Education of the Silver Age. "Silver Age" of Russian culture

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Essay

On the topic of: " silver Age Russian culture"

Checked by: Evteev I.A.

Completed: Art. groups MT-114

Blinnikova D.A.

Ekaterinburg 2015

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

A new stage in the development of Russian culture is conditional, starting from the reform of 1861 to October revolution 1917 is called the “Silver Age”. This name was first proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw a reflection of the highest achievements of the culture of his contemporaries Russian glory previous “golden” eras, but this phrase finally entered literary circulation in the 60s of the last century.

The “Silver Age” occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual search and wandering significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave birth to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of the new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. Traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - failed to cope with their functions, and the modern age was born.

However, they sometimes say that the “Silver Age” is a Westernizing phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his reference points the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, and the superman of Nietzsche. The “Silver Age” found its ancestors and allies in various European countries and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gautier, Baudelaire, Verhaeren.

In other words, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries there was a reassessment of values from the perspective of Europeanism. But in the light of a new era, which was the complete opposite of the one it replaced, national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different light, brighter than ever. Truly, it was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of the greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia average level literacy rate was 21.1%: men - 29.3%, women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. IN high school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes).

In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education issued a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education V Russian Empire"for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education also received further development female education, and legally in 1911 women's right to higher education was recognized.

The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s there were 100 newspapers and approximately 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores in the cities.

In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books on affordable prices: “cheap library” by Suvorin and “library for self-education” by Sytin.

The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 19th century. there were approximately 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo public reading rooms, and already in 1914 in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries.

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 Russia already had 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new ones were produced feature films. In 1911-1913 V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant advances in development national science: it claims equality with Western Europe, and sometimes even superiority. It is impossible not to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that led to world-class achievements. D. I. Mendeleev discovers in 1869 periodic table chemical elements. A. G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, I. M. Sechenov’s work “Reflexes of the Brain” was published. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin - an incandescent light bulb. A. S. Popov invents radiotelegraph. A. F. Mozhaisky and N. E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K. E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of astronautics. P.N. Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. I. I. Mechnikov explores the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And this is far from full list people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is becoming clear only now.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in natural science. Humanities scientists like V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and spiritual, the establishment of a “new” religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but also of all culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Soloviev. His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “and it is not Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and with them enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought” (V.V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society; moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal spaces.

This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, and ethics not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was ideological quest intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin.

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works by A.M. Gorky was reflected big picture Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent originality economic development and ideological and social struggle.

At the end of the 19th century, when, in the context of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was overwhelmed by sentiments of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in culture XIX-XX centuries, marked by the renunciation of citizenship and immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motifs of this direction became the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.

Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to wonderful poetry, and the most significant movement was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism main reason the decline of literature, and proclaimed “symbols”, “mystical content” as the basis of a new art. Along with the demands of “pure” art, the Symbolists professed individualism; they were characterized by the theme of “spontaneous genius,” close in spirit to Nietzsche’s “superman.”

It is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” symbolists. “The Elders”, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. “Younger” Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore.

The symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the enduring popularity of poetry in this direction becomes clear. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest and captivating artistry of creative manner was experienced not only by the Acmeists and Futurists who replaced the Symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, “symbolism completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by Acmeism. The participants of the acmeist group were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls for the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests and a tendency towards aestheticism. A. Blok, with his characteristic heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of Acmeism: “... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general.” However, the Acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, as evidenced by the psychologism of A. Akhmatova’s first collections and the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. Essentially, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but rather a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship. silver age symbolism enlightenment

At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism, which split into several groups: “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”, “Centrifuge”, “Gilea”, the participants of which called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtulians, i.e. people from the future.

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game,” the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the Symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world through art, the futurists focused on the destruction of the old world. What the futurists had in common was the denial of traditions in culture and a passion for form-creation. Notoriety received the demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamboat of modernity.”

The groups of Acmeists and Futurists, which arose in polemics with symbolism, in practice turned out to be very close to it in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and primary attention to form.

Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motifs with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their creativity. “Klyuev is popular because it combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic melody of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelshtam). At the beginning of his career, S. Yesenin was close to peasant poets, especially Klyuev, who combined the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

Architecture

In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. Ledge composition, free development volumes in space, asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, a prominently protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the inherent principle of Art Nouveau, likening an architectural structure to an organic form. The decorative decoration of the mansion uses such characteristic Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze encircling the entire building with floral ornament. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interlacing of stained glass windows, in the design of balcony bars and street fencing. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the overall design of the building - to transform the domestic environment into a kind of architectural spectacle, close to the atmosphere symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies, features of constructivism emerged in a number of Shekhtel’s buildings, a style that would take shape in the 20s.

In Moscow a new style expressed himself especially clearly, in particular in the work of one of the creators of Russian modernism L.N. Kekusheva A.V. worked in the neo-Russian style. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, modernism was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.

According to the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Painting

In the historical paintings of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. Creativity M.V. Nesterov presented a version of a retrospective landscape through which the high spirituality of the heroes was conveyed.

I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air painting, continued the lyrical direction in landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which is characterized by a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of all earthly things.

K.A. Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French impressionists, increasingly moving away from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even dramatism, trying to convey one or another state of mind with the music of color. He created a series of landscapes that were not complicated by any external plot-narrative or psychological motives. In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense style of painting, especially in the still lifes that the artist loved. With all his art, the artist affirmed the intrinsic value of purely pictorial tasks; he made people appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “study quality” of the painting manner. Korovin's canvases are a “feast for the eyes.”

Central figure art of the turn of the century - V.A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and the dynamics of a free brushstroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to “poetic realism” (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a keen sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of the paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is reality transformed into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so different from the surrounding one. Borisov-Musatov’s art is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow, the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was yearning for renewal, and many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light-air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Borisov-Musatov's creativity is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.

Far from modern themes, “dreamy retrospectivism” is the main theme of the association of St. Petersburg artists “World of Art”. Rejecting academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the “MirIskusniks” searched for an artistic image in the past.

The second generation of “World of Art” students included B.M. Kustodiev, a gifted author of ironic stylization of folk popular prints, Z.E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism.

The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, printmaking, new criticism, wide publishing and exhibition activities.

Artists of the association " Jack of Diamonds"(1910--1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian popular prints and folk toys, they solved the problems of identifying the materiality of nature, constructing a form with color. The initial principle of their art was the affirmation of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put in first place. The materialized, “still life” principle was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre - portraiture.

“Lyrical Cubism” by R.R. Falka was distinguished by his peculiar psychologism and subtle color-plastic harmony. School of excellence, completed at the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the “Jack of Diamonds” I.I. Mashkov, M.F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulov determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”.

From the mid 10s an important component The visual style of the “Jack of Diamonds” was futurism, one of the techniques of which was the “montage” of objects or their parts, taken from different points and in different time.

The primitivist tendency associated with the assimilation of the stylistics of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the “Jack of Diamonds. The fantastic and irrational paintings of M.Z. are close to both folk naive art and Western expressionism. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life in Chagall’s canvases is akin to Gogol’s stories. The unique creativity of P.N. came into contact with the primitivist line. Filonova.

Conclusion

The attempt to “modernize” culture associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin was unsuccessful. Its results were less than expected and gave rise to new contradictions. The increase in tension in society occurred faster than responses to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures intensified, which was also expressed in contradictions in economic forms, interests and motives for people’s creativity, and in the political life of society.

Deep social transformations were required in order to provide space for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society and its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant public and cultural events did not help either. Nothing could radically transform the cultural appearance of the country. The country found itself in a period of unstable development and found no other way out other than social revolution.

The canvas of the “Silver Age” turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, thirsting for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age,” perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

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Slavophiles and Westerners

The abolition of serfdom and the development of bourgeois relations in the countryside exacerbated contradictions in the development of culture. They are revealed, first of all, in the discussion that has gripped Russian society and in the formation of two directions: “Western” and “Slavophile”. The stumbling block that did not allow the disputants to reconcile was the question: along what path is Russian culture developing? According to the “Western”, that is, bourgeois, or it preserves its “Slavic identity”, that is, it preserves feudal relations and the agrarian nature of culture.
The reason for highlighting the directions was the “Philosophical Letters” of P. Ya. Chaadaev. He believed that all the troubles of Russia were derived from the qualities of the Russian people, which were supposedly characterized by: mental and spiritual backwardness, underdeveloped ideas about duty, justice, law, order, and the absence of an original “idea.” As the philosopher believed, “the history of Russia is “ negative lesson"to the world." A.S. Pushkin gave him a sharp rebuke, declaring: “For nothing in the world I would not want to change the Fatherland or have a different history other than the history of our ancestors, the way God gave it to us.”
Russian society divided into “Slavophiles” and “Westerners”. The “Westerners” included V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, M. A. Bakunin and others. The “Slavophiles” were represented by A. S. Khomyakov, K. S. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin.
The “Westerners” were characterized by a certain set of ideas that they defended in disputes. This ideological complex included: denial of the originality of the culture of any people; criticism of Russia's cultural backwardness; admiration for Western culture, its idealization; recognition of the need for modernization, “modernization” of Russian culture, as a borrowing of Western European values. Westerners considered the ideal person to be a European - a businesslike, pragmatic, emotionally restrained, rational being, distinguished by “healthy egoism.” Characteristic of the “Westerners” was also a religious orientation towards Catholicism and ecumenism (the fusion of Catholicism with Orthodoxy), as well as cosmopolitanism. In terms of political sympathies, the “Westerners” were republicans; they were characterized by anti-monarchist sentiments.
In essence, the “Westerners” were supporters of industrial culture - the development of industry, natural science, technology, but within the framework of capitalist, private property relations.
They were opposed by the “Slavophiles”, distinguished by their complex of stereotypes. They were characterized by a critical attitude towards European culture; its rejection as inhumane, immoral, unspiritual; absolutization in it of the features of decline, decadence, decomposition. On the other hand, they were distinguished by nationalism and patriotism, admiration for the culture of Russia, the absolutization of its uniqueness and originality, and the glorification of the historical past. The “Slavophiles” pinned their expectations on the peasant community, viewing it as the custodian of everything “sacred” in culture. Orthodoxy was considered the spiritual core of culture, which was also viewed uncritically, and its role in the spiritual life of Russia was exaggerated. Accordingly, anti-Catholicism and a negative attitude towards ecumenism were asserted. The Slavophiles were distinguished by a monarchical orientation, admiration for the figure of the peasant - owner, “master”, and a negative attitude towards workers as a “ulcer of society”, a product of the decomposition of its culture.
Thus, the “Slavophiles”, in essence, defended the ideals of an agrarian culture and took protective, conservative positions.
The confrontation between the “Westerners” and the “Slavophiles” reflected the growing contradiction between agrarian and industrial cultures, between two forms of property - feudal and bourgeois, between two classes - the nobility and capitalists. But hidden contradictions also worsened within capitalist relations - between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The revolutionary, proletarian direction in culture stands out as independent and, in fact, will determine the development of Russian culture in the twentieth century.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: men - 29.3%, women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. In relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied in secondary school. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes).
In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women received further development, and in 1911 women’s right to higher education was legally recognized.
Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - workers' courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, assembly hall, teahouse and trading shop.
The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s there were 100 newspapers and approximately 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores in the cities.
In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices: Suvorin’s “cheap library” and Sytin’s “library for self-education.”
The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 19th century. there were approximately 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo public reading rooms, and already in 1914 there were about 76 thousand different public libraries in Russia.
An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 Russia already had 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were produced. In 1911-1913 V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant successes in the development of domestic science: it claims equality with Western European science, and sometimes even superiority. It is impossible not to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that led to world-class achievements. D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic system of chemical elements in 1869. A. G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, I. M. Sechenov’s work “Reflexes of the Brain” was published. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an electric arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin creates an incandescent light bulb. A. S. Popov invents radiotelegraph. A. F. Mozhaisky and N. E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K. E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of astronautics. P.N. Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. I. I. Mechnikov explores the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And this is not a complete list of people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is becoming clear only now.
The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in natural science. Humanities scientists like V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and spiritual, the establishment of a “new” religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but also of all culture.
The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Soloviev. His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “and it is not Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and with them enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought” (V.V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society; moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal spaces.
This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, and ethics not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Spiritual quest

During the “Silver Age” people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life. All kinds of mystical teachings are very widespread. The new mysticism willingly sought its roots in the old, in the mysticism of the Alexander era. Just as a hundred years earlier, the teachings of Freemasonry, Skoptchestvo, the Russian schism and other mystics became popular. Many creative people of that time took part in mystical rituals, although not all of them fully believed in their content. V. Bryusov, Andrei Bely, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, N. Berdyaev and many others were fond of magical experiments.
Theurgy occupied a special place among the mystical rites that spread at the beginning of the twentieth century. Theurgy was thought of “as a one-time mystical act, which must be prepared by the spiritual efforts of individuals, but, once accomplished, irreversibly changes human nature as such” (A. Etkind). The subject of the dream was a real transformation of each person and the entire society as a whole. In a narrow sense, the tasks of theurgy were understood in almost the same way as the tasks of therapy. We also find the idea of the need to create a “new man” in such revolutionary figures as Lunacharsky and Bukharin. A parody of theurgy is presented in the works of Bulgakov.
The “Silver Age” is a time of opposition. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a huge influence on the formation of the ideas of the “Silver Age,” believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since “death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space.” Theurgy was ultimately supposed to lead to victory over death.
In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding him,” Solovyov believed. The understanding of love and death brings together the Russian culture of the “Silver Age” and psychoanalysis. Freud recognizes the main internal forces, affecting a person - libido and thanatos, respectively sexuality and the desire for death.
Berdyaev, considering the problem of gender and creativity, believes that a new natural order must come in which creativity will win - “the gender that gives birth will be transformed into the gender that creates.”
Many people sought to break out of everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their consistency and expediency. Life creative people were saturated and overwhelmed with experiences. However, the consequence of such an accumulation of experiences was often profound emptiness. Therefore, the fates of many people of the “Silver Age” are tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave birth to a beautiful and original culture.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin.
In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works by A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent uniqueness of economic development and ideological and social struggle.
At the end of the 19th century, when, in the context of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was overwhelmed by the mood of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by a renunciation of citizenship and immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motifs of this direction became the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.
Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to wonderful poetry, and the most significant movement was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism the main reason for the decline of literature, and proclaimed “symbols” and “mystical content” as the basis of new art. Along with the demands of “pure” art, the Symbolists professed individualism; they were characterized by the theme of “spontaneous genius,” close in spirit to Nietzsche’s “superman.”
It is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” symbolists. “The Elders”, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. “Younger” Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore.
The symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the enduring popularity of poetry in this direction becomes clear. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest and captivating artistry of creative manner was experienced not only by the Acmeists and Futurists who replaced the Symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.
By 1910, “symbolism completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by Acmeism. The participants of the acmeist group were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls for the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests and a tendency towards aestheticism. A. Blok, with his characteristic heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of Acmeism: “... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general.” However, the Acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, as evidenced by the psychologism of A. Akhmatova’s first collections and the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. Essentially, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but rather a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship.
At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism, which split into several groups: “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”, “Centrifuge”, “Gilea”, the participants of which called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtulians, i.e. people from the future.
Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game,” the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the Symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world through art, the futurists focused on the destruction of the old world. What the futurists had in common was the denial of traditions in culture and a passion for form-creation. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamship of Modernity” became scandalous.
The groups of Acmeists and Futurists, which arose in polemics with symbolism, in practice turned out to be very close to it in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and primary attention to form.
There were bright individuals in the poetry of this time who could not be attributed to a specific movement - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.
Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motifs with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their creativity. “Klyuev is popular because it combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic melody of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelshtam). At the beginning of his career, S. Yesenin was close to peasant poets, especially Klyuev, who combined the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the 19th century. there was an opening in Moscow art theater in 1898, founded by K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko. New principles were formed in the production of plays by Chekhov and Gorky acting art, directing, performance design. An outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically greeted by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative critics, as well as representatives of symbolism. V. Bryusov, a supporter of the aesthetics of conventional symbolic theater, was closer to the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold, the founder of metaphorical theater.
In 1904, the V.F. Theater arose in St. Petersburg. Komissarzhevskaya, whose repertoire reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. Director's creativity E.B. Vakhtangov was marked by the search for new forms, his productions of 1911-12. are joyful and spectacular. In 1915, Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became a theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater AND I. Tairov strove to create a “synthetic theater” with a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, and to develop actors of virtuoso skill.
Development best traditions musical theater is associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi theaters, as well as with the private opera of S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. The most prominent representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F.I. Shalyapin, L.V. Sobinov, N.V. Nezhdanov. Reformers ballet theater became choreographer M.M. Fokin and ballerina A.P. Pavlova. Russian art received global recognition.
Outstanding composer N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre of fairy tale opera. The highest example of realistic drama was his opera The Tsar's Bride (1898). He, being a professor of composition at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, trained a whole galaxy of talented students: A.K. Glazunov, A.K. Lyadov, N.Ya. Myaskovsky and others.
In the works of composers of the younger generation at the turn of the 20th century. there was a shift away from social issues, increased interest in philosophical and ethical problems. Most full expression this was found in the work of the brilliant pianist and conductor, the outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninov; in the emotionally intense music of A.N., with sharp features of modernism. Scriabin; in the works of I.F. Stravinsky, which harmoniously combined interest in folklore and the most modern musical forms.

Architecture

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. made a real revolution in construction. New types of buildings, such as banks, shops, factories, and train stations, occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the establishment of the Art Nouveau style!
In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions – national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernism of likening an architectural structure to an organic form. The decorative decoration of the mansion uses such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral patterns that encircles the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interlacing of stained glass windows, in the design of balcony bars and street fencing. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the overall design of the structure - to transform the domestic environment into a kind of architectural spectacle, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.
With the growth of rationalistic tendencies, features of constructivism emerged in a number of Shekhtel’s buildings, a style that would take shape in the 1920s.
In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially clearly, in particular in the work of one of the creators of Russian modernism, L.N. Kekusheva A.V. worked in the neo-Russian style. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, modernism was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.
In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was liberated from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, lumpy texture, dynamic forms, permeated with air and light.
The very first consistent representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy, refuses impressionistic modeling of the surface, and strengthens general impression pressing brute force.
The wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow by sculptor N.A. is also alien to monumental pathos. Andreev, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, “fatigue of the heart,” so in tune with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep thought with a touch of melancholic gloominess.
An original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of awakening the human spirit. The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a feeling of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life's trials.

Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, the priority of artistic forms that reflected reality only indirectly was established. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century and the polemics of multiple artistic groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.
Genre painting lost its leading role in the 90s. In search of new themes, artists turned to changes in the traditional way of life. They were equally attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community, the prose of stultifying labor and revolutionary events 1905 The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical topic led to the emergence of historical everyday genre. A.P. Ryabushkin was not interested in global historical events, and the aesthetics of Russian life of the 17th century, the refined beauty of ancient Russian patterns, emphasized decorativeness. Heartfelt lyricism, deep understanding of originality way of life, characters and psychology of the people of pre-Petrine Rus' are marked by the best paintings of the artist. Ryabushkin’s historical painting is a country of ideal, where the artist found relief from “ leaden abominations» modern life. Therefore, historical life on his canvases appears not as a dramatic, but as an aesthetic side.
In the historical paintings of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. Creativity M.V. Nesterov presented a version of a retrospective landscape through which the high spirituality of the heroes was conveyed.
I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air painting, continued the lyrical direction in landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which is characterized by a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of all earthly things.
K.A. Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French impressionists, increasingly moving away from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even dramatism, trying to convey one or another state of mind with the music of color. He created a series of landscapes that were not complicated by any external plot-narrative or psychological motives. In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense style of painting, especially in the still lifes that the artist loved. With all his art, the artist affirmed the intrinsic value of purely pictorial tasks; he made people appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “study quality” of the painting manner. Korovin’s canvases are a “feast for the eyes.”
The central figure of turn-of-the-century art is V.A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and the dynamics of a free brushstroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to “poetic realism” (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a keen sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of the paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.
One after another, two masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating a sublime world in their works - M.A. Vrubel and V.E. Borisov-Musatov. Central image Vrubel’s creativity is a Demon who embodied the rebellious impulse that the artist himself experienced and felt in his best contemporaries. The artist’s art is characterized by a desire for staging philosophical problems. His thoughts about truth and beauty, about the high purpose of art are sharp and dramatic, in his inherent symbolic form. Gravitating towards the symbolic-philosophical generalization of images, Vrubel developed his own pictorial language - a broad stroke of “crystalline” shape and color, understood as colored light. The colors, sparkling like gems, enhance the feeling of special spirituality inherent in the artist’s works.
The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is reality transformed into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so different from the surrounding one. Borisov-Musatov’s art is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow, the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was yearning for renewal, and many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light-air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Borisov-Musatov’s creativity is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.
Far from modern themes, “dreamy retrospectivism” is the main theme of the association of St. Petersburg artists “World of Art”. Rejecting academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the “MirIskusniks” searched for an artistic image in the past. For such an open rejection of modern reality, the “Mir Iskusstiki” were criticized from all sides, accusing them of fleeing to the past - passeism, decadence, and antidemocratism. However, the appearance of such artistic movement was not an accident. “The World of Art” was a unique response of the Russian creative intelligentsia to the general politicization of culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. and excessive publicity visual arts.
Creativity N.K. Roerich is drawn to pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity. The basis of his painting has always been landscape, often directly from nature. The features of Roerich's landscape are associated both with the assimilation of the experience of the Art Nouveau style - the use of elements of parallel perspective to combine in one composition various objects, understood as pictorially equivalent, and with a passion for the culture of ancient India - the opposition of earth and sky, understood by the artist as a source of spiritualism.
The second generation of “World of Art” students included B.M. Kustodiev, a gifted author of ironic stylization of folk popular prints, Z.E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism.
The merit of the “World of Art” was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, printmaking, new criticism, and extensive publishing and exhibition activities.
Moscow participants in the exhibitions, opposing the Westernism of the “World of Art” with national themes and graphic stylistics with an appeal to the plein air, established the exhibition association “Union of Russian Artists”. In the depths of the "Union" the Russian version of impressionism and the original synthesis of the everyday genre with architectural landscape.
The artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” association (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as the techniques of Russian popular prints and folk toys, solved the problems of identifying the materiality of nature and constructing forms with color. The initial principle of their art was the affirmation of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put in first place. The materialized, “still life” element was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre – portraiture.
“Lyrical Cubism” by R.R. Falka was distinguished by his peculiar psychologism and subtle color-plastic harmony. School of excellence, completed at the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the “Jack of Diamonds” I.I. Mashkov, M.F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulov determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”.
From the mid-1990s, futurism became an important component of the visual style of “Jack of Diamonds,” one of the techniques of which was the “montage” of objects or parts thereof, taken from different points and at different times.
The primitivist tendency associated with the assimilation of the stylistics of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the “Jack of Diamonds. The fantastic and irrational paintings of M.Z. are close to both folk naive art and Western expressionism. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life in Chagall’s canvases is akin to Gogol’s stories. The unique creativity of P.N. came into contact with the primitivist line. Filonova.
The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s of the last century; V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. became true theorists and practitioners. Malevich. At the same time, the work of K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, who declared a continuity with ancient Russian icon painting, testified to the vitality of the tradition. The extraordinary diversity and inconsistency of artistic quests, numerous groups with their own programmatic guidelines reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

Conclusion

The “Silver Age” became precisely the milestone that predicted future changes in the state and became a thing of the past with the advent of the blood-red year of 1917, which changed human souls beyond recognition. And no matter how much they wanted to assure us of the opposite today, everything ended after 1917, with the beginning of the civil war. There was no “Silver Age” after that. In the twenties, inertia still continued (the heyday of imagism), because such a wide and powerful wave as the Russian “Silver Age” was, could not move for some time before collapsing and breaking. If most of the poets, writers, critics, philosophers, artists, directors, composers, whose individual creativity and common work created the “Silver Age,” were alive, the era itself was over. Each of its active participants realized that, although people remained, the characteristic atmosphere of the era, in which talents grew like mushrooms after rain, had come to naught. What was left was a cold lunar landscape without atmosphere and creative individuals - each in a separate closed cell of his creativity.
The attempt to “modernize” culture associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin was unsuccessful. Its results were less than expected and gave rise to new contradictions. The increase in tension in society occurred faster than responses to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures intensified, which was also expressed in contradictions in economic forms, interests and motives for people’s creativity, and in the political life of society.
Deep social transformations were required in order to provide space for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society and its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant public and cultural events did not help either. Nothing could radically transform the cultural appearance of the country. The country found itself in a period of unstable development and found no other way out other than social revolution.
The canvas of the “Silver Age” turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, thirsting for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age,” perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

1. A. Etkind “Sodom and Psyche. Essays on the intellectual history of the Silver Age", M., ITs-Garant, 1996;
2. Vl. Soloviev, “Works in 2 volumes,” vol. 2, Philosophical heritage, M., Mysl, 1988;
3. N. Berdyaev “Philosophy of freedom. The meaning of creativity”, From Russian philosophical thought, M., Pravda, 1989;
4. V. Khodasevich “Necropolis” and other memories”, M., World of Art, 1992;
5. N. Gumilyov, “Works in three volumes”, vol. 3, M., Fiction, 1991;
6. T.I. Balakin “History of Russian culture”, Moscow, “Az”, 1996;
7. S.S. Dmitriev “Essays on the history of Russian culture early. XX century", Moscow, "Enlightenment", 1985;
8. A.N. Zholkovsky “Wandering dreams. From the history of Russian modernism", Moscow, "Sov. Writer", 1992;
9. L.A. Rapatskaya “Artistic culture of Russia”, Moscow, “Vlados”, 1998;
10. E. Shamurin “Main trends in pre-revolutionary Russian poetry”, Moscow, 1993.

Goals:

consider the features of the development of spiritual life in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century;
form an idea of the essence sociocultural phenomenon Silver Age
on specific examples show the achievements of Russian science and philosophy, reveal the social essence and artistic value of new trends in art.

Basic concepts: Silver Age, modernization, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, impressionism.

Equipment: multimedia projector, screen, Power Point presentation “Spiritual Life of the Silver Age”, fragments of musical works.

Plan for studying a new topic(Slide 2. Cm. Application)

The state of the spiritual life of Russian society.
Education, enlightenment, science
Literature.
Sculpture.
Painting.
Architecture
Theater and music.

During the classes

1. Teacher's opening speech:

The end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th centuries. represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of Russia. The great upheavals that the country experienced over a relatively short historical period could not but affect its cultural development. An important feature of this period is the strengthening of the process of Russia's integration into European and world culture.

The end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th century. in Russia, this is a time of change, uncertainty and gloomy omens, this is a time of disappointment and a feeling of the approaching death of the existing socio-political system.

The new stage in the development of Russian culture, conventionally, starting from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917, is called the Silver Age.

2. We update students’ knowledge during the conversation

what was the name of the period of the first half of the 19th century centuries in the history of Russian culture? ("Golden age")
why was it called that, what was it connected with? (During this period, masterpieces of Russian classics were created in almost all areas of Russian art, representatives of which were A.S. Pushkin, M.M. Glinka, A.A. Ivanov and many others).

3. Teacher's story

N. Berdyaev, who called this phenomenon “Russian cultural renaissance” (or “Russian spiritual renaissance”), described it this way: “Now we can definitely say that the beginning of the 20th century was marked in our country by a renaissance of spiritual culture, a philosophical and literary-aesthetic renaissance, an aggravation of religious and mystical sensitivity. Never before has Russian culture reached such refinement as at that time."

The Silver Age” occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual search and wandering significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave birth to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of the new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. Traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - did not cope with their functions, and the age of modernity was born.

However, they sometimes say that the Silver Age is a Westernization phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his reference points the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, and the superman of Nietzsche.

The creators of art, who today belong to the Silver Age, are connected by invisible threads with a renewed worldview in the name of freedom of creativity. The development of social conflicts at the turn of the century imperiously demanded a reassessment of values, a change in the foundations of creativity and means of artistic expression. Born against this background art styles, in which it shifted usual meaning concepts and ideals. “The sun of naive realism has set,” A.A. pronounced his verdict. Block. The historical-realistic novel, life-like opera, and genre painting were becoming a thing of the past. In the new art, the world of artistic fiction seems to have diverged from the world of everyday life. The new art, whimsical, mysterious and contradictory, thirsted for philosophical depth, mystical revelations, knowledge of the vast Universe and the secrets of creativity. Symbolist and futurist poetry, music claiming to be philosophy, metaphysical and decorative painting, a new synthetic ballet, decadent theater, and architectural modernism were born.

At first glance, the artistic culture of the Silver Age is full of mysteries and contradictions that are difficult to analyze logically. It seems as if numerous artistic movements are intertwined on a grandiose historical canvas, creative schools, individual, fundamentally unconventional styles. Symbolism and futurism, acmeism and abstractionism, “world of art” and “New school of church singing”... There were much more contrasting artistic movements in those years than in all previous centuries of the development of national culture. However, this versatility of the art of the Silver Age does not obscure its integrity, for from contrasts, as Heraclitus noted, the most beautiful harmony is born.

The unity of the art of the Silver Age is in the combination of old and new, outgoing and emerging, in the mutual influence of different types of art on each other, in the interweaving of traditional and innovative. In the artistic culture of the "Russian Renaissance" there was a unique combination of realistic traditions of the outgoing 19th century and new artistic trends.

4. We update students’ knowledge during the conversation

Guys, what words can we use to describe the Silver Age? (contradictory, fantasy, realistic, mysterious, religious, creating something new, a new rise in art, giving rise to the collapse of the old, etc.)
try to formulate your own definition of the concept of the Silver Age. Then we write it down on the slide. ( Slide 3)

5. Continuation of the explanation according to plan

Education

(Slide 4) At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. ( Slide 5) In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. In relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied in secondary school. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Education

(Slide 6) Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate. - workers' courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, assembly hall, teahouse and trading shop. The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. ( Slide 7, 8) In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices: Suvorin’s “cheap library” and Sytin’s “library for self-education.” The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact ( Slide 6)

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema ( Slide 9), which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

6. Conversation with students on issues

What caused the need for competent and qualified specialists at the beginning of the 20th century? (The industrial revolution, which began at the end of the 19th century, the development of new industries, the use of equipment that was bought abroad, the growth of people’s self-awareness)
What do you think was the most important thing in education during this period? (growth of educational institutions, elimination of discrimination against women)
What do you think gave impetus to this development of education during this period? (growth of educational institutions, growth of literate population)
Name, in your opinion, the most important discoveries of Russian scientists in the field of natural, technical or human sciences, justify your answer.

Literature

(Slide 12, 13) Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin. ( Slide 14)

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works by A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent uniqueness of economic development and ideological and social struggle. Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to wonderful poetry, and the most significant movement was symbolism. ( Slide 15) The symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. ( Slide 16) By 1910, “symbolism completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by Acmeism. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls for the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism. Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game,” the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the Symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world through art, the futurists focused on the destruction of the old world. What the futurists had in common was the denial of traditions in culture. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamship of Modernity” became scandalous.

There were bright individuals in the poetry of this time who could not be attributed to a specific movement - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity. Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. “Klyuev is popular because it combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic melody of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelshtam). At the beginning of his career, S. Yesenin was close to peasant poets, especially Klyuev, who combined the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

7. Conversation with students on questions

characterize Russian literature of the Silver Age.
What artistic styles were represented?

6. Continuation of the explanation according to plan

Sculpture

Sculpture at the turn of the century was liberated from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, lumpy texture, dynamic forms, permeated with air and light. ( Slide 17) The very first consistent representative of this direction was P.P. Trubetskoy, refuses impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force. ( Slide 18) In its own way, the wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow by the sculptor N.A. is also alien to monumental pathos. Andreev, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, “fatigue of the heart,” so in tune with the era.

Painting

(Slide 19) At the turn of the century, instead of a realistic method of directly reflecting reality, there was an assertion of the priority of artistic forms that reflect reality only indirectly. Genre painting lost its leading role in the 90s. The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of the historical genre. ( Slide 20) In the historical paintings of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. ( Slide 21) I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air painting, continued the lyrical direction in landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which is characterized by a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of all earthly things. ( Slide 22) K.A. Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to try to convey a particular state of mind with the music of color. One after another, masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating a sublime world in their works - V.A. Serov M.A. Vrubel and V.E. Borisov-Musatov. At the same time, associations of artists appeared in Russia. "World of Art" ( Slide 23) The main goal is the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, wide publishing and exhibition activities; “The Union of Russian Artists” is the development of the Russian version of impressionism and the original synthesis of the everyday genre with the architectural landscape. Artists of the association “Jack of Diamonds” ( Slide 24) (1910-1916) solved the problems of identifying the materiality of nature, constructing a form with color. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put in first place. “Lyrical Cubism” by R.R. Falk was distinguished by his subtle color-plastic harmony, which determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”. The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s of the last century; V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. became true theorists and practitioners. Malevich. ( Slide 25)

Architecture

(Slide 26) The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction technology made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the establishment of the Art Nouveau style. ( Slide 26) In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions – national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernism of likening an architectural structure to an organic form. In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

8. Conversation with students on issues

What features distinguished Russian painting?
what were the artistic achievements in the field of architecture and sculpture?

Theater and music

Taking into account the specifics of our educational institution, I would like to dwell in more detail on the development of Russian musical, ballet and theatrical art.

The second year students of the classical dance department prepared reports on the development of theatrical ( Slide 28, 29), ballet ( Slide 30), musical ( Slide 31) art.

9. Conversation with students on questions

what new phenomena were characteristic of Russian ballet and theater art?

Final words from the teacher. (Slide 32)

Homework

Paragraph 8, page 63 task 1.2

Education Modernization of the country required competent specialists. Expenditures on education have increased 5 times. About 6 million people studied in schools. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools has increased. Commercial schools and other professional institutions appeared. New technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university opened in Saratov. Pedagogical institutes opened in the capitals. 60% of all students were not nobles.

Science At the beginning of the 20th century, science developed rapidly in Russia. Physicist P. Lebedev developed a unified wave theory. N. Zhukovsky and S. Chaplygin created aircraft manufacturing in the country. K.E. Tsiolkovsky in 1903 substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal. V. Vernadsky developed the doctrine of the noosphere. P.N.Lebedev N.E.Zhukovsky

IN historical science such luminaries as V. Klyuchevsky, S. Platonov, R. Vipper, E. Tarle worked. Philosophy developed through the efforts of N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, V. Solovyov, P. Florensky. There were about twenty scientific and technical societies in the country, which were centers of scientific work and widely promoted them among the population. V. Klyuchevsky N. Berdyaev

Literature The image of the “Silver Age” was most clearly manifested in literature. Critical realism preserved in the works of L.N. Tolstoy, and his letters to the Tsar evoked a wide response in society. A. Chekhov reflected changes in the structure of society in his work. I. Bunin studied the life of the peasantry, and A. Kuprin explored everyday life in the army. M. Gorky first described the life of the proletariat. S. Yesenin, N. Klyuev and others came to Russian poetry.

The desire not only to display but also to change the world has led to the emergence of new directions. Symbolists (K. Balmont, A. Blok, V. Bryusov) started with decadent ideas, after 1909. promote death Western civilization and the revival of Russia based on the “Russian soul”. They were opposed by the Acmeists. They proclaimed self-worth real life. In the works of N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova and others, aesthetic taste and refinement are observed artistic word. A Akhmatova S. Gumilyov

The futurists were prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde. They paid main attention not to the content, but to the form of the poetic structure. They used vulgar language, poster and poster language. The collections of the futurists had characteristic names - “Dead Moon”, “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, etc. The most prominent representatives of the movement, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov and others, united in the group “Gilea”.

Painting Realistic foundations were preserved in the works of I. Repin, V. Surikov, M. Nesterov. At the same time, the modernists united in the World of Art group. They believed that art does not depend on political circumstances and should exist independently. The group included almost all prominent artists - A. Benois, L. Bakst, B. Kustodiev, E. Lansere, N. Roerich, K. Somov and others. V. Surikov “Boyaryna Morozova” I. Repin “I. Terrible and Son his"

In 1907, an exhibition of 16 young artists was held in Moscow “ Blue Rose" N. Sapunov, M. Saryan tried to gain individuality by combining, Western experience And national traditions. They were closely associated with the Symbolists. Symbolism in painting was not a single direction and included such different artists like M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin and others. M. Vrubel “The Swan Princess”

Sculpture. Architecture. Impressionism successfully developed in sculpture. P. Trubetskoy created busts of S. Witte, L. Tolstoy and a monument Alexander III A. Golubkina tried to create sculptures in the form of a generalized image. S. Konenkov reflected new trends in realism (“The Stonebreaker”, “The Beggar Brethren”). At the same time, he retained the features of individuality, which is clearly visible in the bust of A.P. Chekhov. S. Konenkov bust of Chekhov.

In architecture, Art Nouveau and its variety, the neo-Russian style, were popular. F. Shekhtel built the building of the Yaroslavl station, the mansion of S. Ryabushinsky. Then he moves on to “rationalistic modernism” (Ryabushinsky Bank. V. Walcott, using eclecticism, built the Metropol Hotel building in Moscow. Many buildings in the capitals were erected in the neoclassical style. Metropol Hotel Ryabushinsky Mansion Yaroslavl Station

Music. Ballet. Theater. Cinema. In the early 20th century, music appeared innovative composers A. Scriabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Rachmaninov, who sought to go beyond the traditional classical music. The vocal school gave the world such outstanding singers as F. Chaliapin, A. Nezhdanova, L. Sobinov, I. Ershov. Composer S. Rachmaninov. Singer F. Chaliapin

At the beginning of the century, outstanding directors K. Stanislavsky, V. Meyerhold, E. Vakhtangov appeared on the Russian stage. The star of M. Petipa rose in the art of ballet. Another outstanding director was A. Gorsky. For their performances they used the scenery of K. Korovin, A. Benois N. Roerich and others. K. Stanislavsky and one of his roles in the play “The Imaginary Ill” by E. Vakhtangov and one of his roles.

In the city, S. Diaghilev organized the “Russian Seasons” in Paris. Cinema appeared in Russia at the beginning of the century. In 1908, the first Russian film was released - “Stepan Razin” in “Defense of Sevastopol”. Director Protazanov, actress V. Kholodnaya, film entrepreneur V. Khanzhonkov became prominent figures of Russian culture. Still from the film “ Stepan Razin" 1908 Silent film actress Vera Kholodnaya in different images.

Education of the Silver Age. "Silver Age" of Russian culture

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Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

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