The mysterious Russian soul (the national character of Russians and the peculiarities of communication). They defeated incurable diseases

Professional healers emerged mainly from among magi, sorcerers, sorcerers, healers, and sorcerers - this was facilitated by natural observation, the desire to find a solution to natural phenomena, the secrets of the human body. Many early chronicles are imbued with respect for the natural science knowledge of the Magi.

The Magi were experts in “potions”, i.e. medicinal plants. The Magi successfully acted as children's doctors, provided assistance to women with infertility, they were invited to the homes of patients suffering from contagious diseases, to the wounded and “ulcer” patients.

In early written monuments, the concepts of “magician”, “doctor”, “healer”, “zeleynik”, “sorcerer” are completely undifferentiated. By ancient Russian idea, magic is a high art, skill (“magical cunning”), and a sorcerer is “wise,” a person with great experience and knowledge.

To show the special depth of medical knowledge among doctors, Old Russian literature assigned them the epithets of “wise”, “cunning”, “philosophers”.

Medicine in Novgorod as an example of medicine in Rus'

In terms of its sanitary culture and improvement, Novgorod ranked first among the largest cities in Northern Europe.
Here, before wooden pavements appeared on squares and streets in Paris and London, an extensive underground drainage network of wooden pipes operated.
Novgorodians, before the Kievites (at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries), began to build wooden huts.
Bath in Ancient Rus' was much more widespread than in any European country. Novgorod healers well understood the healing power of baths.
Soap at that time was imported from abroad and was available. Beautiful and comfortable clothes are not only a manifestation of tastes and fashion different eras, but also a kind of indicator of the sanitary culture of the population. Novgorodians in the XI - XIII centuries. dressed in clothes that retain heat well and reliably protect the skin from mechanical damage, dust, dirt, insect bites, and do not hinder movement.

To wash clothes and wash the body, Novgorodians used easily soapy soils and minerals that contained fat and ash. The laundry was boiled in barrels of ash water.

Novgorodians were strong people. Physical labor, simple, healthy food, long stays fresh air increased their resistance destructive effect microorganisms.

But the cruel scourge of hunger and epidemics claimed many lives. From the middle of the 12th century to early XVIII V. plague, smallpox, anthrax, typhus - 17 times became the cause of devastating epidemics for Novgorod. Everyone who was capable fled the city, leaving it in the care of secular and monastic doctors.
At constant risk to their lives, they walked around courtyards and streets. They fed the sick by passing food to them through the flames of the fire. The dead were taken to distant cemeteries.

The first hospitals were founded mainly in monasteries. Wooden hospital buildings were usually located inside a quadrangular space formed by the monastery walls. In large monasteries, along with hospitals, baths and “svitoshnye” (laundries) were built.

Since the 15th century. hearths with a hole in the ceiling instead of a chimney were replaced by stoves, which were eventually replaced by a system of in-wall pipes with hot air circulating through them. The windows were covered with mica plates. The patients slept on wooden planks. Instead of mattresses, dry moss, straw, and reeds were used.

The widespread use of medicines of plant and animal origin was complemented by techniques from the arsenal of surgical art.
“Cutters” (surgeons) were held in high esteem in ancient Novgorod. Using belladonna extract and opium tincture, they performed quite complex operations such as amputation of limbs, craniotomy, and abdominal dissection.

In some chronicles you can find a description of medical actions. So, judging by the “Selections of Svyatoslav” (1073, 1076), the doctor had to, first of all, be a cutter (surgeon - M.M.), able to cut tissue, amputate limbs, perform therapeutic cauterizations with a hot iron, i.e. . to those who use metal: “Iron doesn’t know what it does, but the doctor knows the action of iron.” In other chronicles, unique illustrations on medical topics attract attention. Thus, the “Front Chronicle”, covering the period from the “creation of the world” to 1567, contains drawings of ancient Russian prostheses called “drevyanitsa” or “toyagi”. They were intended for amputees. Crutches, also wooden, sometimes with complex devices, were used to support the shoulder and knee. In the “Vault” there was even a miniature illustrating the process of making an iron fastening for a crutch in a forge.

Medical information in ancient Russian chronicles were most often associated with diseases powerful of the world this. Thus, the Tale of Bygone Years (1044) talks about a permanent bandage on the crown of Prince Vseslav’s head due to a congenital cerebral hernia. The Ipatiev Chronicle (1289) contains a documentary and colorful description of the illness of Prince Vladimir Vasilyevich Volynsky, thanks to which a modern physician can recognize the disease about which we're talking about: most likely it was cancer of the lower lip. Unfortunately, the Ipatiev Chronicle does not report how the prince was treated - perhaps also because the outcome of the treatment turned out to be fatal.

The chronicler covers the disease of Vasily III (father of Ivan the Terrible) in much more detail and skillfully, giving an almost clinical description of the course of the disease, which was, in all likelihood, purulent inflammation of the hip joint (purulent arthritis).

The peculiar “case histories” of the Russian princes recorded in the chronicles testify to the use of various surgical methods treatment Thus, the Nikon Chronicle describes how in the “summer of 6949″ (i.e. in 1441), the long-ill Prince Dmitry Yuryevich the Red, during communion, was provided with qualified medical assistance by his confessor, the doctor-monk Father Hosea: with severe bleeding, he successfully used the tamponade method.
Old Russian historians reported the use of the cauterization method (using burning tinder). According to the Nikon Chronicle, in the “summer of 6970” (in 1462), in the treatment of Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich, who suffered from “dry disease,” the then generally accepted method of treatment was used - cauterization. Unfortunately, the method used did not help.

One of the few famous names is the legendary Eupraxia (1108-1180), granddaughter of Vladimir Monomakh, daughter of Prince Mstislav. In 1122, she was married to the son of the Byzantine Emperor Alexei Komnenos and was named Zoe at the coronation. In Byzantium she studied Greek language and “she studied a lot in her favorite field of healing, perhaps she re-read the medical works available to her (Hippocrates, Galen, etc.) and as a result she herself wrote a manual on medicine.

This manual is one of the oldest Russian medical books, “Masi” (“Alimma”): the only surviving copy of this manual was kept in Florence, in the library of Lorenzo Medici. IN late XIX century, Russian historian Kh.M. Loparev discovered this work in Florence and acquired a copy of the Greek manuscript “Alimma”. The manuscript, which consisted of five parts, was given in a certain system various scattered medical information, in particular, “external diseases” are described and recipes for various medications recommended for diseases of the skin and teeth are given, and heart and stomach diseases are described. All kinds of ointments were listed in the manuscript as the most common medicines, which is probably why the entire work received the name “Alimma”. This work, which summarized a number of medical observations of that time and was attributed to Zoya, was obviously familiar and used by the doctors of Ancient Rus'. What was the “medical class” of Ancient Rus'?

Educated monastic doctors and professionals in their field worked in the monastery and church hospitals that existed at that time. Of course, the main occupation of the scholar-monks, who then represented a very thin layer of intellectual culture carriers, was most likely not healing the sick or studying and corresponding ancient literature, but theology, which absorbed the main intellectual aspirations of the clergy. But still, as evidenced historical sources, many of them included so-called monastery doctors.

In addition to educated (to one degree or another) monastic doctors who used their patients in monasteries, medieval Russia There were numerous lay doctors, professional healers who learned the basics of their profession through apprenticeship, often in the families of hereditary healers. Among them, specialists of a “therapeutic” profile predominated - Kamchuzhnye (for the treatment of aches, in modern understanding- rheumatism), full-time (they treated eye diseases), chepuchinnye (specialists in syphilis), those who treated for “damage” (the ancestors of modern psychoneurologists), etc.

It can be said quite definitely that in medieval Russia treatment by a surgeon was commonplace. these methods were used in practice. Medical, incl. surgical, assistance to the common people, in particular the treatment of wounds, was to some extent ensured by law
Among the worldly doctors there were also doctors of a “surgical” profile - cutters: among them there were chiropractors (“traumatologists”), stone cutters (specialists in the treatment of bladder diseases), keel masters (engaged in the treatment of clubroot, i.e. hernia), and chichuy ( treated for hemorrhoids). Later, in the 15th and 16th centuries, contemporaries’ testimonies also mention alchemists, “healers of the Polish breed,” students of general medicine, etc.

True, very little is said about their affairs, about their practice, about their methods of treatment in ancient Russian chronicles. There were probably several reasons for this, for example, the chroniclers’ ignorance of medicine; but the main reason, perhaps, was the initially skeptical attitude of the church towards these healers, who, along with the methods of ancient and traditional medicine, also used methods of sorcery, severely persecuted by Orthodoxy, which came from pagan times. However, we cannot exclude an element of some kind of competition with monastic doctors and monastic medicine.

Pharmacology in Rus'

Thus, our ancient colleagues defeated the disease that modern doctors call scurvy with rosehip infusion, garlic, and onions. By the way, onions were considered a universal remedy; there was even a saying about them: “Onions cure seven ailments.” Tar helped against skin diseases, carrots helped against anemia, and pumpkin seeds drove out worms. There is an opinion that there was even a complex decoction that included mercury: it was used for “sticky” (venereal) diseases. The use of some medicinal products had to be accompanied by conspiracies. Since the end of the 17th century, in medical books there have been an extremely large number of “medical” prayers and witchcraft spells, borrowed partly from folk epic antiquity, partly from apocryphal books: all these prayers and spells were, of course, a kind of psychotherapeutic medicines and sometimes helped the sick.
Theriac - every doctor who has left a mark in history has a reference to this panacea for all ills, starting from Galen, ending with Avicenna, and further - right up to modern times. Theriac is included in the arsenal of Tibetan medicine and, more broadly, medicine throughout the East.

Historians and doctors are trying to find a recipe for this drug in ancient sources of information, but so far without success. But it would be interesting to learn more about it and, perhaps (why not?) bring it back to life. There is a suspicion that theriac is still in the arsenal of reliable traditional medicine.

In Rus' they were also known side effects the use of mercury - stomatitis, as well as ways to prevent them.
Ancient Russian healers also used minerals to treat diseases.

Lapis lazuli was used as a laxative and to treat intermittent fevers.
Diamond was used to lubricate the edges of purulent wounds and ulcers, as well as to treat gums with scurvy.
The use of agate is mentioned in Svyatoslav’s Collection. In Ancient Rus', vessels were made from it for transporting and storing medicines. Already in those days, agate was considered a medicine. It was used as a powder or ointment for bite wounds. The medical book describes a type of agate - onyx, which was used to make instruments for bloodletting. Amethyst was highly valued in Rus'. It was used as an antidote for alcohol poisoning.

In Ancient Rus', there was a widespread method of treating diseases with the help of certain organs, bile, animal juices, bird eggs, and extracts from insect bodies. Raw materials for such medicines were mined in Rus' and brought from other countries. A lot of raw materials were brought from eastern countries.

The most popular remedy for any stomach upset was the “bezoar stone,” which was found in the intestines of many animals.
There is another remedy of animal origin that was used in Rus' - the secretion of the musk deer gland - a source of musk. It was used for heart disease, as well as for epilepsy, mentally ill people with depression, and was used to treat binge drinking.

Antler “rubbings”—antlers of sika deer—were extremely popular among doctors in the Moscow state. In Rus', antler “scrubs” were prescribed for epilepsy), stomach and uterine bleeding, and paralysis. Patients drank them with wine and water for heart disease.
In Rus', substances that had a beneficial effect on the heart, calmed the nerves, and gave vigor were especially valued. In ancient Russian medical books they were called gentle pet names: “lyubka”, “sweet potion”, “gift of heaven” and so on.

But the main place in ancient Russian medicine was occupied by herbal medicines. Currently, they have been better studied, and many of them are successfully used by modern doctors. Thus, cloves were recommended for weak vision, diseases of the stomach, liver, and heart. Pepper (black) was considered by Russian doctors to be a real panacea for all diseases. They also treated rheumatic diseases. Ginger was given as a cold remedy. It was taken in vinegar at night.

Nutmeg and nutmeg, which were brought from India, were also popular. They were used as a diuretic and to excite chronic patients.

Wormwood, wild rosemary, etc. were used as disinfectants in Ancient Rus'. The “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” (16th century) mentions senna and rhubarb, which were used as laxatives.

However, it was not easy to preserve medicines and herbalists. It was not safe to keep them at home. They could write a denunciation against such a person, put him on trial, take all his property to the treasury, and send the person to some remote monastery. And there were many such cases in Rus'.

Despite this, medicines and herbalists continued to be kept secretly in many homes, thanks to which we have an idea of ​​many elements of folk medicine of Ancient Rus'.

In the clinics of Russian medicine great importance buy plants. The procurement of medicinal plants comes to the forefront through the introduction of natural labor, as well as thanks to the expeditions of herbalists of the apothecary order. The entire onion family, and especially garlic and onions, had a special “authority”. Ancient herbalists noted their ability to stimulate skin regeneration in case of burns, bruises, and wounds.

Surgery of Rus'

In handwritten medical books, wounds were distinguished as “shot”, “cut” and “stabbed”, and special attention was paid not to “fresh” wounds, but to frequently encountered complications - “old” wounds that did not heal for a long time. Conservative methods of treatment, using various ointments, prevailed. For dressing, either dried fungal mycelia, “sprinkler lips”, or “tree moss”, collected mainly “from fragrant trees” were used: this moss was also considered a good hemostatic agent. Wounds and ulcers were irrigated with various healing liquids. Lotions and washes were used.

They used powders and fumigated wounds with smoke. Deep wounds (“fistulas”) were subjected to douching.

Like this famous person, who had fame, honor, money in life, who could afford, if not everything, then a lot, found himself in the face of such a formidable danger - a serious illness. Dreams of happiness, love, career, illness erases like an eraser, written in pencil. How was he able to survive, defeat the disease, and recover?

Of course, when a celebrity is diagnosed with a disease, everything is at his service, the best clinics, doctors, modern treatment methods. But the main thing in order to defeat the disease is willpower, which does not allow you to fall into despair and boundless faith in yourself, that you can defeat the disease.

Celebrities of past centuries who defeated the disease

Famous writer Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra while serving in the army, lost in battle left hand, in addition, four years later he was captured, and for five years he experienced all the hardships of captivity. And yet, these misfortunes did not break him, but only strengthened his will and desire to live a full life. A few years later he not only returned to normal life, but also became famous writer. His novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha” is known throughout the world.

“For a person with talent and love for work, there are no barriers,” asserted Ludwig van Beethoven. This statement says everything about the character and will of the great composer. Already at the age of 26, due to illness, Beethoven began to lose his hearing, and after a short time he became completely deaf. Having heard almost nothing, he composed “ Moonlight Sonata”, which is admired even by those who are far from classical music. And he wrote all his subsequent works while completely deaf. He said, “music sounds inside me, and I hear it.” Moreover, during the concert, when his famous 9th symphony was played, the deaf composer himself conducted the orchestra.

“The only obstacle to the implementation of our plans for tomorrow may be our doubts today,” this is a statement by one of the greatest presidents of the United States of America Franklin Delano Roosevelt. When he turned 39 years old, he received serious illness- polio. At that time, medicine could not help cure this disease, but Franklin still did not give up and hoped, if not for a cure, then for an improvement in the condition.

He tried to at least maintain mobility, torturing himself with uncomfortable orthopedic devices and using crutches. He never complained, did not want his condition to cause offensive pity in people. What else, if not courage, the desire to benefit his country, allowed a man chained to wheelchair, win the election and become President of America. Roosevelt led the country during its difficult period, during the Second World War. He was one of the most respected presidents of America, his decisions were wise and far-sighted, and the patience and courage with which he endured his illness aroused the admiration of not only his friends, but also his enemies.

Ray Charles- American musical legend, at the age of 7 he became completely blind, and at 15 he lost his mother. The blind boy was in many ways completely dependent on his mother, who was his bridge with the outside world, and when she was gone, he seemed to have fallen out of life for a long time, could not speak, sleep, eat, it seemed that he was going crazy . “I realized,” the musician later recalls, “that having survived this tragedy and not breaking down, I can now cope with anything.” When Ray turned 17, his music, singles in the style of soul and jazz, were already heard everywhere in the country. He gained well-deserved popularity and his musical works were even included in the US Library of Congress. After his death, he was included in the list of the hundred greatest musicians in the world.

Celebrities of our time who have overcome the disease

Football celebrity and sports sex symbol David Beckham has had asthma since childhood. But the general public and his fans learned about this only in 2009, and then, by chance, a photograph of a football player with an inhaler in his hand was published in the magazine. This serious illness not only does not prevent the celebrity from leading an ordinary life, but also could not prevent him from achieving such high results in football. David told reporters briefly and expressively about his illness: “Yes, I have had asthma for many years. I didn’t talk about it because there was no reason. What is there to talk about here anyway?” After these words, there’s really nothing to add, just such a sober and calm attitude towards your illness.

Here's another great sports celebrity, a famous cyclist. Lance Armstrong, who was diagnosed with advanced cancer in 1996 and already had metastases to other organs. Probably, sport teaches you to fight even in the most hopeless situations, Lance did not give in to the disease, he agreed to the proposal, very risky, with an unpredictable result and possible side effects, a method of treatment, and defeated the disease. Now the sports celebrity is back on his two-wheeled horse and, in addition, he founded the Lance Armstrong Foundation to support and help cancer patients.

At the famous American actor Roberta De Niro Cancer was discovered when he turned 60. But the actor did not fall into despair; he firmly believed in recovery and the continuation of his life. acting career. He underwent surgery and, precisely thanks to the will of the actor and the desire to fully recover, recovery after the operation was very fast. Now hollywood celebrity absolutely healthy, him creative life continues, after recovery he has already starred in several films.

World-famous "guru of optimism" Nick Vujicic, in general, was born without arms and without legs. He could spend his whole life in wheelchair, but Nick’s extraordinary willpower made his life more than just a life normal person, but a very happy and successful man. Now he is 33 years old, he is a millionaire, the author of five books, the director of two companies, has a beautiful wife and two sons, and outwardly, he is a very charming man who constantly radiates optimism. Nick Vujicic writes books, sings beautifully, swims, surfs, plays golf, and travels the world. Looking at him, you understand that he is a strong-willed person, even with disabilities, can make your life happy and successful.

Russian celebrities who defeated the disease

Who hasn't read detective stories? Russian writer Daria Dontsova, it is difficult to imagine that this fragile blond woman suffered a terrible, in many cases, incurable disease. She didn’t just endure it, she won, and it was during the treatment period that she began to write. Breast cancer is in the last, fourth stage, the doctors’ verdict was harsh - “you have three to four months left to live.” Even in this hopeless situation she didn't give up. And endless chemotherapy procedures and a series of operations followed. “I probably started writing so as not to go crazy,” the writer recalls about that time. Having conquered the disease, even by the fact of its recovery, it gives hope for life to such patients. Dontsova claims that cancer is not the end, you need to stop feeling sorry for yourself and start being treated, cancer can be treated.

Russian television celebrity, well-known to TV viewers, former permanent presenter of the Morning Mail program. Yuri Nikolaev I fought cancer for several years and won. “I recovered because throughout all the years of treatment I did not give in to despair, but fought. God helped me with this; I am a deeply religious person.” Now Yuri Nikolaev successfully continues his television activities, participating in the programs “Property of the Republic” and “In Our Time.”

Another Russian celebrity, journalist and TV presenter Vladimir Pozner twenty years ago I suffered from cancer. Posner is deeply convinced that people who have overcome a disease, even one as terrible as cancer, have overcome it thanks to their willpower, courage and faith that they can overcome everything and win. “In addition, I was very supported by the faith in me of my family and friends. They didn’t doubt for a minute that the disease would recede and I would make a full recovery,” says the journalist. In 2013, Vladimir Pozner became an ambassador of the international program “Together against Cancer”.

Of course, something was done in this regard, both in the applied and fundamental directions. Here is a galaxy of ascetics whose names are preserved in: Pirogov - surgery, anesthesiology, Sechenov - physiology, Mechnikov - theory of immunity, phagocytosis, "Studies of Optimism", Botkin - clinic of internal diseases, - theory of reflexes, work on the 2nd signal system, first Russian laureate. However, for all the greatness and significance of the galaxy of luminaries, they could not represent all healthcare as a whole.

In what form and on what principle was medical care provided to the population at the very first, outpatient level?

All the best, most advanced, as one should assume, went to the propertied class, be it university clinics, sanatoriums, Caucasian mineral waters. Although the majority, even under such conditions (however, this is still observed today), disdaining their own, domestic, preferred treatment abroad. In Russia itself, the system of organized health care practically did not exist until the beginning of the 20th century.

Some semblance of hospitals and outpatient clinics could only be found in provincial and county towns. Medical institutions in Moscow and St. Petersburg did not perform according to this criterion from this series. In rural areas, medical assistance was not provided, and if it did happen, then at most it was at the level of a paramedic. The training of doctors throughout the country was carried out by only 17 universities, whose graduates, naturally, were completely unable to serve the periphery.

In city outpatient clinics, mostly private, appointments were conducted by doctors of the widest profile, in the modern sense - therapists and obstetricians-gynecologists. Until relatively recently, surgeons were not accepted into the medical guild.

Doctor Duremar - leech from a fairy tale
Still from the film “The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Pinocchio”

What was left for the lumpen? Who did them and where? The clinics for them were, just don’t choke, the bathhouses, and the doctors were in best case scenario paramedics. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the treatment of all those suffering was left to a bunch of illiterate ignoramuses assigned to the baths. Here is just a far from complete list of self-made doctors: chiropractors, or in modern manuals, massage therapists - skinners, leeches, cuppers, bloodletters, removers of teeth and calluses on heels, midwives, conspirators and hernia repairers, spoil removers and others... Isn’t it true, Is this a familiar picture from our time until it hurts?
V. E. Makovsky, “In the doctor’s waiting room”, 1870
Photo: artchive.ru

It is clear that everyone was released in the most incredible unsanitary conditions of the washing department, and even the steam room itself. There was no question of any preliminary clinical, laboratory or instrumental examination, and what could the dull and completely illiterate “folk, sixth generation” healers understand in these sophisticated studies?

But nevertheless, in the absence of anything better, the sufferers were quite satisfied with this “”. The reception was always sold out. However, with the same baths, if desired, it was possible to satisfy sexual lust in any quantity and quality - the goods were presented in large selection, there would be money.

On this day we decided to remember outstanding domestic doctors.

Fyodor Petrovich Gaaz (1780 - 1853)

Russian doctor of German origin, known as the "holy doctor". From 1806 he served as a doctor in the Russian service. In 1809 and 1810 he traveled around the Caucasus, where he studied mineral springs(now Caucasian Mineral Waters), explored the springs in Kislovodsk, discovered the springs of Zheleznovodsk, and was the first to report the springs in Essentuki. During the War of 1812 with Napoleon, he worked as a surgeon in the Russian Army.

Haaz was a member of the Moscow Prison Committee and the chief physician of Moscow prisons. He dedicated his life to easing the lot of prisoners and exiles. He ensured that the old and sick were freed from shackles, and abolished the iron rod in Moscow to which 12 exiles heading to Siberia were chained. He also achieved the abolition of shaving half of the head of women. On his initiative, a prison hospital and a school for the children of prisoners were opened.

In addition, Haaz fought for the abolition of the right of landowners to exile serfs, and received and supplied medicines to poor patients.

Dr. Haas's motto is: "Hasten to do good." The Federal State Medical Institution “Regional Hospital named after Dr. F. P. Gaaz” is named after the famous physician.

Grigory Antonovich Zakharyin (1829 - 1897)

Russian general practitioner, founder of the Moscow clinical school. He graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University, was a professor in the Department of Diagnostics of Moscow University, and later - director of the faculty therapeutic clinic. In 1894, Zakharyin treated Emperor Alexander III.

Zakharyin became one of the most outstanding clinical practitioners of his time and made a huge contribution to the creation of an anamnestic method for studying patients. He outlined his diagnostic techniques and views on treatment in “Clinical Lectures”.

The research methodology according to Zakharyin consisted of a multi-stage questioning of the patient by the doctor, which made it possible to get an idea of ​​the course of the disease and risk factors. At the same time, Zakharyin paid little attention to objective research and did not recognize laboratory data.

Doctor Zakharyin was known for his difficult character and lack of restraint in dealing with patients.

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810 - 1881)

Surgeon and anatomist, naturalist and teacher, creator of the first atlas of topographic anatomy, founder of military field surgery, founder of anesthesia. One of the founders of surgery as a scientific medical discipline. He developed a number of important operations and surgical techniques, was the first to propose rectal anesthesia and began to use ether anesthesia. For the first time in the world, he used anesthesia in military field surgery.

Pirogov was the first to widely use a plaster cast. Before this, gypsum was almost never used in medicine. The starch dressing had limited use; it dried slowly, became soaked with pus and blood, and was inconvenient in field conditions.

During the defense of Sevastopol, he involved women in caring for the wounded at the front. It was also he who first introduced mandatory primary sorting of the wounded into four groups. The mortally wounded were assisted by priests and nurses; the seriously wounded, requiring immediate assistance, were attended to by the doctor first. Those who did not require urgent surgery were sent to the rear. The slightly wounded, who could be quickly returned to duty, were treated by paramedics.

Even before the advent of antiseptics, Pirogov separated the wounded with purulent and gangrenous complications from those whose wounds were clean, which helped avoid the spread of infection.

As a teacher, Pirogov strove for the implementation of universal primary education, was the organizer of Sunday public schools. He also fought for the abolition of corporal punishment in the gymnasium.

Nikolai Vasilievich Sklifosovsky (1836 - 1904)

Honored Russian professor, surgeon, one of the founders of abdominal surgery (surgical treatment of female diseases, diseases of the stomach, liver and biliary tract, bladder), contributed to the introduction of the principles of antisepsis and asepsis, developed an original operation for connecting bones in false joints (“Russian castle”) . He made a significant contribution to the development of military field surgery, advocated bringing medical care closer to the battlefield, the principle of “saving treatment” of gunshot wounds, and the use of plaster casts as a means of immobilization for wounds of the extremities.

Sklifosovsky owns more than seventy scientific works on surgery, the development of asepsis and surgery in general.

The Moscow Research Institute of Emergency Medicine was named after Sklifosovsky.

The black spot in Sklifosovsky’s biography was the fate of his family. The only son of the legendary doctor committed suicide. Vladimir shot himself shortly before October revolution. He was a member of a terrorist organization and was supposed to kill the Poltava governor, however, he could not shoot the man with whom his family was friends.

In 1919, Cossacks of the pro-Bolshevik detachment brutally killed the wife of Nikolai Vasilyevich and his eldest daughter. Moreover, the document signed by Lenin, which stated that repressions would not apply to the family of the famous surgeon, could not save them from reprisals.

Sergei Petrovich Botkin

(1832 — 1889)

Russian physician-therapist, founder of the doctrine of the integrity of the human body, public figure. Graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University, was a participant Crimean War, worked in the Simferopol hospital. He also worked in clinics in Konigsberg, Berlin, Vienna, England, and Paris.

In 1860, Sergei Botkin moved to St. Petersburg, where he defended his doctoral dissertation and received the title of professor of medicine.

Botkin became one of the founders of women's medical education, organized a school for female paramedics, as well as women's medical courses. For the first time in Russia, he created an experimental laboratory where he studied the physiological and pharmacological effects of medicinal substances. He created a new direction in medicine called nervism. It was he who established the infectious nature of such a disease as viral hepatitis and developed the diagnosis and clinic of the wandering kidney.

In 1861 he opened the first free outpatient clinic in the history of clinical treatment of patients, and achieved the construction of a free hospital, opened in 1880 (Alexandrovskaya Barracks Hospital, now the S.P. Botkin Hospital). Among Botkin’s students there are 85 doctors of science, including A. A. Nechaev, M. V. Yanovsky, N. Ya. Chistovich, I. P. Pavlov, A. G. Polotebnov, T. P. Pavlov, N. P. Simanovsky.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

(1849 — 1936)

Pavlov Ivan Petrovich is one of the most authoritative scientists in Russia, a physiologist, the creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of regulation of digestion. He is the founder of the largest Russian physiological school and winner of the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1904 “for his work on the physiology of digestion.”

Main directions scientific activity Pavlova - study of the physiology of blood circulation, digestion and higher nervous activity. The scientist developed methods of surgical operations to create an “isolated ventricle” and used a new “chronic experiment” for his time, which made it possible to conduct observations on healthy animals under conditions as close as possible to natural ones.

As a result of his work, a new scientific discipline was formed - the science of higher nervous activity, which was based on the idea of ​​dividing reflexes into conditioned and unconditioned. Pavlov and his colleagues discovered the laws of formation and extinction of conditioned reflexes, they were studied different types and types of inhibition, the laws of basic nervous processes were discovered, sleep problems were studied and its phases were established, and much more.

Pavlov became widely famous due to his doctrine of types nervous system, which is based on ideas about the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition, and the doctrine of signaling systems.

Pavlov's scientific work influenced the development of related fields of medicine and biology, including psychiatry. Under the influence of his ideas, major scientific schools in therapy, surgery, psychiatry, neuropathology.

Sergei Sergeevich Yudin (1891 - 1954)

A prominent Soviet surgeon and scientist, chief surgeon of the Research Institute of Emergency Medicine named after. N.V. Sklifosovsky, Director of the Research Institute of Surgery named after. A. V. Vishnevsky.

Yudin developed techniques for gastric resection for peptic ulcers, perforated gastric ulcers and gastric bleeding, and operations for creating an artificial esophagus.

Sergei Sergeevich Yuin wrote 15 monographs and published 181 scientific papers.

In 1948, he was arrested by the NKVD on false charges as an “enemy” Soviet state, who supplied British intelligence with spy information about our country.” While in prison, he wrote the book “Reflections of a Surgeon.” From 1952 until his release in September 1953, he was in exile, during which he worked as a surgeon in Berdsk. The doctor was released only after Stalin's death, in 1953.

For many centuries, foreign guests and merchants, visiting first Rus' and then - tried to understand the secret of the mysterious Russian soul. Russian Empire. The world-famous classics of Russian literature also did not remain aloof from solving the riddle of the Russian mentality - in their works they tried to describe Russian men and women and reveal as fully as possible the facets of their character and the peculiarities of their worldview. But still, even now, to most foreigners, Russians seem mysterious and largely incomprehensible, and Russians themselves can unmistakably distinguish their compatriots among a crowd of foreigners in another country. But what is the peculiarity of the mentality and psychology of Russians that makes them so different from representatives of other nations?

National characteristics of Russians

The national character traits of Russians have been formed over the centuries, and the foundation of the unique mentality of the nation began to be laid back in the Middle Ages, when most Russians lived in villages and ran collective farms. It was from those centuries that for Russians the opinion of society and their own position in the team began to mean a lot. Also at that time, such a national trait Russians like and adherence to patriarchal traditions - the survival and well-being of the entire village, volost, etc. largely depended on the cohesion of the team and the presence of a strong leader.

These features are inherent in the psychology of Russians even now - the majority of the nation’s representatives are confident that the country needs a strong leader, do not consider themselves to have the right to openly criticize and challenge the decisions of their superiors, and are ready to support the government in any case. In relation to the role of each individual in society, the Russian mentality, like geographical position Russia, is located between the “West” and the “East”: it is difficult for representatives of this nation to accept the Western European model of society, in which the individuality of each individual person is considered an absolute value, but the Russians do not have such a privileged role of the collective over the individual, as is characteristic of the Chinese . We can say that the Russians were able to find a “golden mean” between collectivism and individualism - they attach great importance to public opinion and their role in the team, but at the same time they know how to appreciate the individuality and uniqueness of each person.

One more national peculiarity The character of Russians, which distinguishes it from the mentality of other nations, is considered to be the “breadth” of the soul of the Russian person. Of course, the soul cannot be broad in the literal sense of the word, and this expression means that Russian people have the following features character:

Psychology of Russians in personal life and in everyday life

Most Russian people believe that the spiritual is more important than the material, so they do not set the goal of their life to earn millions, but choose other priorities - family, self-development, etc. Many Representatives of this people tend to have a “easy” attitude towards money - a Russian person will not be too depressed during the holidays, and will often prefer to spend money on something pleasant for themselves rather than saving up for the future.

However, despite this attitude towards finances, Russians love luxury and pretentiousness, so they do not spare money on expensive home renovations, fashionable gadgets and status items. In Russian houses, in addition to furniture and household appliances, there are a lot of interior decorations - various souvenirs, figurines and other cute trinkets. It is also not uncommon for some unnecessary things to lie in the closet of an apartment or house for years - Russian people, since the existence of the USSR, have not yet completely gotten rid of the habit of keeping in reserve everything that could theoretically be useful in the future.

IN love relationships Russian men are gallant, romantic, generous and courteous and always strive to surround their lady with maximum care. Russian women are able to completely dissolve in a loved one, they are ready to make sacrifices for the sake of love and are sure that “there is heaven in the hut with your sweetheart.” In most Russian families, husband and wife have equal relations, but still caring for children and household chores are considered primarily women's business, and making money for the whole family is masculine.