Who are the Indo-Europeans? Settlement of Indo-Europeans

Origin of the Indo-Europeans

Lysenko Nikolay

Indo-Europeans, as a socio-cultural community, have been of genuine interest for decades. But many unresolved problems remain, giving rise to heated debates. There are discussions about their origin and settlement routes. There is not even a generally accepted definition of the term "Indo-Europeans".

Summarizing the accumulated knowledge, we can only postulate that the definition of Indo-Europeans falls large group people speaking closely related languages (possibly having the same origin), belonging to the European or Caucasian race. This community is characterized by haplogroups R1a and R1b, its representatives use certain strategies for survival and life management, and their religious views have a common past and similar evolution. Only by the combination of all these characteristics can the Indo-Europeans be distinguished into a separate community. We must not forget that their ethnogenesis has been going on for thousands of years and continues to this day. Mass migrations, cultural exchanges, conquests would seem to forever erase the contours of the original core that gave birth to this ethnic group. But no. Without the use of this concept, the development of social, historical and other sciences is impossible.

Indo-Europeans began to be perceived as a single whole in the 19th century, when it became clear that the languages of many peoples scattered around the world had similar grammar, phonetics, etc. They began to look for the linguistic ancestral home of this community. The structure and structure of languages, patterns of their development and interaction with other ethnic groups were analyzed in detail. Archaeological, climatic and genetic data were involved. Studied literary sources And oral creativity. Were even used math programs, describing the spread of viruses. It turned out that pathogenic organisms and languages spread in the same way. Currently, most scientists agree that the Indo-European proto-language was formed in Western Asia at the end of the last glaciation. It was here that a significant part of the population, displaced by the glacier from Europe, was supposed to concentrate. Shepherd tribes from the south, including from the Sahara, also arrived here. Gradual warming has changed air currents, drying out northern Africa, and then the Middle East. All this drove animals and people north, along the Mediterranean coast. This was also facilitated by the rise in sea level. In particular, the lands that became the bottom of the Persian Gulf were covered with water. Thus, in the territory modern Turkey a large number of shepherding and hunting tribes accumulated. Europe was then unsuitable for life, and the oases in Mesopotamia and neighboring regions were firmly occupied by settled peoples. Only the lush pastures and forests of Anatolia could provide shelter for herds of cattle and large wild animals. Here a “melting pot” was formed where the Indo-European languages arose. Secondary centers of linguistic ethnogenesis have also been found: the Balkans, the Sredne Stog culture.

During this period, the anthropogenic type of people characteristic of Indo-Europeans also took shape. The most ancient layers of mythology of many Indo-European peoples testify to the struggle and subsequent unification of two powerful ethnic groups. Most often these are the godlike Aesir and Vanir. The Ases were warriors and hunters, the Vans were grain growers, livestock breeders and fishermen. The first worshiped the sun, the second - water. These characters are present in Germanic sagas, Indo-Iranian Vedas, in the self-names of many peoples and place names. One of the many examples is the name of Lake Van, the shores of which are considered the homeland in the legends of many peoples. Vishaps - stone fish or dragons - are often found here. These ritual objects represented fertility. And all Indo-European symbolism is based on the eternal confrontation between the solar deity in the form of a spiral or swastika and the ruler of the underwater world.

Who were these legendary ancestors? Here we can only build hypotheses based on numerous facts obtained by science in last years. It is known about the Indo-Europeans that they developed cattle breeding in ancient times. Moreover, both archeology and mythology indicate that they preferred cattle. They also developed a mutation that allows them to consume milk as adults. They also had farming skills. Consequently, the ethnogenesis of the Indo-Europeans must include a group of people who participated in the Neolithic revolution. It is known that the domestication of animals and the development of crop production skills occurred simultaneously in different places. It has been established that one of the places where cattle was domesticated was the Sahara during its drying out period. Both people and animals flocked to increasingly rare bodies of water, thirst brought them closer together. Later, pastoral tribes inevitably had to migrate either towards the equator or in a northern direction. Groups of shepherds reached Asia Minor and settled here. You can trace a chain of cultures genetically related to each other: Tassil-Ajer; Göbekli Tepe; Çatalhöyük - from the Sahara to the outskirts of the modern Turkish city of Konya. The similarities are manifested in religion, art, and the organization of everyday life. Even fairy tales have similar plots. A hero kissing a princess sitting high in a mansion appears in both ancient Egyptian and modern European epics. It is these cultural communities that most researchers correlate with the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans. The only problem is that their representatives for the most part belonged to the Mediterranean type of people. At the same time, the ancestors of the Hurrians and Hattians formed in the same territories. Along the way, it should be noted that shepherds with herds of cattle from the Sahara also moved south. Among the nomadic livestock breeders of Central Africa, a tradition has been preserved of creating hecatombs - slaughtering and burying livestock with a deceased owner. We find the same custom among the ancient Greeks, Scythians and other Indo-European peoples. Playing with a bull is popular among the Ethiopian Hamer tribe. Here we find direct analogies with Mediterranean cultures.

What ethnic group should be considered the second “ancestor” of the Indo-Europeans? From whom most of them have light eyes and skin, high growth and much more. Cro-Magnons are best suited for this role. But we should not think that these ancient big game hunters lived exclusively in Europe. Following herds of animals, they moved across the steppes of Eurasia. And during certain periods of the Great Glaciation they were completely forced out into a narrow strip around the Mediterranean Sea. These people settled not only in the European, but in the Asian and African parts of this reservoir, which by this time was thoroughly shallow. The white population of the Libyan Desert is mentioned in ancient Egyptian chronicles, Europeans encountered them in the Canary Islands, and even today many groups of Berbers bear the features of Cro-Magnons. Recently found in southern Egypt near the village of Kurta cave drawings Stone Age works are strikingly reminiscent of similar works from Spanish and French caves. No wonder they were called the African Altamira. Similar drawings were found in the north of Libya, in Sicily.

Thus, upon completion ice age hunters of the Cro-Magnon type had long-term contacts with primitive farmers and pastoralists, close in origin to the Proto-Hurrians and Proto-Hattians. Moreover, interaction between them took place in North Africa, the Middle East, Asia Minor and Europe. This is how the Indo-European community was formed.

This conclusion is confirmed by genetic studies. Among Indo-Europeans, subclades of haplogroups R1a and R1b are common. It should be emphasized that the connection between languages and genetic data can only be found in huge amounts of information collected according to certain rules. Particular examples may contradict the general mainstream. Thus, among the Karachais, Ossetians - Digorians and individual communities of the Circassians, the “Hattian” haplogroup G1 predominates, but they speak languages from completely different language groups. But in general, the connection between these indicators has been mathematically proven. R1b was the first to appear about 16 thousand years ago in Asia Minor or the Middle East. It is impossible to establish more precisely, since genetic information in human communities does not always spread radially. Currently, this haplogroup is most often found around the Mediterranean Sea. Its spread deep into Asia, Africa and Europe, to other continents is secondary. In general, this agrees well with the previously proposed ethnogenesis of the Indo-Europeans. Haplogroup R1a arose from R1 somewhat later in the Northern Black Sea region. Gradually its carriers settled in Europe, reaching China, India, Iran, and Egypt. Which of the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans originally carried R1. It is impossible to establish this yet. But we know that the Cro-Magnon population of Eurasia and Africa did not simply follow herds of animals. It created grandiose cultural communities and was distinguished by its belligerence. Facing peaceful farmers and Neolithic pastoralists, these people inevitably dominated the emerging syncretic communities. Their men passed on their genetic information more women. Therefore, haplogroup R1 can most likely be associated with the descendants of Cro-Magnons. Less common among Indo-Europeans, I and J may have been introduced by the sedentary population of Western Asia. At the same time, the core of the Indo-European languages most likely formed precisely among the Asia Minor tribes experiencing the Neolithic revolution. Their thinking and speech, enriched by an increasingly complex social structure, undoubtedly had a significant influence on the life of hunters. This is confirmed by examples from other eras. For example, the Bulgarian Turks gradually forgot their language after conquering the Slavs. indo-european race community evolution

Each ethnic group chooses its own strategy for survival and life management. Millennia pass, forms change public organization and methods of production, but the same Ugrofins at their core remain forest dwellers. Turkic peoples Having formed in the steppe zone, even living in megacities, their worldview is largely nomadic. The inhabitants of the desert and tundra are even more unique. Since ancient times, Indo-Europeans have specialized in large animals. At first they hunted them, later they tamed them. Of course, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and so on were also used along the way. Just this ethnic group always chose ecological niches where cattle and horses were freely bred. Bulls and cows are deified in all Indo-European cultures. IN archaic Greece Hera, the wife of Zeus, had the appearance of a cow. Cows acquired sacred status in India with the arrival of the Aryans. Climatic changes and demographic processes often forced the Indo-Europeans to move with their herds over vast distances. They have always been great travelers. And this, in turn, stimulated the exchange of goods and contributed to the evolution of equipment and technology. But their agriculture sometimes faded away. This is unthinkable for the sedentary cultures of Mesopotamia, the Indus, the Mekong, the Nile, and the Yellow River.

These trends were most clearly demonstrated in the example of mastering the horse. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Indo-Europeans were the first to do this. Perhaps these were carriers of the Sredne Stog culture. There could have been other centers of domestication. There was an opinion that the horse was tamed in Mesopotamia or in the Zagros mountains. But the authors of such theories should ask the question whether these animals existed there. Donkeys lived there, which were adopted by early civilizations. But tarpans were found in the Great Steppe from Central Europe to Mongolia. Since ancient times, the Cro-Magnon population of these areas hunted horses, some groups even specialized in them. Naturally, they were repeatedly tamed by people, but the need for their domestication did not arise until the arrival of settled livestock breeders and farmers from the south. It was economic expediency and the need to move over vast distances that contributed to the domestication of the horse. The unification of life paradigms of various ethnic groups created a completely new socio-cultural reality. Residents of the steppes shared their ability to survive in open spaces, hunting and military traditions. They were donors of a special anthropogenic type - tall and strong people, optimally adapted to existence in the forest-steppe. Southerners brought skills of settled life, agriculture, crafts, and a more advanced language.

Religious ideas are among the most stable categories of human existence. Their foundations have been preserved for thousands of years. And it is very difficult to identify those layers of beliefs that are objectively associated with the Indo-European community. Many authors consider the gods to be Indo-European only on the grounds that their names have common roots in Greek, Russian, Sanskrit, etc. But we must also take into account the fact that religious tradition, to which this or that deity belongs, can be very ancient. She is capable of joining the spiritual life of the most diverse peoples, undergoing only purely external changes. It is necessary to highlight the transcendental tradition, which is uniquely connected with Indo-European ethnic groups. Initially, one should discard magic, animism, animalism, and the deification of the forces of nature. These views arose in the Middle Paleolithic, and are found in one form or another in all cultures. This should be a religion that best suits the lifestyle and intellectual pursuits of the Indo-Europeans during a long period of their ethnogenesis.

Since ancient times, Indo-Europeans occupied the open spaces of Eurasia from forest zones to semi-deserts. These territories are subject to constant climatic changes; processes in human formations are actively occurring here. This way of life implies constant movement, and, consequently, a firm connection to spatial and temporal coordinates. The forest hunter follows the game, the farmer carries out work as certain phases occur in the plants. And only a migrating shepherd needs to have a “calendar” and a “compass” every day. Moreover, he must be able to foresee the future. Otherwise, his herds will simply die from drought or cold. The best reference point is the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The luminary, depending on the time of year, always rises and sets at certain points on the earth's surface. Probably, Paleolithic hunters in Europe were able to determine the time of the summer and winter solstices. After all, they depended on large wild animals, which went north in the spring and returned back in winter. Ancient painting It is found only in those caves that are illuminated during the solstice period. Later, this effect was used in the construction of tunnel tombs and sun temples. The altar there was illuminated only at certain times of the year.

All cultures, from ancient times to the Middle Ages, reliably associated with the Indo-Europeans, are usually accompanied by cromlechs of a certain type. These are stones or logs installed in a circle. They were oriented according to solar periods and served as both an observatory and a temple. There are grandiose buildings, like the famous Stonehenge. And there were also temporary structures. Only one thing is constant - Indo-European communities could not exist without them. All of them religious life was strictly tied to the calendar. We find images of calendars on vessels, headdresses and stone slabs. The year began with the summer or winter solstice, the autumn and spring equinoxes were marked, and holidays in the remaining months were correlated with them. Even Christianity and Islam absorbed traces of these pagan celebrations. The whole world was drawn into an eternal cycle (the wheel of Samsara). Every morning the solar deity began its journey across the sky, bestowing order and blessings on people, and at night it went under the ocean, where it fought with a water monster. There were also annual cycles, which were more pronounced in temperate latitudes. In difficult periods, people helped God in his struggle (hence the stormy winter festivals of all Indo-European peoples). The rest of the time they themselves turned to a higher being for help. But the most important thing is that the priests entered into co-creation with God and seemed to control time. After all, the herder in the steppe himself decided where and when to go. Communicating directly with the deity, perhaps for the first time he realized himself as the master of his destiny. It is clear that not only Indo-Europeans worshiped the solar deity. But it was they who understood divine providence as an eternal cycle of struggle between light and dark principles, as a source of order that formalizes all human life. It is clear that due to various social processes these views repeatedly became the property of other ethnic groups. But it was among the Indo-Europeans that they existed for millennia and became the basis of their worldview. Christianity has existed in Rus' for more than 1000 years, but Kupala, a sunny holiday with roots in the Paleolithic, still excites people’s minds. It is preceded by mermaid week. And the water maidens were originally dragons.

If you trace the distribution of cromlechs around the world, the most ancient of them are located in North Africa (Nabta Playa 15 thousand years ago). After 5 thousand years they appeared in the Middle East - Gobekli Tepe. This culture is genetically related to Çatalhöyük, which researchers attribute to Proto-Indo-European. The "Göbeklin" steles often depicted eagles tormenting people on high towers. This plot is typical for Indo-Europeans and even entered the religious practices of the Iranian Aryans in the form of Zoroastrianism. The further spread of cromlechs across Europe and Asia is associated with the migrations of Indo-European tribes: Karahunj (Armenia); Goseck Circle (Germany); Arkaim (Russia); Stonehenge (UK). It turns out that the core of the religious views of the Indo-Europeans was formed long before the separation of their language. And this probably happened in northern Africa during the end of the last ice age. Migrating north, the bearers of this paradigm took part in the formation of the Indo-European community. All this is consistent with the previously cited data from genetics, archeology, anthropology, and mythology.

Bibliography

1. Lysenko N.F. Development of agriculture and processing industry of Kuban. - Krasnodar: Kubankino, 2006. C 54 - 156.
2. Lysenko N.F. Religions of the North-West Caucasus. Tutorial. - Maykop: Polygraph Adygea, 2007. pp. 12 -96.
3. Lysenko N.F. Ancient Christianity of the Western Caucasus (collection of articles) "Questions of the history of Pourupya". Issue 1.

Settlement of Indo-Europeans

The main occupation of the Indo-Europeans was arable farming. The land was cultivated using harnessed arable tools (ralas, plows). At the same time, they apparently knew gardening. Cattle breeding occupied a significant place in the economy of the Indo-European tribes. Cattle were used as the main draft force. Animal husbandry provided the Indo-Europeans with products - milk, meat, as well as raw materials - leather, hides, wool, etc.

At the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. the life of the Indo-European tribes began to transform. Global climate changes began: the temperature dropped, continentality increased - hotter than before summer months alternated with increasingly harsh winters. As a result, grain yields decreased, agriculture ceased to provide guaranteed means to ensure people's lives during the winter months, as well as additional feed for animals. The role of cattle breeding gradually increased. The increase in herds associated with these processes required the expansion of pastures and the search for new territories where both people and animals could feed. The gaze of the Indo-Europeans turned to the endless steppes of Eurasia. The period of development of neighboring lands has begun.

From the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the discovery and colonization of new territories (which was often accompanied by clashes with the indigenous population) became the norm of life of the Indo-European tribes. This, in particular, was reflected in the myths, fairy tales and legends of the Indo-European peoples - Iranians, ancient Indians, ancient Greeks. The migration of the tribes that formerly constituted the Proto-Indo-European community acquired a special scale with the invention of wheeled transport, as well as the domestication and use of horses for riding. This allowed pastoralists to move from a sedentary lifestyle to a nomadic or semi-nomadic one. The consequence of the change in the economic and cultural structure was the disintegration of the Indo-European community into independent ethnic groups.

So, adaptation to changed natural and climatic conditions forced the proto-Greeks, Luwians, Hittites, Indo-Iranians, Indo-Aryans and other tribal associations formed within the framework of the Proto-Indo-European tribes to go in search of new, more economically suitable territories. And the continued fragmentation of ethnic groups led to the colonization of new lands. These processes occupied the entire 3rd millennium BC Abaev V.I. Scytho-European isoglosses. - M.: Nauka, 1965. p. 127.

Indo-European problem

The term "Indo-European languages" was introduced in scientific circulation at the beginning of the 19th century, the founder of comparative historical linguistics Fr. Bopp. Later, German scientists began to use the term “Indo-Germanic languages” in the same meaning, as well as the terms “Aryan languages” (A.A. Potebny) and “Ario-European languages” (I.A. Baudouin-de-Courtenay, V.A. Bogorodnitsky). Today the term "Aryan" is used in relation to the Indo-Iranian languages, and the term "Ario-European" has fallen out of scientific use. The term "Indo-Germanic languages" also continues to be used. Despite the fact that neither the time and routes of settlement of the Indo-European proto-tribes nor the place of their original residence remain unknown, researchers who adhere to the Indo-European theory attribute the following groups of languages to this language family:

· Indian group. Ancient Indian language, which is the language of Vedic texts. Although the Vedic texts are not dated, the period of their origin is usually attributed to the 2nd millennium BC. The oldest dated texts refer to III century BC. and belong to the period and place of reign of King Ashoka, i.e. geographically it is the southern and eastern parts of India. Moreover, according to some ideas, the initial settlement of the ancient Aryans on the territory of India took place in its northern and western parts. Those who hold the opinion of the extreme antiquity of the Vedas are inclined to explain such a discrepancy in dating long time Brahmanic tradition of their oral transmission. The oral transmission of the Vedas was carried out with the aim of protecting their contents from the eyes of the “low-born” (representatives of non-Aryan varnas). Sanskrit is the literary and normalized form of ancient Indian. There are chronological and dialectal differences between the Vedic language and Sanskrit, i.e. these languages go back to different dialects of ancient Indian speech. Modern languages, belonging to the Indian group - Hindi, Bengali, Urya, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Marathi, Sinhalese, etc. Abaev V.I. Scytho-European isoglosses. - M.: Science, 1965. p. 150

· Iranian group. IN early era was represented by ancient Persian (VI-V centuries BC, cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings) and, again, definitely not dated, but considered even more ancient, Avestan. This group, based on several surviving words and proper names (gravestone inscriptions), includes the language of the Scythians of the northern Black Sea region. Old Persian was replaced by the so-called languages of the Middle Iranian period (from the 3rd century BC to the 7th-13th centuries AD) - Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezmian and Saka, mainly belonging to the peoples Central Asia. New Iranian languages include Tajik, New Persian, Kurdish, Baluchi, Talysh, Tat, Pashto and some Pamir languages - Yaghnobi, Shugnan, Rushan, etc. In the Caucasus, Ossetian is included in the Iranian group.

· Tocharian language. A general designation for two mysterious languages - Turfan and Kugan, the texts of which were found at the beginning of the 20th century in Xinjiang. Despite the fact that these languages do not belong to any of the famous groups, they were included among the Indo-European.

· Slavic group. Old Slavonic is best recorded in Old Church Slavonic or "Church Slavonic" monuments. The translation of the Gospel and other liturgical texts made by Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century was based on the South Slavic dialect of the city of Thessaloniki (Macedonia). It is assumed, however, that this dialect was understandable to everyone Slavic tribes of that time, since Old Slavic did not have serious differences. Regarding the ancient Slavic, A. Meillet, asserting its archaic nature and closeness to the most ancient Indo-European ones, points out the absence in it of a large number of such forms that can be identified with the general Indo-European. Modern Slavic languages include Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian (eastern group), Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovinian ( southern group), Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Lusatian (Western group). TO western group also include the extinct language of the Polabian Slavs, Germanized in the 18th century, who lived along the lower reaches of the Elbe River (Laba).

· Baltic group. Includes modern Lithuanian and Latvian languages. The oldest discovered monuments belong to XVI century AD

· German group. The oldest monuments are recorded from the 3rd century AD. (Old Norse runic inscriptions). There are monuments in Anglo-Saxon (7th century AD), Old Saxon (8th century AD), Old High German (8th century AD) and Gothic (4th century translation of the Gospel). There are also later manuscripts in Old Icelandic, Old Swedish and Old Danish, although some of the features recorded in these texts are thought to date back to a more archaic period. Modern Germanic languages include German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Icelandic.

· Celtic group. Evidence of the ancient state of this group is extremely scanty and is represented mainly in the remains of the Gaulish language (short inscriptions on funerary monuments) and in Irish Ogham inscriptions of the 4th-6th centuries AD. Modern languages of the Celtic group are Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Breton, Manx.

· Italian group. Ancient - Latin, Oscan, Umbrian. The oldest monument of the Latin language is the Praenestine fibula (dated 600 BC). Most of the monuments in Latin date back to the 3rd-2nd centuries BC; a small number of monuments in Oscan and Umbrian belong to the border period (1st century BC - 1st century AD). Modern Italic (Romance) languages - French, Italian, Romanian, Moldavian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romansh, etc.

· Ancient Greek. Written monuments dating back to the 7th century BC have been found. Modern Greek is a descendant of the common Greek language (Koine) of the Hellenistic era, which developed in the 4th century BC.

· Albanian language. The most early monuments writings date back to the 15th century AD. Some researchers suggest that Albanian is the only representative of the ancient group of Illyrian languages that has survived to this day. According to other opinions, it is a descendant of ancient Thracian speech.

· Armenian language. The oldest monuments date back to the 5th century AD.

· Hittite (Nesian) language. The language of the dominant people of the Hittite state (2nd millennium BC). Karger M.K. History of ancient Rus'. Academy of Sciences of the USSR. M - s 94

The classification clearly shows the time gap between the surviving written monuments V various groups belonging to the Indo-European language family. The fragmentation of the available material represents a serious problem for linguists and, from our point of view, introduces a significant error into the research results. The question constantly arises: where is the archaic relationship and where are the later layers.

The current state of the problem is approximately as follows. Three points of view emerged. According to the first, the Indo-European proto-language is a really existing historical linguistic “individual”, characterized by minimal dialectal splitting. According to the second, this is a linguistic unity that once existed, characterized by significant dialect differentiation. According to the third, behind the constructed proto-linguistic models there is a certain group of related languages, which represents a certain configuration of the language family in the past. It should be remembered that in all cases we are talking only about hypothetical constructions, about models, and not about historical facts. We should also not forget that in each of the languages belonging to the Indo-European family there is a huge amount of linguistic material that cannot be reduced to any generality, but has good reason to claim primordial origin. Against, most of linguistic comparisons cited as evidence of linguistic kinship, although they seem to be related in root, nevertheless, cannot be reduced to one original Karger M.K. History of ancient Rus'. Academy of Sciences of the USSR. M - s 96

Indo-European language Lusatian culture

INDO-EUROPEANS, Indo-Europeans, units. Indo-European, Indo-European, husband. Nationalities, nations speaking Indo-European languages. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

INDO-EUROPEANS, ev, units. eets, eitsa, husband. Common name tribes of the ancestors of modern peoples speaking languages Indo-European family. | adj. Indo-European, oh, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Indo-Europeans- INDO-EUROPEANS, ev, pl (ed Indo-European, eytsa, m). The general name of the tribes of the ancestors of peoples speaking languages of the Indo-European family of languages; people belonging to this group of tribes. The Indo-Europeans spoke the ancient languages of Asia and Europe, to which... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

Mn. The peoples of Europe, Western Asia, and Hindustan, speaking related languages. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern Dictionary Russian language Efremova

Indo-Europeans- Indo-Europeans, ev, units. h. eets, eitsa, creation. p. eyets... Russian spelling dictionary

Indo-Europeans- (English Indo Europeans), language family, the origin of which is apparently connected with the steppes. Indo-European languages spread widely during the migration of peoples of the 2nd millennium BC. in Europe, as well as in Iran, India, temporarily also... Archaeological Dictionary

Indo-Europeans Indo-European languages Anatolian · Albanian Armenian · Baltic · Venetian Germanic · Illyrian Aryan: Nuristanian, Iranian, Indo-Aryan... Wikipedia

Indo-Europeans Indo-European languages Albanian · Armenian Baltic · Celtic Germanic · Greek Indo-Iranian · Romance Italic · Slavic Dead: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkan ... Wikipedia

Indo-Europeans Indo-European languages Anatolian · Albanian Armenian · Baltic · Venetian Germanic · Illyrian Aryan: Nuristanian, Iranian, Indo-Aryan... Wikipedia

Books

Indo-Europeans, O. Schrader. We present to the attention of readers a book by the famous German linguist and historian Otto Schrader, the purpose of which the author saw was to bring together all the scientific information in the field...
Indo-Europeans, Schrader O.. Readers are invited to a book by the famous German linguist and historian Otto Schrader (1855-1919), the purpose of which the author saw was to bring together all the scientific information in the field...

Lecture 2 Baltoslavs and the “great migration of peoples” Who are the Baltoslavs.

Among the last migration waves of Indo-Europeans were speakers of ancient European dialects who migrated to Europe. As they moved westward, tribal associations emerged from them and settled in new territories. Simultaneously with the acquisition of a new homeland, the tribes were divided according to the type of their main activity: farmers were separated from cattle breeders.

According to the assumption of A. Lamprecht, approximately in 2000-2500. BC. Tribes who spoke close Balto-Slavic dialects separated from the speakers of Germanic languages and settled “permanently.” They settled a vast territory, including South coast Baltic Sea, large parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Apparently, the lands on which the Baltoslavs settled were limited in the west by the Dniester and Vistula rivers, in the east by the upper reaches of the Western Dvina and Oka. The southern territories developed by the Baltoslavs included the Upper Dnieper region.

It has not yet been possible to establish which archaeological cultures of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. directly related to the ancestors of the Slavs, and to separate them from the archaeological sites left by the ancestors of the Balts. Therefore, historians have to rely mainly on data from historical dialectology.

Historical linguistics testifies that the Baltoslavic cultural and linguistic community was preserved for almost one and a half thousand years. Only around 500 BC. From the single Late European, or Baltoslavic, language, the Slavic and Baltic tribal dialects themselves emerged. Moreover, the Balts were divided into three large groups - the western (the ancestors of the Prussians, Yatvingians, Galindians, Curonians and Skalvi); the middle, or Letto-Lithuanian (the ancestors of the Lithuanians, Samogitians, Aukštaitians, Latgalians, Semigallians and Selovians), and the Dnieper (the ancestors of the chronicle golyad and other tribes whose names are unknown). In turn, the Slavs in the IV-X centuries. also divided into three main dialect areas: southern (ancestors of modern Bulgarians, Slovenians, Macedonians, Serbs and Croats), western (ancestors of Czechs, Slovaks and Poles) and eastern (ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians).

All of the listed dialect-tribal groups were in constant contact with each other, which was the basis for the preservation of the Baltoslavic community. The zone of particularly active cultural and linguistic ties between the Balts and Slavs was the region of the upper Dnieper, Western Dvina and Oka basins, inhabited by tribes of the Dnieper Balts and gradually developed by the Slavic-speaking population. The consequence of these processes was that the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language retained significant similarities to the Baltic languages (especially in phonology).

An important principle that should be followed when analyzing existing hypotheses and developing new ones is the following limitation:

“The most important aspect in the study of Slavic ethnogenesis should be recognized as methodological limitations in the use of historical sources, since linguistic and archaeological materials provide fewer opportunities for such restrictions. Language data cannot be dated absolutely, especially when it comes to the reconstruction of the proto-language; The archaeological data that provide opportunities for such dating are “mute” - it is difficult to say what language the bearers of a particular archaeological culture spoke if we do not have data from historical sources about this... Therefore, the self-limiting attitude of historians, based on fixing the self-name of the Slavs. .., seems absolutely necessary, including in order to look for the Proto-Slavs before the 6th century. It is self-name that is a definite, explicitly expressed evidence of the emergence of ethnic self-awareness, without which the existence of an established ethnic community is impossible.”

“The Great Migration of Peoples"

Since the 3rd century. BC. The oldest Chinese chronicles mention clashes with nomadic tribes, which are usually referred to by the collective term Xiongnu (Hyunnu or Xiongnu). To protect against the formidable northern enemies of the Heavenly Empire, the Great Wall of China was erected, the beginning of construction of which dates back to the reign of the emperor Qin Shi Huang, famous for his cruelty (221-210 BC). The struggle with warlike neighbors lasted five and a half centuries , ended in victory for China.

At the final stage of this struggle, in the II-IV centuries. in the Urals, a new ethnic entity was formed from the Turkic-speaking Hunus, local Ugrians and Iranian-speaking Sarmatians - the tribe of the Huns. In 351, the Huns were forced to leave the borders of the Empire and move west. Here they hoped to seize lands and booty that they did not get in China. In fact, the Huns led a powerful alliance of Turkic, Iranian and Germanic tribes that moved towards Europe. This displacement caused ethnic processes of a grandiose scale, which in historical literature were called the “Great Migration of Peoples.”

Europe was faced with migration flows from the east even before the Huns crossed the Ural-Caspian border. The first wave of migrations were the Germanic tribes of the Goths, Iranian-speaking Alans and, possibly, part of the Sarmatians, forced out by the Huns from their “historical homeland”.

At the beginning of our era, the East German Gothic tribes occupied the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and the Lower Vistula basin. At the end of the 2nd century. they began to develop the southern and southeastern territories, and in the 3rd century. reached the borders of the Roman Empire, reached the Azov region and, perhaps, began to populate the Crimean peninsula. Under the pressure of the Huns, from the 3rd century, together with other tribes, the Goths invaded the Roman Empire and by the end of the 4th century. inhabit its territory.

The Gothic invasion literally changed the entire ethno-linguistic map of Europe. However, in written sources of that time there is not a single mention of the Slavs or tribes that could undoubtedly be identified with the Slavs or Baltoslavs. Nevertheless, traces of Iranian-Gothic influence are clearly visible in the language of the Slavs. They are associated with the so-called Central Slavic period (the turn of the 8th century BC - the 4th-5th centuries BC).

The invasion of the Huns into Europe is usually dated to 375. Their appearance caused massive movements of the previous “generation” of conquerors throughout the region of the emerging medieval European civilization. The Hun invasion once again redrew the ethnic and political map of Europe. The memory of these dramatic events was preserved not only by written sources, but also by the epics of many European peoples. However, this time too, “historical reports” about the events that occupied Europe for almost two centuries do not mention a single name of a tribe that could be reliably attributed to the Slavs. It is simply impossible to imagine that the Slavic tribes by some miracle were not affected by the Hunnic invasion. It remains to be assumed that information about the Slavs is hidden under one (or several) of the ethnonyms, regarding which the sources do not provide sufficient information for identification with known tribes and peoples. It is also possible that the Slavs, who led a sedentary lifestyle and were engaged in agriculture, unlike the nomadic Germanic and Iranian tribes, were not used by the Huns as warriors and were considered by the conquerors only as an object of robbery and a source of replenishment of food supplies.

It is important to note that both the Baltoslavs and the Slavic tribes that separated from this community were thus excluded from the cultural and historical community, which was being formed at that time on the basis of the synthesis of Mediterranean civilization and the cultures of alien barbarian tribes. The first reliable information about the Slavs refers to the next major invasion of nomads into Europe.

However, not everyone thinks so.

What do we really have to restore the history of the Eastern Slavs, whom we consider our “main” ancestors?

§ 8. Settlement of Indo-Europeans

The triumphant spread of Indo-Europeans across Eurasia began from the southeast of Europe. Some moved west and took over the vast expanses of Europe to the Atlantic. Another part of them spread to the north, east and southeast. They occupied northern Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula. The wedge of Indo-European migrations crashed into the habitat of the Finno-Ugric peoples and buried itself in the Ural Mountains, beyond which the Indo-Europeans did not go. In the south, in the forest-steppe and steppe zone, they advanced to Asia Minor, to North Caucasus, reached the Iranian plateau and settled in India.

Already during the migrations in the IV-111 millennia BC. e. the former community began to disintegrate. Large language blocks were formed. So, one of them included the Germans, Slavs, and Balts. Once upon a time they were all one people and spoke the same language. Only later did the Germans emerge. The Abalts and the Slavs formed a single whole. But life went on, Indo-Europeans continued to settle throughout Eurasia, and their number increased. In conditions of constant movement, the development of new territories, their settlement, the Indo-Europeans continued to isolate themselves. In the end, from the Indo-Europeans, the Eastern group of languages and peoples (Indians, Iranians, Armenians, Tajiks, residents of present-day Afghanistan - Pashto and Dari, etc.), the Western European group (English, Germans, French, Italians, Greeks, etc.) later emerged. , Slavic group(Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, etc.), Baptist group (Baltic peoples - Lithuanians, Latvians, etc.).

However, despite this isolation, traces of the former community, depth historical memory these peoples are visible everywhere. Firstly, in the language. Thus, the Slavic and Iranian peoples have many common words and concepts: “god” (lord, ruler), “khata” (house), “boyar” (close lord), “axe”, “dog”, “hero” and many others - they all came to us from the ancient Iranians. The word “birch” was previously mentioned as a name for a tree that was used from India to the Carpathians and the Balkans.

This commonality is also visible in applied art, for example, in embroidery patterns, in decorations on clay vessels - a combination of rhombuses and dots was used everywhere. In the areas where the Indo-Europeans settled, the domestic cult of elk and deer was preserved for centuries, although, as is known, these animals are not found in Iran, India, and Greece. The same applies to a number of folk holidays, for example, the “bear holidays” held by many peoples in spring days awakening from hibernation of a bear. All these are traces northern ancestral home Indo-Europeans.

These peoples have a lot in common in their religious cults. Thus, the famous Slavic pagan god Perun is a thunderer akin to the Lithuanian G1erkunas, the ancient Indian Parjanya, the Celtic Perkunia, and he himself is very reminiscent of the main greek god Zeus. The Slavic pagan goddess Lada - the patroness of marriage and family - is comparable to greek goddess Latoy. Many other deities of different Indo-European peoples have common ancient roots.

Warlike, energetic Indo-Europeans came to where the local Neolithic population already lived. These invasions were far from peaceful. Long before the first states and armies appeared on the territory of Eurasia, wars began, our ancient ancestors fought for convenient lands, generous fishing grounds, forests rich in animals. At the site of many ancient sites, traces of fire and heated battles are visible; skulls and bones, pierced by arrows and broken by battle axes, were found there.

Already at this time, the mixing of Indo-Europeans with the tribes that had previously lived here began, as well as with another human branch - the Finno-Ugric people, who previously occupied large areas of the north of our country, the Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals. People from the lands where the ancient ancestors of the Turks and Mongols lived also appeared here. In particular, the Kalmyks and Buryats became the descendants of the ancient Mongols. And the Finno-Ugrians themselves, like the Indo-Europeans, began to split into new branches - into Ugrians and Finns. Subsequently, many descendants of the Finno-Ugric population became Russian peoples The Volga region and the North of the country - Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Komi, etc. All of them later also became full-fledged ancient inhabitants of the East European Plain, like the Slavs.

In the region of the Northern Urals, between the mouth of the Pechora and the Ob, Neolithic ancestors were located Ural peoples who spoke the so-called Uralic languages. IN Southern Siberia, in Altai, in the Sayans, a population of ancient Altaians developed, who spoke special, Altai, languages, different from all others. Altaians became the main owners of these lands in ancient times.

Stormy processes took place in the Caucasus, where a population was formed that spoke Caucasian languages (the ancient inhabitants of Dagestan, Adygea, Abkhazia). South of Caucasian ridge the ancestors of the Georgians stood out.

Each of these ancient peoples, like the Indo-Europeans, contributed to the development of the ancient economy of our country. The North Caucasians, earlier than anyone else, mastered the smelting of metal (fortunately, it was abundant in the Caucasus) and the manufacture of metal tools and weapons, tamed horses, cattle, pigs and switched to cattle breeding. They were the first to master wheeled carts.

The Ural peoples were the first to launch boats and invent skis and sleds. The Indo-Europeans, who settled in the forest zone, together with other local inhabitants, switched to cattle breeding and forest-type agriculture, still developed hunting and fishing, but the population in the harsh conditions of the forest and forest-steppe lagged behind the rapidly developing peoples of the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Western Asia, and Mesopotamia. , Egypt. Nature at this time was the main regulator human development, but it was not in favor of the north.