and purity, etc. There are rare cases when the dominance of one spiritual attribute allows psychological fluctuations and dual assessment. But still they exist in animalistic folklore. The fox in the Russian fairy tale, although cunning and malevolent, is still not without attractiveness: she is gracefully crafty, courteous, and beautiful (that’s why both Fox and Lisa Patrikeevna). Although the bear is short-sighted and not quick to think, he is nevertheless good-natured, lordly, imposing, and condescending (that’s why both Mishenka and Mikhailo Potapych).

Character and type in epics and fairy tales

Psychologically, the characters are “one-stringed” epic epic. But isn’t the Russian epic triumvirate (Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich) already a unique way of compensating for the folk one-sidedness of a person? We are talking about the Triple Alliance epic heroes, each of which embodies some significant, from the point of view of folklore, facet national character. And isn’t this trinity aimed at a broader embrace of the Russian soul in its heroic manifestations?
The psychological unilinearity of the characters, the attraction to types rather than to characters, also distinguishes the heroes of a fairy tale. But there is one exception here: the fabulous Russian Ivan the Fool. However, he is an exception not in the sense that we have an artistic character. And this, of course, is a type, but a type directed into such depths of national consciousness, falling so sharply out of the typology of the world fairy tale epic, that all this puts him in a special position among the heroes of a fairy tale. In the fairy-tale idea of ​​man, some strange split is revealed here, and it seems that the idea of ​​​​the homogeneous values ​​of the fairy-tale world is doubled. Ivanov’s “stupidity” turns into intelligence, his brothers’ “intelligence” turns into stupidity. Everything here is unexpected: Ivan’s “stupid” carelessness, willingness to make do with little and even neglect little things, frivolous trust in chance, humility before fate, combined, however, with a kind of good-natured mischief. Inaccessibility to offense, magnificent, almost royal indifference to offenders, as if a “fool” has something against which any unrighteousness of someone else’s judgment is broken. Finally, this joyful, but almost devoid of surprise, recognition by Ivan’s soul of magic, as if it were from that sweet “fatherland” in which the spirit of Ivanov unconsciously resides. And the fairy tale ends, as it were, with a return to this “fatherland”, where everything falls into place, where there is no longer a “fool” and a “freak”, stained with stove soot, but there is a reasonable and handsome good fellow, and with him the beautiful princess and “magical helpers” are nearby.
Beyond the borders of this “fatherland,” which in Russian fairy tales is not beyond the limits, but is always somewhere nearby, are the arrogant “smart guys,” whose mind is only a predatory practical instinct. And it serves them right: they see the obvious, but do not see the secret; they perceive only the surface of life, and not its depth. The point is not at all that Ivan’s mind lives under the guise of stupidity, the point is rather that this is a completely different “mind” than the one that practical sanity and dry reason boast of. This is a mind confidentially open to all the elements of life, faithful only to its secret instinct. It captures natural goodness, the roots of which go deep into nature and which is completely unconscious, does not see and does not know itself. That is why in the fairy tale Ivan turns out to be the chosen one of higher powers.
However, we should stop here so as not to over-rationalize the simple-minded fantasy of the fairy tale. One thing is clear: this character embodied the intuitive insight of the people, directed towards the foundations of their own soul. A fairy tale, of course, does not know reflection, and the world consciousness of the people does not rise in it to the level of introspection and self-awareness, and what is being discussed is embodied here as involuntarily and spontaneously as the best spiritual manifestations of its original hero, a close friend, are involuntarily and spontaneously. to the very core of the people's character.

The transition from types to characters

The transition from types to characters in the history of literature is directly related to the growth of the personal principle in relation to the world. Already ancient greek tragedy compared with ancient epic enlarges everything that is correlated with the fate of the individual. The essence of the hero’s tragic guilt in the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides is not at all that it is a consequence of an error arising from ignorance: Sophocles’ Oedipus’ failure to recognize his mother removes, in essence, any shadow of guilt before the gods. Tragic guilt was rather perceived as a consequence of a certain immoderation of the personal self-awareness of the characters, very doubtful in comparison with its completeness and complexity in the literature of modern times, but already noticeable against the backdrop of the memory of the universal values ​​of the family and myth that covered all horizons of the individual, alive even in the era of Greek tragedy. In the tragic guilt of the hero, the memory of the mythological universe and the omnipotence of fate, which excluded any kind of “independence” of the individual, emerges.
The memory of the “old gods” lives long in antiquity. Athens accused Socrates of the attempt on their integrity, and this is already the 3rd century BC. e. The ethics of the Athenian demos in the era of Socrates still clung to the heteronomous foundations of race and myth, and against this background the very exorbitance of Socrates’ personality and independence looked reprehensible and dangerous in the eyes of the demos. Ancient lyrics (especially the lyrics of Sappho) are already clearly colored by a personal principle: a person finds here his own at least relatively sovereign world, in which the individual is already perceived as a value.

Gogol's types and characters

If the literary type tends toward what is stable in reality and in human nature, then character tends toward what is dynamic in them. By depicting fixed and homogeneous passions (stinginess and only stinginess, hypocrisy and only hypocrisy, etc.), literature risks incurring reproaches of being archaic, and the reproaches are not unfounded, for tradition has almost exhausted the range of such passions.
After Moliere, no one dared to depict, for example, hypertrophied stinginess, forever captured in Harpagon. Pushkin's Baron Philip from “The Miserly Knight” is not just a miser, but rather a “miserly knight,” and this fusion of stinginess and knightly nobility is unthinkable among traditional artistic types. And if in Gogol’s work, in the era of the dominance of characters, the attraction to types revives, it is only because this is accompanied by the discovery of a new sphere of reality in which his types take root and which changes their aesthetic nature.
This reality is a dead spiritual world, a kind of spiritual necropolis. But this is the necropolis of the Russian soul, where every petrified passion hints at something that, in its living manifestations, not distorted by spiritual death, refers our thought to the original principles of the national character. The key to these types is Gogol’s reminder that in the depiction of a moral monster we must feel “the ideal of what the monster has become a caricature of.” The ideal, of course, is present in the artistic depiction of vice always and everywhere, if, of course, art wants to remain art and not the embodiment of sterile misanthropic or naturalistic thought. And by reminding of the ideal, Gogol, it would seem, did not reveal anything decisive in the just mentioned declaration. But the essence of Gogol’s thought is different: his types are not just moral monsters, but “caricatured” images of the good (in their origins) principles of the Russian soul, touched by the decay of spiritual decay, distorted almost beyond recognition. The point is precisely that the ideal here does not reside behind the subject of the image (only in the sphere of the author’s assessment and author’s pathos), but in a peculiar, deformed form nevertheless enters into this subject, just as some real signs enter into a caricature “prototype” (otherwise the caricature would be unrecognizable).
On the other hand, deadened passion is not at all the same as passion in its living, intense manifestation, even if it rushes towards the moral bottom. The death of the soul devastates and distorts passion, dispersing it to the level of insignificance and vulgarity. Vasily Rozanov sensitively felt the deadly breath of emptiness that frightened him in Gogol’s artistic world. But with a lack of insight that discourages us today, Rozanov saw the source of this breath in the author himself, in the “emptiness” of Gogol.
The characters of Gogol’s “Dead Souls” amazed and amaze the imagination with the unusualness of their artistic nature, analogies of which are difficult to find in the aesthetic experience of world literature. The same Rozanov, clearly understanding that these were not characters at all, was inclined to see in them “dolls” rather than living faces. And they really are not characters, although, of course, they are not “dolls”, but rather types: these are fragments of the once living elements of the Russian soul, distorted by vulgarity and spiritual ossification, monstrously expanded facets of a fragmented whole, and such fragmentation is, in Gogol’s eyes, sign of death.

In literature, men rule the show: writers, heroes, villains. But aren't women less interesting and talented? We have chosen several heroines who inspire with intelligence, ingenuity, strong character and kindness.

Women and goddesses from ancient literature

Scheherazade overcame toxic masculinity before the term even existed. The Persian king Shahryar was faced with the infidelity of his first wife and his brother's wife and decided that all women were vicious libertines. Since he still couldn’t do without women, he decided to take innocent girls as wives and execute them after their first wedding night. The smart and beautiful daughter of the vizier, Scheherazade, decided to rid the country of the tyranny of such misogyny. She came to the king as a new bride. And then you know: she started telling interesting story and cut her off at the most intriguing moment. Curiosity took possession of Shahryar, and he kept the girl alive until the next night. This went on for a thousand days (almost three years!), during which time Scheherazade gave birth to three children. When she finally fell at his feet and asked to save her life for the sake of their common sons, Shahriyar replied that he had pardoned her a long time ago. This is how the narrator’s courage, intelligence and skill saved many innocent lives.

Elizabeth. "Pride and Prejudice "

Witty and observant, Elizabeth captivated not only the unapproachable and proud Mr. Darcy, but also millions of readers around the world. She loves her family very much, especially her sisters, whom she tries to protect. She is even more offended to see the shortcomings of her parents, but she does not try to change the people close to her or rebel: she only wants to find an acceptable place for herself in her contemporary society.

Scarlett O'Hara. "Gone With the Wind "

Bright, capricious and eccentric, Scarlett evokes conflicting feelings among readers. Many believe that she herself was to blame for her misfortunes and was generally an obnoxious woman. The writer Margaret Mitchell herself had an ambivalent attitude towards her heroine. But beautiful and strong women people who are not used to losing often infuriate others. Unlike men: they are praised for the same qualities. Still, it’s worth admiring the strength of spirit of the green-eyed Irish woman: she survived the civil war, the death of her parents and hardships, coping with all the hardships herself.

Margarita. "Master and Margarita "

A beautiful woman who chose love with a poor artist over a profitable marriage. For his sake, she was humiliated, made a deal with the devil and took revenge on the offenders of her betrothed. Some see sacrifice in Margarita, but we know that she understood well for whom she risked everything. She inspires admiration for the strength of her love and courage.

Pippi Longstocking. Cycle of stories

Astrid Lindgren was such a prankster and did not hesitate to break the far-fetched rules of decency. For example, she made a daring attempt to walk from her native Vimmerby to Lake Vättern (a distance of 300 kilometers) in the company of five women and completely without male help. Believe me, for Sweden at that time it was a challenge! It's no surprise that her heroines also make boring people itch. Pippi Longstocking breaks easily social norms and infuriates adults: he goes to bed whenever he wants, keeps a horse on the balcony, beats thieves and generally lives without parental supervision. Real moms and dads are also annoyed by her: there were even complaints that because of Pippi, children “have the opportunity to find a socially acceptable outlet for aggression against their parents.” But the children like her because she can do everything they would like, but will not do for fear of the “big ones.” The fact that Pippi has become so popular only speaks of the longing for spontaneous, bright heroines, headstrong and funny.

Hermione. Series of books about Harry Potter

How can you not love Hermione? We spend our entire (and her) childhood with her. We meet her as a little girl who is very smart and wants to be as good as everyone else in her class. After all, she immediately realized that it would be more difficult for her, because she did not know those things that children of wizards know from childhood. She makes friends, falls in love, becomes stronger before our eyes. Hermione learns from her mistakes: after the story with the windbag Lockhart, she does not trust everyone, but only those who deserve her respect. She is brave and knows how to sympathize with the weak, and now she has an emotional range that is clearly wider than that of a toothpick.

conclusions

In conclusion course work let's draw some conclusions.

1. The problem of character typologies has a very long history, since Antiquity. Over the centuries, more and more new concepts, hypotheses and ideas about character and the criteria by which it can be considered have been added. Character is a single whole. This is a set of individually unique personality traits. This is a complex formation that includes many features.

2. Regular connections and relationships between individual character traits express its structure. The structure of character allows, knowing one or another of its traits, to assume this person the presence of a number of other features associated with it. In addition, some character structures are basic, defining, leading, others are secondary, less significant.

Since character is a social phenomenon, it can change not only from the environment, but also from the will of the person himself.

3. There is still no complete consensus in science regarding the spectrum of traits that make up the character structure. The abundance of typologies is due to the presence of very large quantity character trait. On modern stage there was a need to structure the whole mass of typologies and character traits.

As the basis for classifications of character traits, different researchers have laid down different criteria, sometimes contradicting each other. Identification of types as integral morphopsychological syndromes (E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon, etc.); systems of stable connections between individual traits; by type of inclination and its qualitative level (A. Lazursky); by the predominance of one or more “elements of character” - mind, feelings, will; according to the content and forms of manifestation of aspirations (F. Polan)

Bibliography

1. Ananyev B. G. Selected Psychological Works: In 2 volumes - M.: Pedagogy, 1980.

2. Asmolov A. G. Personality psychology: Textbook. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990 - 367 p.

3. Burno M.E. About the characters of people. - M.:, 2003.- 105 p.

4. Golovin s. Yu Dictionary practical psychologist. 1998

5. Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988 -280 p.

6. Zhdan A. N. History of psychology: Textbook. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990 - 367 p.

7. Kovalev A.G. Personality psychology, ch. XII. Ed. 3rd. - M., “Enlightenment”, 1970.

8. Kondrashikhina O. A. Differential psychology: Textbook. village - K.: Center for Educational Literature, 2009 - 232 p.

9. Kretschmer E. Body structure and character // Psychology of individual differences. -- M:. 1982. - 238-349 p.

10. Levitov N.D. Psychology of character. Ed. 3rd. - M., “Enlightenment”, 1969.

11. Leonhard K. Accentuated personalities. - K.: Vishcha School, 1989 - 448 p.

12. Lichko A.E. Psychopathy and character accentuations in adolescents. Psychology of individual differences: Texts. - M, 1982 - 290 p.

13. Maklakov A. G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001 - 592 p.

14. Nemov S. R. Psychology: Textbook. for students higher ped. textbook establishments: In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. - Book. 1: General fundamentals of psychology. - 688 p.

15. General psychology. Texts: In 3 volumes. T. 2: Subject of activity. Book 2. Ed. 2nd. - M.: UMK "Psychology", 2004 - 527 p.

16. Rogov E.I. General psychology. - M.: Tumanit, ed. VLADOS center, 1998 - 448 p.

17. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: "Peter", 2000

18. Sorokun P. Fundamentals of Psychology. - Pskov: PSPU, 2005 - 312 p.

19. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 2000 - 672 p.

20. Uznadze D.N. General psychology. - M.: Meaning; St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004 - 413 p.

21. Fromm E. Character and social progress. Personality psychology: Texts. -- M., 1982.

22. http://gpsy.org.ua/002/038.php

23. http://www.syntone.ru/library/books/content/1535.html

24. http://ozzsite.ucoz.ru/publ/tipologicheskie_kharakteristiki_lichnosti/

25. http://psychology.nsk.ru/harakter.html

Dear classmates! There is only ONE summary here. Do you remember that the teacher told us to take TWO notes on each topic from different sources. Here is ONE summary from ALL possible and impossible sources. Even from Wikipedia. And from everywhere in general. Therefore, I recommend doing this - when rewriting the first outline, omit something, do not write it. And do the second summary like this - simply rewrite the first ones in your own words and add the omitted points.

Also, after the summary you should write the sources. Below it is indicated which ones are for the second one.

We don’t have the strength for these notes! What a stupid task!

3. Character in literature

1. Character as a literary category .

CHARACTER literary- an image of a person, outlined with a certain completeness and individual certainty, through which they are revealed as conditioned by a given socio-historical. situation type of behavior, and the author’s inherent moral and aesthetic. human concept. existence. Lit. H. is an artist. integrity, organic unity general, repeating and individual ; objective And subjective(comprehension of the prototype by the author). As a result, lit. X. appears as a “new reality”, artistically “created” by a person, reflecting a real person. type, ideologically clarifies it. It is the conceptuality of lit. The image of a person distinguishes the concept of X in literary studies from the meaning of this term in psychology, philosophy, and sociology.

The idea of ​​X. literary hero created through external and internal. "gestures" of the character, his appearance ( Portrait), copyright and other characteristics, place and role of the character in development plot. The relationship within the literary work of H. and circumstances is composed by the artist. situation. In real life, a person and a broadly understood environment are inseparable, therefore the adequacy of the X. and the circumstances in the world of the work is the most essential requirement of realism. Contradictions between a person and society, between classes or departments.

2 . Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning character-type. Man and thing.

Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning of character-type.

The reconstruction of individual X. as a historically unique relationship between the individual and the environment became a critical discovery. 19th century realism Realistic in practice. liters, the self-developing X. is constantly present - an incomplete and incomplete, “fluid” individuality, determined by its continuous interaction with historically specific circumstances, but at the same time - “itself to myself law”(A.A. Block) and therefore sometimes comes into conflict with the original. the author's intention.

B realistic. Literature 19-20 centuries. X. embody different, sometimes opposing, author's concepts of human personality. In O. Balzac, G. Flaubert, E. Zola, the fundamental basis of individuality is universal human nature, understood in the spirit of anthropology, and its “fluidity” is explained by the incompleteness of externality. environmental influences on the fundamental principle, the measure of which “measures” the individual’s individuality. In F. M. Dostoevsky or A. P. Chekhov, individuality is perceived against the background of the determinism of circumstances as measure personal self-determination, when the X. of the hero remains an inexhaustible focus of individual possibilities. L.N. Tolstoy has a different meaning of “incompleteness” of X.: need"It's clear express the fluidity of man, what he, one and the same then the villain, That angel, That sage, That idiot, That strongman, that most powerless being” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 53, p. 187), is explained by the desire to discover in individuality, alienated from others of people societies, living conditions, universal, generic, “full man”.

Man and thing.

In a literary work, a thing appears as an element of the conventional, artistic world. And unlike reality, the boundaries between things and people can be fluid. Russian folk tales provide many examples of humanizing things. This tradition is continued by Russian and foreign literature.

One of the most important functions of a thing in literature is characterological . Gogol's works show the intimate connection between things and their owners; it is not for nothing that Chichikov examines dwellings in such detail in Dead Souls. Things can line up in a sequential row. But one detail can characterize a character (a jar with the inscription “laceberry” prepared by Fenechka in Fathers and Sons); against the background of literary tradition, the absence of things can also become significant.

Things often become signs, symbols of a person’s experiences (Block. About valor, about exploits...)
3. Discoveries in the field of artistic characterology in romantic art. Type of self-aware personality.
In romanticism, which proclaimed the self-purpose and autonomy of the individual, elevating it as above psychol. “nature” and over social fate, a new understanding of X. has developed - as identical to the internal. the world of personality.

The moral pathos of the romantics is associated primarily with the affirmation of the value of the individual, which is expressed in the images of romantic heroes.

A romantic hero is not easy positive hero, he doesn’t even have to be positive, he’s a hero who reflects the poet’s longing for an ideal. The question does not even arise about whether the Demon in Lermontov or Conrad in Byron’s “Corsair” is positive or negative, but they are majestic, they contain in their appearance, their deeds, indomitable strength of spirit. And this is precisely “a personality relying on itself,” as V. G. Belinsky wrote, a personality opposing itself to the entire surrounding world.

But in the depths of romanticism, another type of personality takes shape. This is, first of all, the personality of the artist - poet, musician, painter. She is also elevated above the crowd of ordinary people, property owners, officials, and secular loafers. We're not talking about complaints here anymore. exceptional personality, but about the rights of a true artist to judge the world and people.

Thus, in the romantic movement two antagonistic concepts of personality are identified: individualistic and universalistic. Their fate in the subsequent development of world culture was ambiguous. The rebellion of a loner was beautiful, captivating his contemporaries, but at the same time it quickly revealed its futility. History has harshly condemned the claims of an individual to create his own court. On the other hand, the idea of ​​universality reflected a longing for the ideal of a fully developed person, free from the limitations generated by the capitalist division of labor.

4. The problem of character is in the lyrics. “Own” and “alien” consciousness in it. Cyclization as
The problem of character is in the lyrics.

Characters in the lyrics are portrayed differently than in epic And drama. Missing or dotted here plot, therefore, characters are rarely revealed through actions and actions. The main thing is the attitude of the lyrical subject to the character (hero, heroine). For example, in Pushkin’s poem "I remember a wonderful moment…» the image of the heroine is created with the help of comparisons and metaphors that convey the admiration of the lyrical hero ( “genius of pure beauty”, “tender image”), while there are no specific features. These words can be applied to almost any woman. That is why, when it is necessary to establish to whom a particular poem is dedicated, literary scholars turn more to letters and diary entries, and not to the poems themselves, i.e. First of all, they appeal to the biography of the poet, and not to his work. Nominations the characters are characterized not so much by themselves as by the attitude of the lyrical subject towards them.

“Own” and “alien” consciousness in it .

Unlike epic and drama, lyric poetry is dominated by one consciousness. Of course, his “work” takes other people's points of view into account; using the term M.M. Bakhtin, we can say that this is consciousness dialogically(Library. Bakhtin. The Word in the Novel). A striking manifestation of dialogicality in lyrics is reflection on the discrepancy between internal and external, past and present “I”, as for example, in the poem by V.F. Khodasevich “Before the Mirror”.

Self-awareness is formed with the help of numerous “mirrors” - opinions of other people about “me”. Even when a poem is constructed in the form of a dialogue between characters, this dialogue is more correctly viewed as a conflict within one consciousness, for example, in the poems “Conversation of a Bookseller with a Poet”, “Poet and the Crowd”, “Hero” by A.S. Pushkin, “Poet and Citizen” N.A. Nekrasova and others. Here the author “splits the entire complexity of his thoughts in two, separates them into irreconcilable positions, personifies them in two opposing conventional figures”

But it is important to remember that there are poems where, during the lyrical statementthe subject organization is changing : at first the lyrical subject acts asvoice, and then turns intohero. For example, in Fet's poem"To Turgenev"(1864) the first two stanzas are dedicated to Turgenev, who at that time lived in Baden-Baden (“You were warmed by a bright ray of someone else’s day”). But starting from the third stanza, the author paints his portrait (“Poet! and I have found what I longed for…”), although sometimes he addresses the addressee (“And believe!"). There are many autonomations in the self-portrait: “Here, knowing neither storms nor threatening clouds // With a soul accustomed to loss, // I would like to die like a moonbeam in the morning, // Or like a sunny one at sunset.”
Cyclization as expanding opportunities for character formation.

The author’s spiritual experience, his system of worldview and worldview are reflected in lyrical work not directly, but indirectly, through the inner world, experiences, states of mind, the manner of verbal self-expression of a L. g. One of the methods of embodying the image of a L. g. is considered to be cyclization (i.e., the presence of a more or less expressed poetic plot in which the inner world of a L. g. is revealed). Examples include, in particular, the “Panaevsky” cycle of N.A. Nekrasov or the cycle of “Poems about a Beautiful Lady” by A. Blok, where L. G. appears in various guises: a knight, a monk, a youth, which only partly makes it possible to read through the image of L. G. the biography of the author himself.
Tyupa V.I. Character // Literary encyclopedic Dictionary , Chernets L.V. Character // Introduction to literary criticism: Lit. work., Toporov V.N. Thing in an anthropocentric perspective (apology of Plyushkin) // Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image.
Sources for the second summary: Martyanova S.A. Character Behavior , Shchennikov G. K. K the issue of modern interpretation classics (I. A. Goncharov “Oblomov”), Demukhina I. A. Dialogue and dialogicity in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”.
4. Text. Subtext. Intertext

1. The concept of text and its components. Author - text - reader. Energy of the text.

The concept of text and its components.

TEXT(from Latin textus - fabric, plexus) - 1) written or printed recording of a speech utterance or message, as opposed to oral implementation; 2) the sensually perceived side of a speech (including literary) work expressed and fixed through linguistic signs (regardless of the form of their implementation); 3) the minimum unit of speech communication that has relative. unity (integrity) and relates. autonomy (separately).

The essence of T. as a specific philological. the object is determined by four main. oppositions: in contrast to the system of language, it is actualized and organized syntagmatically; in contrast to speech, the speech flow as a whole, T. has certain boundaries; T. is distinguished from an arbitrary segment of the speech chain by internal. unity, integrity, conditioned by a single communicative task; finally, in contrast to its parts, T. has a certain independence of existence and is specific. organization, which is not limited to the organization of these parts.

In internal structure of T. there are three the most important groups phenomena. The first is interphrase connections and relationships . The essence of interphrase connection is in correlating and coordinating the meanings of linked sentences, carried out both by highlighting in these meanings a certain common part (lexical and semantic repetitions, anaphoric references, for example, through demonstrative pronouns), and by establishing a certain -rogo logical. or the temporal relationship between these meanings as a whole (conjunctions, logical connectives, pronominal adverbs).

The second group of phenomena is associated with units, intermediate between offer and T. - from relatively small ones, including several. sentences (“supraphrasal unities”), up to such large ones as chapters, parts, volumes. Availability of intermediate units - characteristic feature the established mechanism for constructing T.: texts written by junior schoolchildren are composed directly from sentences. Superphrasal unities are characterized primarily by a certain unity of meaning (“microthemes”) of their constituent sentences and the difference between this general microtheme and the microthemes of neighboring unities. The division of T. into similar units in the process of perception of T. is an indispensable condition for in-depth understanding or memorization of T.

The third group consists properties, inherent T. exactly how whole. Two main ones have been identified. principles that regulate the definition of a set of texts of a certain language and make it possible to distinguish a correctly constructed text from a random set of sentences. The hard principle consists in breaking down the entire set of possible components of T. ( subtexts) into a finite number of classes containing “composition-like” subtexts, and specifying schemes that determine the order in which the elements of these classes can be arranged in real texts (cf. the diagram of the structure of a fairy tale according to V. Ya. Proppu ). In contrast, the flexible principle is not based on the regulation of the composition and order of subtexts, but on the ability of relationships and connections between subtexts to overcome the linear disunity of the latter. T., built in accordance with the flexible principle, called. coherent; will distinguish him. feature is the impossibility of dividing into two consecutive. parts that are not connected to each other by any connection. Rigid and flexible principles are independent, but fairly “normal” T. are characterized by a combination of coherent and rigid component structures.

The functioning of a speech utterance as a single independent entity. T. is constituted primarily by the author T. The boundaries of T. can be set both by changes in the external communicative situation and by intra-text elements (titles, special formulas for the beginning and end of T., etc.). The introduction of intermediate boundary signs into T. (red lines, internal headings, chapter numbering) makes it possible to obtain various communicative and expressive effects by changing the relationship between internal units. structures of T. and segments distinguished by means of these signs (“revealed structure” of T.), for example, between super-phrase unities and paragraphs.

Having been created, T. enters difficult relationships with their possible readers (listeners) and with other T. functioning in a given society (“dialogical relations” according to M.M. Bakhtin ). This is inclusion in “extra-textual structures” (Yu.M.’s term). Lotman ) affects both the objective meaning acquired by text in specific conditions and the process of combining texts into more complex units of communication: cycles , thematic selections, etc.

2. Text and work. Text and meaning. Dialectics of written and unwritten. Subtext as “text depth”.

Text and work. The text should not be understood as something quantifiable. Any attempt to physically distinguish between works and texts is futile. In particular, it would be rash to say: “the work is a classic, and the text is avant-garde.

The difference here is this: a work is a material fragment that occupies a certain part of the book space (for example, in a library), and the Text is a field of methodological operations. This opposition partly resembles (but by no means duplicates) the distinction proposed by Lacan: “reality” is shown, and “real” is proven; in a similar way, the work is visual, visible (in a bookstore, in a library catalog, in an examination program), and the text is proven, expressed * in accordance with certain rules (or against known rules). The work can fit in the hand, the text is located in the language, it exists only in discourse (or rather, it is a Text only insofar as it is aware of it). The text is not a product of the disintegration of the work; on the contrary, the work is a trail of the imaginary, trailing behind the Text. Or else: The text is felt only in the process of work, production. It follows that the Text cannot stand still (say, on a bookshelf); by its nature it must through something move - for example, through a work, through a series of works.

Text and meaning.

The problem of understanding a literary text is fundamental to philology. Today the text can be read using different principles. For example, from a structuralist position: identifying binary oppositions in it and finding structure, considering its “formal” side, etc. The text can be deconstructed and read solely as contradictory, “open,” incomplete, perceived as a “cemetery” of dead cultures that leave “traces” of their “absence.” However, with all the variety of reading and research strategies in modern literary criticism, they, for all their universality, productivity and undoubted necessity, still cannot exhaust all the problems that arise in the study of meaning formation in literary texts. In addition, many texts “deviate” from the research methods and concepts projected onto them and do not lend themselves to either traditional or innovative ways of reading. They lead researchers into semantic dead ends, into a series of contradictions.

It must be said that there are texts that are designed for unambiguous perception; foreign interpretations are contraindicated in their essence. These are non-fiction texts (scientific, business). In this case, double meaning or simply ambiguity, uncertainty of meaning means imperfection of the text, its insufficient development. In the case of a literary text, the presence deep meaning or subtext creates a special significance of the work, its individual artistic value. As well as partly the disappearance of the semantic certainty of the text, especially in poetic texts.

Dialectics of written and unwritten.

The reader can sometimes extract from the text, and even from a separate statement, much more information than the author intended to put into it, in particular information about the author himself. Or, conversely, not understanding the meaning of the text that the author intended. It is known, for example, how upset and dejected N.V. was. Gogol with the success of The Inspector General. He thought that the viewer would be horrified and shocked to see himself in the characters of the play. But everyone, on the contrary, was happy and shouted “Ek, I killed it!” The author was disappointed; he suffered because he was not understood. The audience perceived the external, funny side of the phenomenon, but did not understand its deep essence, i.e. The author's calculation did not come true.

Conflict between in clear text and internal meaning, as already mentioned, is especially characteristic of a literary text, since sometimes behind the external events indicated in the text there is an internal meaning, which is created not so much by the events and facts themselves, but by the motives that stand behind these events, motives, which prompted the author to turn to these events. And since motives are guessed rather than “read” in the text, they may turn out to be different for different readers. After all, the reader also has his own view of things. And it does not necessarily coincide with the author’s interpretation. And therefore the probability of one appearing certain meaning(for the author and the reader) is extremely low. To understand such a text, active analysis is required, comparing text elements with each other. This means that it is not enough to understand the immediate meaning of the message in the text; a process of transition from the text to highlighting what the internal meaning of the message is is necessary .

The process of decoding the meaning of messages and then understanding general meaning The text is entirely connected with the speech-mental activity of the reader, in this process it is he who turns out to be the main link in the triad “author – text – reader”.
Subtext as “text depth”.

Works devoted to the interpretation of the text, in one way or another, address the problems of subtext, implication (or implicit content) and depth of the text. Often there is no clear distinction between them, and they are used as synonyms.

Signs of subtext. They are the implementation at the level of the macro context of the whole work (general textual scale), as well as the obligatory increment of logical-subject information, which is associated with the ambiguity of the restoration of meaning. So, subtext is a phenomenon that creates additional depth of content and contributes to a more complete disclosure of the themes of the work, and also evokes an emotional and evaluative attitude of the reader to what is being told. A similar position in the definition is taken by A.V. Zapadov, E.P. Sokolov: “We call subtext hidden meaning statement, which follows from the context of the entire work and is provided by the author as a way of artistic influence on the reader... The technique of subtext creates inexhaustible opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of ordinary words, even seemingly erased, banal ones, to give them significance, depth and strength" (Zapadov , Sokolova, 1979: 86). Subtext always correlates with the author's intention and the reader's reading, with the revelation of the implied meaning. This is the most general understanding of subtext (Myrkin, 1976: 88).

4. The phenomenon of intertextuality. Types of intertextual signs. Forms of functioning of the text-in-text system.

The phenomenon of intertextuality.

The term I. was introduced by Y. Kristeva under the influence of M. Bakhtin, who described a literary text as a polyphonic structure. Literally, I. means the inclusion of one text in another. For Kristeva, a text is an interweaving of texts and codes, a transformation of other texts. I. blurs the boundaries of the text, as a result of which the text loses its completeness and closedness. The main structural principle of the text from the point of view of I. is its internal heterogeneity, openness, and multiplicity.

A text is produced from other texts, in relation to other texts. Moreover, not only in relation to past texts. “The phenomenon that is commonly called intertextuality should include texts that appear later than the work: the sources of the text exist not only before the text, but also after it” (Barthes). In this sense, any text is a space of intersection of other texts, the associated combinations of which create additional meaning. I. covers the entire area of ​​culture as a semiotic system. From the point of view of I., the opposition between the text (object) and the reader (subject), between reading and writing is removed. The text is, in fact, I. T. X. Kerimov.

Types of intertextual signs.

Forms of intertexts: 1. Quotation is the main form of intertexts in scientific communication. They are formally marked fragments of previously published texts. Purposes of citation: - evidentiary function (quote-argument), - illustration of the author's judgment (quote-example), - expression of the author's point of view using other people's words, reference to authority (quote-substitute). 2. Retelling in the form of indirect speech fragments from texts by other authors. 3. Background references to theory or ideas expressed previously.

Forms of functioning of the text-in-text system.

A text within a text is an introduction to the original author's text of someone else's text.

The text of a given author, taken from previous works, may also turn out to be a “foreign” text. Moreover, this may also be a text created by the same author, but seemingly inserted as a text by another author.

Someone else's text can be presented in the main text as a direct inclusion. This is primarily citation, which is used in scientific and popular science texts in order to rely on someone else’s opinion or to refute it, to make it the starting point for a statement own opinion in a polemical form. A similar function is performed by links, reference (indication of someone else's text), retelling. The text in the text can also appear in a work of art. True, the forms of its inclusion here are more diverse, and its functions are more diverse.

In this case, direct quotation is not excluded: “So he wrote darkly and sluggishly...” This is where the story about our poor Igor should have begun,if he has already decidedlive here...(A. Bitov. Photograph of Pushkin).

The text can serve as a frame for the main text, convey the main idea of ​​the work (epigraph), or be interspersed with another language ( French in “War and Peace” or “Eugene Onegin”).

It is possible to covertly quote other people's lines interspersed in the author's text without any emphasis or references.

It can be literary reminiscences(from Late Latin reminiscentia - memory) - features that suggest a memory of another work, the result of the author’s borrowing of a separate image, motif, stylistic device, for example, Blok’s reminiscences in the works of A. Akhmatova or Gogol’s images of “road” and “wheel” in A. Solzhenitsyn.
4. “A quotation is not an extract. Quote is a cicada".

In the interpretation of the concept of reminiscence, there aretwo points of view . Some researchers (V.E. Khalizev, V.P. Rudnev, etc.) definereminiscence as a generic concept , A quote(Osip Mandelstam wrote: “A quotation is not an extract. A quotation is a cicada - incessancy is characteristic of it”)how does she look.

Quotation is one of the main concepts of the theory of intertextuality. In the absence of unity in the understanding of intertextuality, and taking into account the opinion that “the linguistic mechanisms of intertextual relations are still unclear,” we have to state the uncertainty and polysemy of the concept of quotation.

QUOTE(from Lat. cito - I call, I bring) - verbatim reproduction of an excerpt from k.-l. text. C. is used to reinforce the idea expressed by reference to an authoritative statement; as its clearest formulation; to criticize a quoted thought; as an illustration - as a valuable fact. material. C. - belonging mainly to scientific (primarily humanitarian) and official business speech, where it is indicated by quotation marks or highlighted in font and provided with a link to the source. In art speech and journalism as a stylistic. the method of using ready-made verbal education that has entered the general literature. turnover, C. promotes imagery, expressiveness and capacity of speech; it allows you to economically and deeply characterize the phenomena of reality through art. images of world art, mythology, folklore, etc. Lit. Ts. (for example, “Who are the judges?”, “A Million Torments”, “Second Lieutenant Kizhe”, “Knight for an Hour”, “We are lazy and incurious”, “The Naked King” and many others), being aphoristically brief and elegant in form, evokes the idea of ​​the whole from which it is extracted, “as if it replaces or concentrates complex image, embodied in a work of art" (V.V. Vinogradov, see "Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. OLYA", vol. 5, 1946, v. 3, pp. 231-32). Through Ts., which preserves the “old emotionality” (Yu. N. Tynyanov), the previous lit is included in the literature. experience. In such a use, the text can be modified, the reference documenting the color is usually inappropriate, and the author assumes that the reader is an expert on the texts, sensitive to associations and allusions. Special case of Ts. -winged words . C. is also used inepigraphs .
Sources for the first summary:Bakhtin M. The problem of text in linguistics, philology and others humanities. Experience philosophical analysis// Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity , Bart R. From work to text. Pleasure from the text // Bart R. Izbr. works: Semiotics. Poetics , Kuzmina N. A. Intertext and its role in evolutionary processes poetic language. Ekaterinburg; Omsk.
Sources for the second summary: Fomenko I.V. Quote // Introduction to literary criticism , Text as a semiotic problem: Text within the text // Lotman Yu. M. , Zholkovsky A.K. “I loved you...” Brodsky // Zholkovsky A.K. Wandering dreams and other works.