Folklore of Kievan Rus. The culture of Kievan Rus briefly
In Soviet historiography, periodization was based on a formational approach, according to which national history distinguished: 1) primitive communal system (until the 9th century); 2) feudalism (IX - mid-19th century); 3) capitalism (second half of the 19th century - 1917); 4) socialism (since 1917).
In modern history Russian statehood There are 11 periods. This periodization is determined by the socio-economic structure of society and the factor state development:
Ancient Rus' (IX-XII).
The period of independent feudal states Ancient Rus'(XII-XIV).
Russian (Moscow) state (XV-XVII).
The Russian Empire of the period of absolutism (XVIII - mid-XIX).
The Russian Empire of the period of the bourgeois monarchy (mid-XIX - early XX).
Russia during the period of the bourgeois-democratic republic (Feb-Oct 1917).
The period of formation of Soviet statehood (1918-1920).
Transition period and NEP period (1921-1930).
The period of state-party socialism (1930 - early 60s).
The period of crisis of socialism (60-90s).
Modern period of development (since the late 90s).
This periodization is conditional, but it allows us to systematize the training course and consider the main stages of the formation of statehood in Russia, the accumulation and development of management experience and management thought.
Lecture 2. Public administration in Ancient Rus' (IX - XI centuries)
The origins of statehood among the Eastern Slavs
Historical science has reliable information about the Slavs only from the 5th - 6th centuries. AD Their earlier history is very vague. There is no unity among historians on the issue of the origin of the Slavs. Some believe that from ancient times they inhabited the territories between the Danube, Dnieper and Vistula - the “autochthonous” (aboriginal) theory. Others believe that the Slavic ethnicity was formed from the close interaction of many different ethnic groups that inhabited vast areas of Europe. Still others consider the Slavs to come from the Asian part of the mainland.
Whatever the origins of the Slavs, in the V - VI centuries. part of the Slavs, who made up the ancient population of Central and Eastern Europe, begins to move into the territory of the East European Plain, inhabited by Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. During the resettlement, the tribal structure of the Slavs disintegrates and is replaced by territorial-ethnic formations - tribal unions (Polyans, Slovenes, Vyatichi, Dregovichi, etc.), which formed an independent branch of the Slavs - the eastern one. The Eastern Slavs lived in neighboring, territorial communities (verv, mir).
The complex hydrography of Eastern Europe determined the settlement of tribes, determined the most important military, trade and communication routes, and did not allow the forest-steppe zone (in the absence of natural geographical barriers to enemy attacks) to separate into separate settlements, which created an objective basis for ethnic and political unity. This, as well as the peculiarities of the climate (cold summer, harsh winter, protracted spring and autumn) over the centuries developed a peculiar arrhythmia of life and work, specific features of the life and psychology of the ancient Russians and other local peoples.
Written sources record the state of East Slavic society at the stage of “military democracy,” when it had a three-stage structure: tribe - union of tribes - super-union of tribes.
If the primary unions united related tribes, then the secondary ones constituted super-unions, i.e. united several tribal unions. The super-unions brought to life by external threats were multi-tribal with conflicting and changing interests. Their formation took place in a stubborn inter-tribal struggle for a dominant position in them. The prince of the dominant tribe or alliance of tribes became the main ruler, and the weaker leaders and their fellow tribesmen were subordinate to him. Often such a struggle went on with varying degrees of success, which made super-unions unstable formations. Nevertheless, in the 8th century. in the Middle Dnieper region, the glades, throwing off the Khazar yoke, united around themselves several tribal unions (northerners, Radimichi and, possibly, other tribes), creating one of the centers of ancient Russian statehood. This created the preconditions for the emergence of public power and the emergence of statehood.
Statehood Kievan Rus
The initial stage in the history of Russian statehood is associated with the formation of the Old Russian state, also known as Kievan Rus. This state, the largest in medieval Europe, existed from the end of the 9th to the middle of the 12th centuries, occupied a vast territory from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Western Bug to the Volga. By the time the state was formed, this territory was inhabited by numerous agricultural tribes Eastern Slavs, as well as dozens of peoples of Finnish, Baltic, Turkic and Iranian origin. Individual East Slavic tribes united into large political and military alliances, mentioned in the most ancient chronicles: Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Slovenes, Radimichi, Vyatichi, etc. Therefore, one of the main features of the worldview of the population of Kievan Rus is the initial, one might say, genetic absence of tribal egoism, wide openness towards other languages and peoples.
In the East Slavic tribes, state power grew in the conditions of territorial communities. The main wealth is land. However, the abundance of forests and infertile lands made farming difficult. The difficult terrain and many swamps made roads impassable and did not contribute to the development of trade. Only the strong power of the clan elders could overcome all these difficulties. Here lie the deep origins of Russian autocracy, despotism and totality, which were vitally necessary at that distant time, but persisted for many centuries.
In the 9th century The Eastern Slavs already had internal prerequisites for the creation of statehood. The tribal system was at the stage of decomposition. The supreme body of the tribe was still the veche - a meeting of all its free members. But there already existed a tribal nobility in the person of several privileged clans, which differed from the mass of community members in social and property terms. From among them, the veche elected leaders (princes) and elders. By the time the state was formed, separate tribal kingdoms already existed. The power of the tribal princes was based on a system of strengthening urban settlements, some of which later turned into real feudal cities. Tribal principalities were still pre-state formations, and tribal leaders were not yet princes in the true sense of the word.
There were also external prerequisites that contributed to the creation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The endless steppes stretching between the Black Sea and the forest belt of the Russian Plain have long been the highway to Europe for warlike nomads, whose hordes were driven out of Asia every one and a half to two centuries. Many nomadic tribes tried to gain a foothold in these lands, but settled Slavic farmers were ready to stubbornly defend the fertile arable land, which yielded huge harvests. The constant struggle with nomads contributed to the unification of the East Slavic tribes into the Old Russian people. In essence, the Kiev state was formed in the fight against external enemies and subsequently became truly a “form of survival” in the constant struggle with the Steppe.
In the fight against the Khazars, the Slavs began to rely on alliances (pacts) with the Scandinavian kings. The “summoned” princes and their squads on the basis of agreements with tribal unions were called “Rus”. Initially, “protorus” was Scandinavian in its ethnicity. According to the inserted legend in the Tale of Bygone Years about the calling of Rurik by the Novgorodians (862), the unification of the two main centers of ancient Russian statehood in 882 after the campaign against Kyiv from Novgorod by Prince Oleg is associated with the Varangians. The power created by Oleg was a “federation” of state entities and unions of tribes of the Eastern Slavs. The Rurik dynasty was probably Scandinavian in origin, but quickly became glorified. And already the first princes - the Rurikovichs and their squads swore by the Slavic gods - Perun and Veles. The term “Rus”, which originally had a social meaning, is transferred to the entire state territory and becomes the ethnonym of the Eastern Slavs.
In 882, according to the chronicle, the Novgorod prince Oleg, having previously occupied Smolensk and Lyubech, captured Kiev and proclaimed it the capital of his state. Oleg himself began to be titled Grand Duke. Thus, 882, when Northern Rus' (Novgorod) and Southern Rus' (Kyiv) united under the rule of one prince, became a turning point in the destinies of the Eastern Slavs. The unification of the two most important centers along the great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks” gave Oleg the opportunity to begin subjugating other East Slavic lands to his power. Thus began a long process of consolidation of individual tribal principalities of the Eastern Slavs into a single state.
The highest political power in Kievan Rus was represented by the Grand Duke. He acted as legislator, military leader, supreme administrator and supreme judge. Since the time of the first Russian princes, known from the chronicles, Rurik and Oleg, princely power became individually hereditary, and this gave it legitimacy in the eyes of its contemporaries. The idea of the chosenness of people belonging to the princely family was affirmed. Gradually, the power of the prince began to be perceived as state power. By the end of the 10th century, the Kiev state acquired the features of an early feudal monarchy.
The adoption of Christianity by Russia was of great importance. The Church strengthened the authority of the prince, considering his power as God-given. In 996, a council of Russian bishops solemnly declared to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich: “You have been appointed by God to be executed by the evil, and by the good to mercy.”
The beginning of the formation of the public administration system
Old Russian society in socially can be divided into large groups:
) priests - fortune tellers - soothsayers - magicians - healers - magicians made up a circle of people, according to popular belief, who possessed the art of knowing the will of the gods and transmitting it to people;
) princes - boyars - elders - the best men who were the heads of lands, volosts, cities;
) all free community members were called people;
) slaves were called servants.
The source of slavery was military captivity. The Slavs kept slaves only for a certain time, after which the captives were given a choice: either return to their homeland or remain as free people. Captive slaves were called “servants.” They were completely powerless. People who became slaves for reasons such as purchasing or marrying a slave were called serfs.
The slave class was not numerous, and the slave in Rus' was never the main productive force. Thus, the stage of slavery in its pure classical form was absent in Rus'. However, over time, the number of slaves became more and more numerous and they soon became the main productive force of Russian society. This state of affairs lasted almost until the beginning of the twentieth century and went down in history under the name of serfdom.
According to contemporaries, the Slavs governed democratically, discussing and deciding matters in national assemblies, although the people were called “to council” only on the most important state matters.
The permanent authorities were princes, boyars, elders, and elders.
Civil power was not separated from military power.
The power of the elected prince was based on popular trust, and his constant activity was justice based on customs.
The power base of the Kyiv princes was the squad. In a tribal society, the squad did not exist on a permanent basis, but for a one-time raid on neighbors. In the hands of the Kyiv prince, it became a means of coercion and control, collection of tribute, protection of one’s own interests and the country’s population from enemies.
The squad lived at the prince's court in a special room - the gridnitsa - and was fully supported by the prince. There were significant differences in position among the vigilantes. The senior squad, consisting of rich and noble people, was called “boyars”, “husbands”. A boyar is an honored member of the squad who has received special independence. The younger squad was called “gridi”, “grid”, “gridba”, as well as “youths”, “children”, “boyar children”. Age did not matter; a “youth” could be a very old person.
The senior squad participated in meetings with the prince, and its opinion carried great weight with the first princes. They could only convince the squad, but not order it. It was precisely from the members of the squad that the primitive administrative apparatus consisted for a long time.
It is known that of the three forms or branches of government - legislation, management, justice - management is the oldest and most developed form. At the dawn of ancient Russian statehood, the lands of the tribes annexed to Kyiv were ruled primarily by extending tribute collection systems to them and creating local strongholds of central power. Together with his retinue, the prince went “to polyudye” - that was the name of the campaigns to collect tribute. Initially, tribute was collected mainly by furs, and in the 11th century. Money was already dominant. For a long time, tribute remained, as a rule, unregulated. Its size was sometimes used by the prince as a means of economic and political pressure on the rebellious. If the prince did not have enough funds, the population was subject to emergency taxes.
Gradually, tribute acquired the character of a permanent tax obligation throughout the state. For more or less regular collection of taxes, “cemeteries” and “camps” were established, i.e. places where collectors and payers gathered. These were essentially administrative districts. “Charters and lessons” were also introduced, which determined the amount and places for collecting tribute. In the 11th century Appeared special officials for collecting tribute - “tributers”.
The tribute in the hands of the princes and warriors turned into a commodity and went mainly abroad (primarily to Byzantium), and partly for the armament of the squad and other needs of the state.
From among the senior warriors, the prince appointed posadniks to individual centers of his state. The posadnik represented administrative power: he collected tribute, judicial and trade duties, and administered justice. Part of the collected funds was used to support the mayor and his squad. In addition to tribute, the population was also subject to a number of natural duties (military and submarine), and participated in the construction and repair of fortifications.
Vassal relations gradually began to arise between the feudal lords. The prince's vassals were warriors who could move from one prince to another. This was not considered treason. Only in the princely service could one become an aristocratic boyar. The service agreement was accompanied by a number of conditions. Boyars in administrative positions received salaries and food. This is how the so-called practice appeared. “feedings”, when the prince granted his vassal the right to collect tribute in his favor of one or another volost without owning the volost itself.
Boyars from the tribal nobility received immunity for their vassal service - exemption from paying tribute and from the jurisdiction of the princely court.
Many boyars had their own squad. His warriors settled on the ground and turned into second-order vassals (sub-vassals); they were obliged to the boyar for military service.
Under the princes and mayors there were tiuns - agents who performed various functions. Usually tiuns were appointed from among the prince's court servants. They were in charge of the princely household in the villages and at the princely court and, depending on this, were called “rural tiuns” and “court tiuns.” In addition to the duties of clerks, they were present at the court of the prince or mayor. Often they replaced them at the trial, i.e. performed the functions of lower-ranking judges.
There were other officials: mytniks, who collected “wash” (trade duties), virniks, who collected “virs” (court fines for killing a person) and “sales” (fines for other types of crimes). The tax for the sale of horses (“spot”) was collected by the spotters.
BODIES OF AUTHORITY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE
The activities of the princely government and its local representatives have not yet completely replaced the activities of peasant communities-worlds, which from ancient times were accustomed to performing judicial, administrative and financial functions. Community orders were adapted to the requirements of the state. The community, for example, was obliged to look for murderers and thieves (otherwise it faced heavy fines); court cases were dealt with only in the presence of representatives of the peasants.
The army was recruited from the population as needed. It was collected from all parts of the Kyiv state. The warriors were usually on horseback, the army on foot. The prince was supposed to supply weapons. From among the senior warriors, the prince also appointed military leaders - the governor and the thousand. The prince also had a fleet at his disposal - not only a river one, but also a sea one. The Kiev chronicler reports on sea campaigns on the Black Sea shores of Byzantium and the Caspian Sea.
Russian Truth
In their practice of government and court, the princes relied on customary law - the unwritten folk law of the Slavs, the so-called “Russian law”. The oldest text of recorded Russian law, called “Russian Truth,” appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. during the reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. This was the first Russian written code of laws. Two editions of this monument have reached us: one short and the other lengthy. The short edition, published in 1017, constitutes the original authentic version of Pravda. The name “Yaroslav’s Truth” was established behind it, because it came out during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise.
It was based on the customs of the Slavic tribes, adapted to the conditions of feudal relations. The lengthy edition is the “Pravda Yaroslavich”, modified and supplemented by subsequent princes. Both of these editions bear the common name “The Court of Yaroslav Vladimirovich.”
“Russian Truth” spread widely throughout all the lands of Ancient Rus' and became the basis of state administration until 1497, when it was replaced by the Code of Laws, published in the Moscow centralized state.
“Russian Truth” included articles of both civil and criminal laws. It established legal proceedings and determined punishments for certain offenses and crimes. Unlike the codes of laws of other countries of the then Christian world, “Russian Truth” did not know the use of torture and corporal punishment, but execution for the most serious crimes existed. For the first time in the history of Rus', the grandson of Yaroslav spoke out for the abolition of the death penalty as a form of punishment in general, even for the most serious crimes. Wise Vladimir Monomakh. True, this was not reflected in the legislation of his time. As for the punishments reflected in Russkaya Pravda, these were mainly monetary fines, the size of which depended on the severity of the offense and the social status of the victim.
According to the “Russian Truth”, all Russian lands were divided into patrimonial and local.
Estates were the lands assigned to the boyars and servants of the prince as his gift for public service (benefits). These lands became hereditary for the boyars. The lands that were given under the condition of service were called estates. The princes were large land owners.
Land was also the collective property of the community. The Russian community consisted of residents of a village or village who jointly owned land. Each adult male villager had the right to a plot of land equal to the plots of other residents of the village; land redistribution was practiced.
In "Russkaya Pravda" the inheritance was called the "back" and the remainder; it was opened at the time of the death of the father of the family and passed to the heirs or by will. Among legitimate children, sons were preferred, but the brothers, who excluded sisters from the inheritance, pledged to support them until they got married, and then provide a dowry according to your means.
The marriage was preceded by a betrothal, which was considered indissoluble. The marriage took place through a wedding in a church. Wedding conditions: age - 15 years for the groom, 13 years for the bride, free desire of the bride and groom, parental consent. The Church did not allow third marriage. The Church allowed divorce, but had a specific list of reasons for divorce (death of a husband or wife, adultery, entering a monastery, missing spouse, etc.). The adoption of Christianity brought significant changes to marriage and family relations. Russian paganism allowed polygamy. So Prince Svyatoslav had two wives, and Prince Vladimir had five wives and 800 concubines.
The church, its property and church servants were protected by reinforced punishments.
According to the “Russian Truth”, the court in all worldly matters was concentrated in the hands of the prince, as the supreme legislator, ruler and judge. The prince administered justice personally or through the protection of his governors.
The place of court in the capital and province was the princely court, which was later replaced by the order or voivode's hut. The trial began with a claim (“slander”) from the plaintiff. In addition to the plaintiff, there were witnesses (videos) and (hearsay). At the same time, the community in which the crime was committed had to find the criminal themselves or pay a huge fine. Among the evidence were tests with iron and water, as well as an oath, which was accompanied by kissing the cross. Complaints against the court's decision were submitted to the prince.
Thus, “Russian Truth” is the first ancient Russian code. Its statutes determined changes in financial, family, criminal and administrative law.
Veche system
In the Old Russian state, a veche was preserved - a people's assembly, in which the entire adult population of the city, and sometimes residents of the suburbs and even villages, participated. One of its functions was the recruitment of the people's militia and the election of its leaders - thousand, sotsky, ten. Over time, the thousand was already appointed prince from among his entourage. The entire structure of the Kyiv state, the nature of the power of the prince and the nobility surrounding him excluded the possibility of the systematic functioning of popular assemblies. In the XI-XII centuries. all cases of mentioning veche meetings in chronicles are associated with exceptional situations when, as a result of a military threat, natural disasters or prolonged famine, the administration was unable to control the situation. The only exceptions to this rule were Novgorod with its “suburb” Pskov and, to some extent, Polotsk. Here the veche retained its strength and over time became one of the integral attributes of the feudal republic (Novgorod and Pskov).
The strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv took place both in the struggle and in the process of synthesis of tribal systems of government with the emerging central government. Initially, the functions of pagan princes were in one way or another connected with military tasks and diplomatic relations, protection of trade routes, and collection of tribute (polyudye). The power of the Kyiv prince increased as the power of the princes of the tribal unions subject to Kyiv was absorbed.
Subordinate to the Kyiv prince were local tribal princes, who, according to the agreement, were “under the hand” of the Kyiv prince and the tribal nobility, who performed judicial and administrative functions. However, the great Kyiv princes often had to deal with the separatism of local princes, which predetermined the gradual liquidation of this institution (over the entire 10th century).
This also forced them to look for religious and ideological means to strengthen the power of the Kyiv dynasty. Thus, Vladimir I carried out a grandiose religious reform, trying to turn Kyiv into an all-Russian sacred center, gathering in the capital a pantheon of gods led by Perun, but this did not help. More radical means were required to unite Kievan Rus and strengthen the power of the prince.
In 988, Vladimir I adopted Eastern Christianity as the state religion, which was of fateful significance for Rus'. It was this that led to the transformation of Old Russian cultural archetype, a change in mentality and entry into the Orthodox Byzantine-Slavic civilization. The evolutionary type of social development has been replaced by an innovative one, and Kyiv is becoming its unconditional source. The gradual establishment of canonical Christian ideas about the nature of power, the state and its goals begins.
The Kiev veche was important for higher and central government and veche meetings in the centers of local principalities for regional government. The evenings differed from previous tribal meetings; all free citizens took part in them; they were a structural element of higher government administration. The veche and the prince entered into an agreement with each other, which was a mutual oath. If it was violated, the veche could refuse the prince to take the throne.
Thus, the form of government in Rus' can be defined as a “druzhina state”, which contained monarchical (prince), oligarchic (senior squad, boyars) and democratic (veche) tendencies. None of them received full embodiment in Kievan Rus.
6. Church
The head of the church was the Metropolitan of Kiev, appointed by the Byzantine patriarch. In the cities, bishops (and in some lands, archbishops) were installed subordinate to the metropolitan. They led vast church-administrative districts - dioceses. The clergy of churches and the brethren of monasteries were subordinate to their bishop, and through him to the metropolitan. Thus, the power of the metropolitan extended over all of Rus' and united all the clergy of the country.
However, the Russian Church was under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople (until 1448) and was formally subordinate to it. It was the largest metropolis in terms of territory and number of parishioners.
Having recognized Christianity as the state religion, the secular authorities took care of its material support. By order of Prince Vladimir, at the end of the 10th century, a tenth of all princely incomes - tithes - were annually transferred to the church treasury. With the development of feudal land ownership, in exchange for tithes, the state provided the church with a number of permanent sources of income: ownership of vast territories - “patrimonies”, which made it possible to receive taxes and impose certain duties on local peasants; exemption of clergy and their property from taxes and duties.
At the end of the 10th century. The church was granted the right to court and collect court fees in matters of a family and domestic nature. Under the jurisdiction of the church there was a special class of persons who obeyed not the prince, but the church: hierarchs, priests, monks, clergy; persons looked after by the church - old, crippled, sick; outcasts; church slaves who were donated to the church from secular owners, etc.
Thus, secular and spiritual power in Rus' existed autonomously. The government contributed to the spread of Christianity, but also coordinated its activities with the guidelines of the church. Orthodoxy determined the spiritual foundations for the development of ancient Russian government, law and legal consciousness. The church itself becomes by the 12th century. the most important subject of governance, but unlike Catholicism, does not interfere directly in the affairs of secular power, which corresponded to the Eastern Christian legal culture.
Lecture 4. Public administration of Rus' in the appanage period (XII - XIII centuries)
Causes of feudal fragmentation
Already in the 2nd half. XI century New trends in the socio-economic and political development of Russian lands were clearly defined, which a century later ushered in a new stage in the history of Russian statehood - the era of feudal fragmentation.
Let us highlight its main reasons:
) The emergence of estates - private large land holdings, which, as a rule, belonged to the boyars. The votchinniki - boyars - owned arable land, herds of horses, herds of cows, and poultry. Unfree workers (slaves - servants, serfs) were also part of the boyar's property. Free people also became dependent on the boyars. These were, for example, the “ryadovichi”, who entered into an agreement (“row”), on the basis of which they worked for the owner. A type of “ryadovichi” were “purchases”, obliged to work off the owner’s “kupu” - a debt.
From now on, the boyars ceased to depend on the prince. Having received regular income from the estate, they no longer needed tribute, and therefore were in no hurry to go on a campaign for the prince. Not tribute, but land cultivated by the labor of dependent peasants became main value. The boyar did not want to tear his smerds away from the arable land, not only for the sake of long-distance campaigns, but sometimes even for the sake of protecting the country from the invasions of nomads, if they did not directly affect his possessions. The princely squad was not needed to pacify and subjugate dependent people. The boyar had his own “apparatus of suppression”: boyar tiun (household manager), elders, guards, etc.
The younger squad remained with the prince. It was not only a military force, but also part of the state apparatus, personally dependent on the prince. She was entrusted with collecting court fines and taxes. Gathered on behalf of the prince, they were the main source of livelihood for the younger warriors, who needed the prince and “fed” his mercy.
At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. The first contradictions emerged between the boyars and the younger squad. The interests of the boyars, who found themselves connected with their estates, often did not coincide with those of the princes. Landowners, who acquired great political power thanks to their wealth, sought independence from the central government and put pressure on local princes to decide at their own discretion on issues of domestic and even foreign policy.
The very nature of princely power prevented this. At that time, in Rus' there was a system of replacing princely thrones based on the principle of clan eldership. Rus' was conceived as a common ancestral domain of the Rurikovichs, and this meant the right of each family member to temporary possession of a certain part of the land in order of seniority. In conditions of lack of stability in political life and loose land holdings, princes often moved from one volost to another. They were passing figures for the population. The princely squad, who came with the prince, only collected tribute and taxes from the population, without worrying at all about the future. The outstanding Russian historian Klyuchevsky wrote: “The constant movement of princes from table to table and the disputes that accompanied it undermined the prince’s zemstvo authority. The prince was not attached to the place of ownership, to this or that table, either by dynastic or even personal connections. He came and soon went away, was a political accident for the region, a wandering comet.”
) Changes also occurred in the princely environment. The practice of clan eldership when replacing thrones no longer satisfied what had grown by the 12th century. Rurik family. There was no clear order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. It became increasingly difficult to establish clan eldership. The “paternal” principle of inheritance from father to son gained strength. Each prince turned from a governor, ready to leave his inheritance, into its permanent and hereditary owner, and Rus' became the territory of the hereditary possessions of the princes.
A complex, slow and contradictory process of the formation of land dynasties began, the integration of transient princes into social structures lands and volosts, whose overlords they became. From this time on, the land interests of local princes and boyars began to coincide. They united in the fight against the central government, and the specific fragmentation of the country became irreversible.
) Socio-economic progress in the 11th-12th centuries, the rise of agriculture, cattle breeding, crafts and trades, the development of domestic and foreign trade contributed to the growth and strengthening of individual lands and principalities of the Old Russian state. Cities grew, veche life became lively, townspeople actively fought for city liberties and played an important role in political affairs. Therefore, for local socio-economic development, the huge scale of the state as a whole was no longer needed.
) Ancient Rus' was united, first of all, thanks to the common desire for predatory campaigns against Byzantium. However, by the end of the 10th century. the benefits in the form of booty and tribute began to be noticeably inferior in importance to the benefits received from the development of ordinary trade, which became possible, firstly, thanks to the conclusion of trade agreements with Byzantium, and secondly, due to the increase in wealth in the hands of the prince (on behalf of which, in fact, was traded by Russian merchants), caused by an increase in tax collection after the stabilization of relations within the state. Thus, military campaigns against Byzantium ceased.
) It was possible to stabilize relations with the “steppe”. Svyatoslav also defeated the Khazars, Vladimir and Yaroslav actually put an end to the Pechenegs, and only the Polovtsians continued to harass Rus' with their raids. However, the Polovtsian forces were small, so there was no need to mobilize the troops of the entire state.
) Internal functions - primarily judicial - were carried out with great success within separate, small territories. The increasing complexity of public life required not the rare appearance of a judge-arbiter from the center, but daily regulation. Local interests increasingly capture the princes sitting in individual lands, who begin to identify them with their own interests.
Thus, by the end of the 11th century. the obvious disappearance of those common, uniting interests that had previously cemented the state quite firmly was revealed. Other connecting threads, say, economic ones (subsistence farming), simply did not exist. Therefore, Rus', having lost most of what connected it, fell apart.
The appanage princes stopped paying tribute to Kyiv and severed ties with their supreme overlord. From the 2nd half. XII century in Rus' there already existed 15 principalities and separate lands: Rostov-Suzdal, Murom-Ryazan, Smolensk, Kiev, Chernigov, Galician, Volyn, Novgorod, etc. The number of independent principalities was not stable due to family divisions and the unification of some of them. If in the middle of the 12th century. there were 15 large and small appanage principalities, then on the eve of the Horde invasion (1230s) - about 50, and in the 14th century. the number of principalities of various ranks exceeded 2.5 hundred.
The political structure and form of government have changed. The weakening of the power of the Kyiv prince required compensation by introducing a different method of government. Thus a system of collective suzerainty was created. Its essence is that the Kiev prince allocated a share in the southern Russian land to someone who recognized his eldership and power and took upon himself the obligation to protect it from enemies. Such decisions of the Grand Duke were approved at a congress with other South Russian princes. The practice became the obligation of the Kyiv prince to “think about the Russian land” (i.e., govern) together with other co-owners. This system turned out to be viable, ensuring relative stability in the socio-political life of Ancient Rus' almost until the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
Old Russian principalities and lands: specifics of political organization
However, the collapse was not absolute. Along with centrifugal tendencies, centripetal ones also persisted. They were expressed, in particular, in maintaining the prestige of the title of Grand Duke of Kyiv (although it no longer plays a real unifying role). In addition, the princes from time to time found it necessary to gather at their inter-princely congresses to discuss emerging common problems.
By the end of the 12th century, the fall of Kyiv became obvious due to inter-princely strife and Polovtsian raids. The population left Kyiv in two directions: to the west, towards the Carpathian Mountains or to the north, to the upper reaches of the Volga. Then these were the outskirts of Rus', in which, to replace the old Kyiv, 3 centers of state life arose
Galicia-Volyn land;
Vladimir-Suzdal land;
Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics.
Assessing the feudal fragmentation of Rus' in the 12th-15th centuries, it should be emphasized that, being the product of a progressive nature, it was a complex and contradictory phenomenon. The highest authority in each principality came closer to the object of control, which, it would seem, should have contributed to the economic prosperity of individual regions. At the same time, the internal life of Rus' at that time was largely determined by princely strife, during which thousands of people died and the very productive forces were destroyed, the development of which led to a state of fragmentation. In addition, the weakening of the central government and the strife of the princes undermined the country's defense capability and made Rus' an easy prey for foreign conquerors.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the political structure of individual lands and principalities retained traditional features: in most principalities - in the form of a feudal monarchy, in the Galicia-Volyn land - an oligarchic form of government, and in the Novgorod and Pskov lands - in the form of a feudal republic.
a) Vladimir-Suzdal land.
In the principalities of the monarchical type, the princes adhered to the traditional form of government, although each of the Russian lands had its own characteristic features. An example of this is the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.
In the 11th century Suzdal or Zalesskaya Rus' was located between the Oka, on the one hand, and the Volga, on the other. Until the end of the 11th century. This eastern outskirts of Kievan Rus was a remote and sparsely populated region. At the end of the 11th century. Suzdal land became a special principality. By agreement of the princes, it was given to Vladimir Monomakh, who began to arrange it for his youngest son Yuri Dolgoruky. From this time on, the construction of cities such as Tver, Kostroma, Balakhna, Nizhny Novgorod and others began. The influx of Russian settlers increased here.
The nature of the Vladimir-Suzdal land differed from both Kyiv and Novgorod. There were no rich black soils here, but there was no rocky soil either. Nature allowed for farming and forestry. The Suzdal princes become the most powerful in the entire Russian land.
Yuri Dolgoruky had a strong influence here. Its role in the construction of cities is great. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky develops the city of Vladimir, erects the Assumption Cathedral in it. He strove for autocracy not only in the Suzdal principality, but throughout the entire Russian land.
Under another son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Vsevolod (Big Nest), the Vladimir principality grew and became one of the large feudal states of Europe, widely known outside of Rus'.
The development of feudal relations in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was subject to the laws of feudal development: a significant increase in large land ownership and the struggle of feudal lords for the land of peasants; the emergence of new groups of feudal-dependent people; strengthening the link between land ownership and political power. Moreover, feudal relations began to develop here later than in other regions of Rus'; princely power arose later, but was strong and had huge land holdings.
Another important factor in the strengthening of princely power is the growth of new cities by the 12th century, such as Moscow, Yaroslavl, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, etc. Relying on the squad, court and growing cities, the princes suppressed the opposition of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars and strengthened their power. However, after the death of Vsevolod, the disintegration of the principality began, in the state in which the Tatar-Mongols found him. One of the first was conquered during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. But it was here that the prerequisites for the unification of Rus' began to mature earlier and faster than others.
The Vladimir-Suzdal princes were characterized by: 1. Ownership of princely estates - domains (hereditary land); 2. The supreme power of the prince over large land estates, villages and cities; 3. Creation of palace lands by merging the prince's estates with state lands.
In the 2nd half. XII century In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a new class of feudal lords emerges - the nobles. At first, this was a lower social group of the feudal class, which was characterized by the following features: military service with the prince, for which they were rewarded with lands and the right to exploit the peasants. However, this land ownership was conditional and was lost in the event of termination of service. The nobles did not have the right to freely move from prince to prince.
Peasants bore duties in the form of quitrents in kind, labor rent (corvee labor), and state duties. Dependent peasants had the right to move from one feudal lord to another. When they left, they were obliged to pay off the debt.
The urban population of the Vladimir-Suzdal land consisted of artisans, merchants, clergy and boyars.
In the 13th century In connection with the growth of independence, appanage princes turn into heads of feudal estates independent from the Grand Duke. These princes appropriate the title of great princes, and they have their own great princes.
The Grand Duke of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality was the bearer of supreme power. He owned legislative, executive, administrative, judicial and ecclesiastical powers.
The governing bodies of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality were the prince's council, the veche and feudal congresses. The princely council included the most powerful representatives of the service boyars, loyal to the prince. The Veche was convened to resolve the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, and Feudal Congresses were convened in emergency situations on the initiative of the Grand Duke.
Local government was in the hands of the volost governors, who were the local representatives of the Grand Duke.
The main significance of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality for the history of Russia is that Moscow arose on its territory, which later became the capital of the Russian state. The first mention of Moscow in Russian chronicles dates back to April 4, 1147.
b) Galicia-Volyn land.
Simultaneously with the development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the southwest of Rus', the Volyn and Galician lands began to develop and become richer. At the end of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh's grandson Roman Mstislavovich captured the Galician principality adjacent to Volyn, located on the eastern slopes of the Carpathians and laid the foundation for the creation of a single strong Galician-Volyn principality (from 1200). Soon the city of Galich, distinguished by its fertility and richness of land, became its center.
The position of the Galicia-Volyn land was more dangerous than the position of the Suzdal land, because they were not in the center, but on the borders of Russian land and had as their neighbors Poles, Lithuanians, Ugrians, as well as the strong enemies of Russia, the Polovtsians.
In addition, the peculiarity of the social life of Volyn and Galich was that the boyars fought there with the princes, as well as the princely squad.
The effectiveness of the veche in this principality occupied an insignificant place and the princes had to reckon with the boyars. The boyars here acquired destructive power, and their feuds significantly weakened the state.
The urban population of the Galicia-Volyn land was not numerous.
The bulk of the rural population depended on the boyars. The exploitation of peasants here was much stronger than in other lands.
The peculiarity of the state structure of the Galicia-Volyn land was that it for a long time was not divided into inheritances.
The highest authorities were the prince, the council of boyars and the veche. The boyars played the leading role in political life. The most important body of the boyars was the Boyar Council (Duma). The veche played a formal role.
A system of palace management was created here, and before influential officials appeared in other lands - a butler, an equerry, a printer.
The entire Galicia-Volyn land was divided into voivodeships, headed by voivodes appointed from among the boyars. “Lesser boyars” were appointed as managers in rural areas and volosts. The Prince was called to power by the Boyar Duma.
A single strong state did not emerge from the Galicia-Volyn principality, the main reason for this was the border position of the principality: on the one hand, the influence of Poland and Lithuania. By the 13th century. the Poles occupied Galicia, on the other hand, the Lithuanians captured Volyn. So, by the 13th century. this principality ceased to exist.
c) Novgorod and Pskov republics.
A typical example of a feudal-republican system of government was Novgorod, which in the 12th century. became a boyar republic with a unique veche system.
In the period from 1136 to 1478. in the north-west of Rus' there was a Novgorod feudal republic, and from 1348 to 1510. A republican form of government also existed in Pskov.
“Mr. Veliky Novgorod” consisted of five districts, which were called 5 “ends”. Accordingly, the entire Novgorod land was divided into 5 provinces. These 5 provinces made up a huge territory from Lake Onega to the Volga. The Novgorod lands also included lands along the Northern Dvina, Pechora, and Vyatka rivers.
The owner of all these possessions was Veliky Novgorod - as it was called, the “elder city” with all its free population. The Novgorodians called their lands “the land of Hagia Sophia” after the name of the main Novgorod temple.
The cities subordinate to Novgorod were fortresses that were supposed to protect the city in the event of an attack by enemies - Germans, Swedes, Danes. Such fortress cities were Pskov (later separated from Novgorod), Izborsk, Staraya Russa, Ladoga.
The entire Novgorod land was infertile, rocky, and covered with swamps. Therefore, Novgorodians imported most of their goods from their eastern and western neighbors.
It is typical that grain was brought from the Volga region to Novgorod, and in exchange they sold those goods that they purchased from their western neighbors - furs, honey, flax. This mediation made it possible to concentrate capital in the hands of the local nobility.
The state structure and administration of Novgorod took shape under the influence of the people's council. The veche elected the prince, and subsequently the ruler, i.e. archbishop.
The Veche decided on the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy: it declared war and made peace, approved treaties and legislative acts.
The prince was invited to Novgorod by agreement to serve as a military commander and arbitrator in the most important legal proceedings. He was forbidden to acquire possessions in the Novgorod land for himself and his squad, to enjoy income in excess of strictly established amounts and to dispose of the city treasury. The prince did not rule the city, but served it. The Novgorodians “showed the clear path to the obstinate princes,” i.e. they were simply kicked out of the city.
All the levers and threads of government in Novgorod were in the hands of several hundred boyars. This “council of gentlemen” controlled the representative and executive power of Novgorod. The highest secular authority in the city was the mayor from the boyars. He convened the meeting, opened its meetings, and carried out its decisions. He also supervised foreign relations, controlled the actions of the prince, and carried out judicial functions. His closest assistant was Tysyatsky, the leader of the city militia, who in peacetime exercised police supervision over order in the city. The bishop, in addition to spiritual power, also had temporal power. He was in charge of the city treasury, foreign relations and had the right of court. Low-level officials were elected from local residents and reported to the mayor.
The prince was deprived of the right to acquire land holdings in Novgorod. The Novgorodians allocated him land, as a rule, on the Volga. For his service, the prince received “gifts” or “tribute” in a precisely defined amount.
The prince in Novgorod was the highest government authority. He led the Novgorod army, was the supreme judge and ruler. However, as an outsider to Novgorod, the prince did not live in the city itself, but 3 miles from it, near Lake Ilmen. The prince undertook to rule Novgorod without changing laws and customs, and with the constant participation of the mayor elected by the veche.
The mayor accompanied the prince to the war, was present at the princely court, and together with the prince appointed officials. The mayor in Novgorod was in charge of civil affairs, and the thousand was the leader of the militia. Subordinate to Tysyatsky were the sotsky commanders of 10 hundreds, which amounted to a thousand. Each of the five ends of the city had Konchan elders, who fielded 200 militia.
The Novgorod lord-archbishop not only was in charge of church affairs, but also played a large role in the political life of Novgorod. He headed the government council, consisting of boyars, and monitored the activities of the veche. Every decision of the veche required the blessing of the bishop. The ruler sealed agreements with foreigners with his seal. The Vladyka was the custodian of the state treasury and the state archive. He had his own staff of officials and even his own regiment, separate from the Novgorod militia. The ruler was a large landowner.
The Veche in Novgorod was the body of the highest state power, made decisions, vested powers in officials, and acted in agreements with foreigners on behalf of the feudal republic.
The population of Novgorod and its lands was divided into two groups - “the best people” and “the younger people.” The first group is the boyars, living people and merchants. Boyars are officials and nobility. Less official, but rich people were called zhilii.
The entire poor population was called "lesser". Within the city these were small traders, artisans, and workers. In the provinces, smaller people were called smerds (peasants) and ladles (farmers who worked for the owners from half the harvest). Smerdas lived in graveyards, and ladles, of which there were many in the Novgorod land, were close in their position to serfs.
The history of Novgorod is one of constant civil strife and turmoil. Political power was in the hands of the boyar council, which, putting pressure on the poor, carried out the necessary decisions through the veche. The veche took up arms against the boyars, and then the poor began to beat and rob the “best people.” Internal contradictions led to the fall of the feudal republic.
Novgorodians began to look for allies in order to maintain their independence. This ruined Novgorod, since the nobility wanted an alliance with Lithuania against Moscow, and the poor wanted an alliance with Moscow against Lithuania. The civil strife ended with the Principality of Moscow conquering Novgorod in 1478 and annexing all its lands.
Pskov was the largest suburb of Novgorod. Initially it consisted of a small fortress - "detinets", and then turned into a powerful fortification with 12 fortresses. The main cathedral of Pskov was called the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity and had the same meaning for Pskov as the Hagia Sophia Cathedral for Novgorod. Pskov was divided into six parts, which, like Novgorod, had their own special administration.
A fortification system was necessary for western border Rus', since Pskov stood on the border of Russia next to Lithuania and the Germans. Having become rich in trade, Pskov left the obedience of Novgorod and in 1348 gained independence.
In Pskov there were the same political bodies as in Novgorod. The main body of power was the "council of gentlemen." Just as in Novgorod, the princes were formally limited in their power, although in fact the boyars led the veil.
The veche in Pskov was more peaceful than in Novgorod. There was no sharp property inequality among residents and therefore no acute contradictions.
An example of the political state structure of Pskov is the “Pskov Judicial Charter”. In this document one can find many articles that regulated the relations between landowners and the feudally dependent population - izorniki - plowmen, gardeners and kochetniks (fishermen). Izorniki worked "half-time", i.e. Half of the harvest was given to the landowner. They had the right to leave the owner only on November 26, having returned the taken help or pokrugu (loan) in silver or goods.
The monument of legislation is the "Pskov Judgment Charter". The development of feudal relations, the growth of class contradictions, and the strengthening of protection of the property of feudal lords and merchants led to increased criminal repression for horse theft and theft of church property, which was punishable by death.
Among the serious crimes, the Pskov Judgment Charter also notes such as perevet (treason), bribery to a judge (secret promise), intrusion into a courthouse, etc. The Pskov Judgment Charter is a monument of legislation. The development of feudal relations, the growth of class contradictions, and the strengthening of protection of the property of feudal lords and merchants led to increased criminal repression for horse theft and theft of church property, which was punishable by death.
The role of the period of feudal fragmentation in the development of Ancient Rus'
In general, inter-princely strife is the main theme of the chronicle stories of the 12th - 13th centuries, which creates a distorted idea of them as the main feature of the appanage period, painting an image of the gradual decline of Rus', becoming a defenseless victim of any strong enemy. Sometimes one gets the impression of the fatal inevitability of the death of the Old Russian state. In fact, the influence of strife on the development of Ancient Rus' is clearly exaggerated.
The appanage period not only was not a time of decline, but, on the contrary, meant the flourishing of the Old Russian state and, above all, in the sphere of culture. Of course, strife weakened unity, and therefore the possibility of joint resistance to a major enemy, but in the foreseeable space such an enemy did not exist in Rus'.
The collapse of the Old Russian state, thus, looks like a natural stage in the development of statehood, forming more developed state structures, laying the foundations for the emergence of a society independent of the state, influencing state policy.
Lecture 5. Ancient Rus' in the management system of the Mongol Empire
1. Formation of statehood among the Mongol-Tatars
At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. Events are taking place in Central Asia that have had a huge impact on the history of Eastern Europe, including Russia. These events are associated with the Mongol-Tatars invasion of Rus'.
There is a pseudoscientific Eurasian theory according to which the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a boon for the Russians. It was especially popular during the Cold War with the United States. According to this theory, Russia after the conquest turned into an Asian country. Allegedly, having adopted the aggressive, aggressive program of Genghis Khan, she became an enemy of the West. This is where the thesis about the eternal aggressiveness of the Russians, that our country is a source of international tension, an “evil empire”, “the birthplace of terrorism”, etc. originates.
However, most modern researchers refute this theory.
First, let's look at the development of the Tatar-Mongol tribes of that time. Mongol tribes until the end of the 12th century. lived on the territory of modern Mongolia. They did not form a single nationality, did not have their own statehood and spoke different dialects of the Mongolian language. Among them at this time, the large tribe of Tatars who lived in the eastern part of Mongolia especially stood out.
The Mongol-Tatar tribes led a nomadic lifestyle. The most numerous were the steppe Mongols, who were engaged in cattle breeding and hunting. Forest Mongols were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Mongols roamed in large kurens, and each kuren had significant political independence: it waged wars, entered into alliances, etc.
The Mongols were subsistence farmers and produced extremely little food. There was no money circulation, and trade took place in the form of exchange. The development of class relations, the impoverishment of ordinary nomads and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of individual families led to the disintegration of communities - kurens - into smaller economic associations - ails - nomadic camps.
TO beginning of XIII V. The Mongol-Tatar tribes switched to the early feudal system, although they still retained remnants of tribal relations. In the process of mutual clashes between clans, tribal alliances were formed. The tribes were headed by special leaders or chiefs - from among the most powerful, dexterous, rich, who were called nayons or bogaturs. They had their own detachments of warriors - nukers, who took part in raids, hunts, feasts, and helped with advice in decisions.
The fierce struggle between the tribes ended by the beginning of the 13th century. the formation of the Mongol state, which had a strong military organization. After long, bloody wars, the leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Temujin, conquered the rest of the tribes. In 1206, at the kurultai - a meeting of the Mongolian nomadic aristocracy, Temujin was elected khan of all the Mongols under the name Genghis Khan.
The formation of the Mongolian state contributed to the development of productive forces and played an important role in the unification of all Mongolian tribes. The possibility of economic and political contacts with neighboring peoples appeared. However, this path did not suit the nomadic aristocracy, for whom war for the sake of robbery became the main source of enrichment. With the help of the military-feudal elite, the Mongol state was turned into a military camp. Important reason the aggressive policy of the Mongols - with the help of military robbery of foreign peoples to muffle the internal contradictions of Mongolian society.
Becoming in charge huge army, Genghis Khan pursued an aggressive policy that fully met the interests and aspirations of the nomadic aristocracy. Genghis Khan and his successors conquered China, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe and Rus'.
The heroic struggle of the Russian and other peoples of Russia weakened the offensive of the Mongol-Tatar invaders and saved European civilization from defeat. Stubborn resistance of Rus' preserved it own statehood, culture, faith. There was virtually no Horde administration on the territory of the Russian principalities, which was the guarantor of independent government for Rus'.
The fragility of Genghis Khan's empire was revealed quite early. During his lifetime, Genghis Khan divided power between his four sons. In particular, Jochi's eldest son inherited the lands of Rus'.
Genghis Khan's grandson Batu continued aggressive wars. As a result of his conquests over a vast territory from the Irtysh to the Crimea, the Caucasus, and parts of Central Asia in the 30-40s. XIII century a large state was formed. In Russian chronicles it was called the Golden Horde. It reached its power under the khans Uzbek and Janibek.
Its state apparatus is taking shape, both military and administrative-judicial. However, the internal and external achievements of the Golden Horde turned out to be fragile. In the 60s of the 14th century. it entered into a period of prolonged strife that threatened its state and political existence. As a result of feudal strife for 20 years from 1360 to 1380. 20 khans were replaced. In 1380 the Battle of Kulikovo took place. The troops of the Golden Horde were defeated, from which they could no longer recover.
Social and state system of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a feudal state. Its economic basis was feudal relations, a characteristic feature of which was feudal ownership of land, pastures and livestock. It was the so-called class property, in which ordinary nomads gave their master a certain part of the product received. Smaller feudal lords depended on larger ones, which determined the nature of the structure of the Golden Horde based on the hierarchy of nomadic land ownership. All the land was the property of the Golden Horde Khan, but each landowner, within the lands granted to him, disposed of the nomads of the people dependent on him, and distributed the best pastures at his own discretion. Feudal relations were combined with numerous remnants of the tribal system.
The first group of feudal lords “white bone” - the top of the Golden Horde society - included the nomadic aristocracy. At the top of the social ladder were the khan and princes (children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc.) from the house of Jochi, the first khan of the Golden Horde. Over time, the Jochi clan grew greatly. With the adoption of Islam, which allowed polygamy, the number of princes increased and the struggle for power between them intensified.
The second group consisted of beks (Turkic title) and nayons (Mongolian title), who were the largest feudal lords. Each major feudal lord received huge income from his possessions - 100-200 thousand dinars per year.
The third group of feudal lords was represented by Tarkhans - people of average income who occupied low positions in the state apparatus.
The fourth group of the ruling class were the nukers. They were part of the master’s inner circle and were dependent on him. The number of nukers depended on the wealth and nobility of their leader.
An important role in the Golden Horde state was played by the church with a complex system of church institutions. The state religion was Islam. Religious tolerance was allowed in the Golden Horde, but with the adoption of Islam the role of the Muslim clergy increased. Its representatives occupied important positions in the state apparatus, and church organizations had large material resources.
The feudal-dependent population was called "black bone" and consisted of nomadic pastoralists, farmers, and city dwellers. The nomadic pastoralists were called Karachu, lived in ails, ran individual households, owned livestock and grazed them on pastures that belonged to the landowner, to whom they regularly paid tribute.
They were also obliged to perform military service, support officials and military units, and provide them with horses and wagons for transportation. When dividing the spoils of war, they received a small part of it.
The peasant population in the settled agricultural regions of Central Asia was called Sobanchi and Urtakchi. Sobanchi are communal peasants, dependent on the landowner. They cultivated the master's land with their own implements, bore duties in the form of work in the vineyards, and paid duties on the irrigation ditches. The Urtakchi are impoverished members of the peasant community, deprived of land and equipment. They worked on the master's land for a share of food.
In the XIII - XIV centuries. in the Golden Horde there is a revival of urban planning. The Golden Horde cities arose as administrative and political settlements, determined by the needs of the state. However, most of them were destroyed as a result of the campaigns of Khan Timur. After this, the urban planning culture of the Golden Horde was completely destroyed and was never revived.
The urban settlements of the Golden Horde consisted mainly of artisans, small traders, merchants and were quite numerous. A number of scientists believe that there were associations of artisans in cities. Officials also lived there. At the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. Their number was very large. The source of slavery was captivity. The slave trade flourished. Slaves, as a rule, were turned into dependent peasants, shepherds and artisans. Thus, the son of a slave was most often attached to the ground as a sobanchi or urtakchi.
Genghis Khan divided the entire state of the Golden Horde into four uluses or appanages, each of which was headed by one of his sons. At the head of the Golden Horde was a khan from the clan of Genghis, who had strong despotic power. The military structure to which the administrative division of the country was adapted permeated it from top to bottom and contributed to the strengthening of the power of the khan. The Khan had complete power over the entire Golden Horde. The khans were surrounded by the top of the nomadic aristocracy, which directed and controlled the activities of the khan's associates. Kurultai - a congress of the Mongol-Tatar nobility - was convened to resolve the most important issues (choosing a khan, planning campaigns, conducting hunts, etc.). The convening of the kurultai was usually timed to coincide with religious holidays. The Kurultai was an advisory body. He made decisions pleasing to the khan. However, in most cases, the khan resolved issues independently in a narrow circle of court nobility. At the kurultai they were present and received Active participation in his work there are women (khatuni) from the ruling elite.
The central apparatus of the Golden Horde consisted of the head of state (khan), court nobility, administrative apparatus, various departments and the judicial apparatus. Diwans (offices) were in charge of the sectoral management. An important official was the vizier - the second head of government after the khan.
Among the senior officials were also four ulus emirs (rulers). The eldest of the emirs was called beklyaribek (commander-in-chief of the troops).
In the central government system, the position of bakol, who was in charge of supplying the troops, was of great importance. B
IV century AD - Formation of the first tribal union of the Eastern Slavs (Volynians and Buzhans).
V century - Formation of the second tribal union of the Eastern Slavs (Polyans) in the middle Dnieper basin.
VI century - The first written news about “Rus” and “Rus”. Conquest of the Slavic tribe Duleb by the Avars (558).
VII century - Settlement of Slavic tribes in the basins of the upper Dnieper, Western Dvina, Volkhov, Upper Volga, etc.
VIII century - The beginning of the expansion of the Khazar Kaganate to the north, the imposition of tribute on the Slavic tribes of the Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi, Radimichi.
Kievan Rus
838 - The first known embassy of the “Russian Kagan” to Constantinople..
860 - Campaign of the Rus (Askold?) against Byzantium..
862 - Formation of the Russian state with its capital in Novgorod. The first mention of Murom in chronicles.
862-879 - The reign of Prince Rurik (879+) in Novgorod.
865 - Capture of Kyiv by the Varangians Askold and Dir.
OK. 863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril and Methodius in Moravia.
866 - Slavic campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople).
879-912 - The reign of Prince Oleg (912+).
882 - Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv under the rule of Prince Oleg. Transfer of the capital from Novgorod to Kyiv.
883-885 - Subjugation of the Krivichi, Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi by Prince Oleg. Formation of the territory of Kievan Rus.
907 - Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople. The first agreement between Rus' and Byzantium.
911 - Conclusion of the second treaty between Rus' and Byzantium.
912-946 - Reign of Prince Igor (946x).
913 - Uprising in the land of the Drevlyans.
913-914 - Campaigns of the Rus against the Khazars along the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
915 - Treaty of Prince Igor with the Pechenegs.
941 - 1st campaign of Prince Igor to Constantinople.
943-944 - 2nd campaign of Prince Igor to Constantinople. Treaty of Prince Igor with Byzantium.
944-945 - Campaign of the Rus on the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
946-957 - Simultaneous reign of Princess Olga and Prince Svyatoslav.
OK. 957 - Olga's trip to Constantinople and her baptism.
957-972 - Reign of Prince Svyatoslav (972x).
964-966 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav against Volga Bulgaria, Khazars, tribes of the North Caucasus and Vyatichi. The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in the lower reaches of the Volga. Establishing control over the Volga - Caspian Sea trade route.
968-971 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav to Danube Bulgaria. Defeat of the Bulgarians in the Battle of Dorostol (970). Wars with the Pechenegs.
969 - Death of Princess Olga.
971 - Treaty of Prince Svyatoslav with Byzantium.
972-980 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaropolk (980s).
977-980 - Internecine wars for the possession of Kiev between Yaropolk and Vladimir.
980-1015 - Reign of Grand Duke Vladimir the Saint (1015+).
980 - Pagan reform of Grand Duke Vladimir. An attempt to create a single cult uniting the gods of different tribes.
985 - Campaign of Grand Duke Vladimir with the allied Torci against the Volga Bulgars.
988 - Baptism of Rus'. The first evidence of the establishment of the power of the Kyiv princes on the banks of the Oka.
994-997 - Campaigns of Grand Duke Vladimir against the Volga Bulgars.
1010 - Founding of the city of Yaroslavl.
1015-1019 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed. Wars for the princely throne.
beginning of the 11th century - settlement of the Polovtsians between the Volga and Dnieper.
1015 - Murder of princes Boris and Gleb by order of Grand Duke Svyatopolk.
1016 - Defeat of the Khazars by Byzantium with the help of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. Suppression of the uprising in Crimea.
1019 - Defeat of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed in the fight against Prince Yaroslav.
1019-1054 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1054+).
1022 - Victory of Mstislav the Brave over the Kasogs (Circassians).
1023-1025 - War of Mstislav the Brave and Grand Duke Yaroslav for the great reign. Victory of Mstislav the Brave in the battle of Listven (1024).
1025 - Division of Kievan Rus between princes Yaroslav and Mstislav (border along the Dnieper).
1026 - Conquest of the Baltic tribes of Livs and Chuds by Yaroslav the Wise.
1030 - Founding of the city of Yuryev (modern Tartu) in the Chud land.
1030-1035 - Construction of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov.
1036 - Death of Prince Mstislav the Brave. Unification of Kievan Rus under the rule of Grand Duke Yaroslav.
1037 - The defeat of the Pechenegs by Prince Yaroslav and the foundation of the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv in honor of this event (finished in 1041).
1038 - Victory of Yaroslav the Wise over the Yatvingians (Lithuanian tribe).
1040 - War of the Rus with the Lithuanians.
1041 - Campaign of the Rus against the Finnish tribe Yam.
1043 - Campaign of the Novgorod prince Vladimir Yaroslavich to Constantinople (last campaign against Byzantium).
1045-1050 - Construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.
1051 - Founding of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery. The appointment of the first metropolitan (Hilarion) from the Russians, appointed to the position without the consent of Constantinople.
1054-1078 - The reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich (The actual triumvirate of princes Izyaslav, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich and Vsevolod Yaroslavich. “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs.” Weakening of the supreme power of the Kyiv prince.
1055 - The first news of the chronicle about the appearance of the Polovtsians at the borders of the Pereyaslavl principality.
1056-1057 - Creation of the "Ostromir Gospel" - the oldest dated handwritten Russian book.
1061 - Polovtsian raid on Rus'.
1066 - Raid on Novgorod by Prince Vseslav of Polotsk. The defeat and capture of Vseslav by the Grand Duke Izslav.
1068 - New Polovtsian raid on Rus' led by Khan Sharukan. The Yaroslavichs' campaign against the Polovtsians and their defeat on the Alta River. The uprising of the townspeople in Kyiv, the flight of Izyaslav to Poland.
1068-1069 - Great reign of Prince Vseslav (about 7 months).
1069 - Return of Izyaslav to Kyiv together with the Polish king Boleslav II.
1078 - Death of Grand Duke Izyaslav in the battle of Nezhatina Niva with the outcasts Boris Vyacheslavich and Oleg Svyatoslavich.
1078-1093 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Land redistribution (1078).
1093-1113 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich.
1093-1095 - War of the Rus with the Polovtsians. Defeat of princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh in the battle with the Polovtsians on the Stugna River (1093).
1095-1096 - The internecine struggle of Prince Vladimir Monomakh and his sons with Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich and his brothers for the Rostov-Suzdal, Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.
1097 - Lyubech Congress of Princes. Assignment of principalities to princes on the basis of patrimonial law. Fragmentation of the state into specific principalities. Separation of the Murom principality from the Chernigov principality.
1100 - Vitichevsky Congress of Princes.
1103 - Dolob congress of princes before the campaign against the Polovtsians. Successful campaign of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsians.
1107 - Capture of Suzdal by the Volga Bulgars.
1108 - Foundation of the city of Vladimir on the Klyazma as a fortress to protect the Suzdal principality from the Chernigov princes.
1111 - Campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The defeat of the Polovtsians at Salnitsa.
1113 - First edition of The Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor). An uprising of dependent (enslaved) people in Kyiv against the princely power and merchants-usurers. Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich.
1113-1125 - Reign of Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. Temporary strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke. Drawing up the "Charters of Vladimir Monomakh" (legal registration of judicial law, regulation of rights in other areas of life).
1116 - Second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years (Sylvester). Victory of Vladimir Monomakh over the Polovtsians.
1118 - Conquest of Minsk by Vladimir Monomakh.
1125-1132 - Reign of Grand Duke Mstislav I the Great.
1125-1157 - Reign of Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky in the Rostov-Suzdal Principality.
1126 - First election of mayor in Novgorod.
1127 - Final division of the Principality of Polotsk into fiefs.
1127 -1159 - Reign of Rostislav Mstislavich in Smolensk. The heyday of the Smolensk Principality.
1128 - Famine in the Novgorod, Pskov, Suzdal, Smolensk and Polotsk lands.
1129 - Separation of the Ryazan Principality from the Murom-Ryazan Principality.
1130 -1131 - Russian campaigns against Chud, the beginning of successful campaigns against Lithuania. Clashes between the Murom-Ryazan princes and the Polovtsians.
1132-1139 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaropolk II Vladimirovich. The final decline of the power of the Kyiv Grand Duke.
1135-1136 - Unrest in Novgorod, Charter of the Novgorod prince Vsevolod Mstislavovich on the management of merchants, expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. Invitation to Novgorod for Svyatoslav Olgovich. Strengthening the principle of inviting the prince to the veche.
1137 - Separation of Pskov from Novgorod, formation of the Pskov Principality.
1139 - 1st great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (8 days). Unrest in Kyiv and its capture by Vsevolod Olegovich.
1139-1146 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod II Olgovich.
1144 - Formation of the Principality of Galicia through the unification of several appanage principalities.
1146 - Reign of Grand Duke Igor Olgovich (six months). The beginning of a fierce struggle between the princely clans for the Kiev throne (Monomakhovichi, Olgovichi, Davydovichi) - lasted until 1161.
1146-1154 - The reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav III Mstislavich with interruptions: in 1149, 1150 - the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky; In 1150 - the 2nd great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (all - less than six months). Intensification of internecine struggle between the Suzdal and Kyiv princes.
1147 - The first chronicle mention of Moscow.
1149 - The struggle of the Novgorodians with the Finns for Vod. Attempts by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgorukov to recapture the Ugra tribute from the Novgorodians.
Bookmark "Yuryev in the field" (Yuryev-Polsky).
1152 - Founding of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Kostroma.
1154 - Founding of the city of Dmitrov and the village of Bogolyubov.
1154-1155 - Reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich.
1155 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich (about six months).
1155-1157 - Reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky.
1157-1159 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1159-1167 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1160 - Uprising of the Novgorodians against Svyatoslav Rostislavovich.
1164 - Andrei Bogolyubsky's campaign against the Volga Bulgarians. Victory of the Novgorodians over the Swedes.
1167-1169 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Mstislav II Izyaslavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir.
1169 - Capture of Kyiv by the troops of Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir. The rise of Vladimir Rus'.
Rus' Vladimir
1169-1174 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir.
1174 - Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky. The first mention of the name "nobles" in the chronicles.
1174-1176 - Reign of Grand Duke Mikhail Yuryevich. Civil strife and uprisings of townspeople in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1176-1212 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod Big Nest. The heyday of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'.
1176 - War of the Rus with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The clash between the Rus and the Estonians.
1180 - Beginning of civil strife and the collapse of the Smolensk Principality. Civil strife between the Chernigov and Ryazan princes.
1183-1184 - Great campaign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes under the leadership of Vsevolod Great nest on the Volga Bulgars. Successful campaign of the princes of Southern Rus' against the Polovtsians.
1185 - Unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians.
1186-1187 - Internecine struggle between the Ryazan princes.
1188 - Attack of the Novgorodians on German merchants in Novotorzhka.
1189-1192 - 3rd Crusade
1191 - Campaigns of the Novgorodians with Koreloya to the pit.
1193 - Unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorodians against Ugra.
1195 - The first known trade agreement between Novgorod and German cities.
1196 - Recognition of Novgorod liberties by the princes. Vsevolod's Big Nest march to Chernigov.
1198 - Conquest of the Udmurts by the Novgorodians. Relocation of the Teutonic Order of Crusaders from Palestine to the Baltic states. Pope Celestine III proclaims the Northern Crusade.
1199 - Formation of the Galician-Volyn principality through the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities. The rise of Roman Mstislavich the Great Foundation of the Riga fortress by Bishop Albrecht. Establishment of the Order of the Swordsmen for the Christianization of Livonia (modern Latvia and Estonia)
1202-1224 - Capture of Russian possessions in the Baltic states by the Order of the Swordsmen. The Order's struggle with Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk for Livonia.
1207 - Separation of the Rostov Principality from the Vladimir Principality. Unsuccessful defense of the Kukonas fortress in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina by Prince Vyacheslav Borisovich (“Vyachko”), grandson of the Smolensk prince Davyd Rostislavich.
1209 - The first mention in the chronicle of Tver (according to V.N. Tatishchev, Tver was founded in 1181).
1212-1216 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Internecine struggle with brother Konstantin Rostovsky. Defeat of Yuri Vsevolodovich in the battle on the Lipitsa River near the city of Yuryev-Polsky.
1216-1218 - Reign of Grand Duke Konstantin Vsevolodovich of Rostov.
1218-1238 - 2nd reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich (1238x) 1219 - foundation of the city of Revel (Kolyvan, Tallinn)
1220-1221 - Campaign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich to Volga Bulgaria, seizure of lands in the lower reaches of the Oka. Founding of Nizhny Novgorod (1221) in the land of the Mordovians as an outpost against Volga Bulgaria. 1219-1221 - Genghis Khan's capture of the states of Central Asia
1221 - Yuri Vsevolodovich's campaign against the crusaders, unsuccessful siege of the Riga fortress.
1223 - Defeat of the coalition of Polovtsians and Russian princes in the battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River. Yuri Vsevolodovich's campaign against the crusaders.
1224 - Capture of Yuryev (Dorpt, modern Tartu) by the knights-swords, the main Russian fortress in the Baltic states.
1227 - The campaign was carried out. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and other princes to the Mordovians. Death of Genghis Khan, proclamation of Batu as the Great Khan of the Mongol-Tatars.
1232 - Campaign of the Suzdal, Ryazan and Murom princes against Mordovians.
1233 - Attempt of the Knights of the Sword to take the Izborsk fortress.
1234 - Victory of the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich over the Germans near Yuryev and the conclusion of peace with them. Suspension of the advance of the swordsmen to the east.
1236-1249 - Reign of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky in Novgorod.
1236 - defeat of the Volga Bulgaria and the Volga tribes by the great Khan Batu.
1236 - defeat of the troops of the Order of the Sword by the Lithuanian prince Mindaugas. Death of the Grand Master of the Order.
1237-1238 - Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in North-Eastern Rus'. The destruction of the cities of Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities.
1237 - defeat of the troops of the Teutonic Order by Daniil Romanovich of Galicia. Merger of the remnants of the Order of the Sword and the Teutonic Order. Formation of the Livonian Order.
1238 - Defeat of the troops of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in the battle on the Sit River (March 4, 1238). Death of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Separation of the Belozersky and Suzdal principalities from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1238-1246 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich..
1239 - Devastation of the Mordovian lands, Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities by Tatar-Mongol troops.
1240 - Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Southern Rus'. The devastation of Kiev (1240) and the Galician-Volyn principality. Victory of the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich over the Swedish army in the battle on the Neva River (“Battle of the Neva”)..
1240-1241 - Invasion of the Teutonic knights into the lands of Pskov and Novgorod, their capture of Pskov, Izborsk, Luga;
Construction of the Koporye fortress (now a village in the Lomonosov district of the Leningrad region).
1241-1242 - Expulsion of the Teutonic knights by Alexander Nevsky, liberation of Pskov and other cities. Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Eastern Europe. The defeat of the Hungarian troops on the river. Solenaya (04/11/1241), devastation of Poland, fall of Krakow.
1242 - Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the knights of the Teutonic Order in the battle of Lake Peipsi (“Battle of the Ice”). The conclusion of peace with Livonia on the terms of its renunciation of claims to Russian lands. The defeat of the Mongol-Tatars from the Czechs in the Battle of Olomouc. Completion of the "Great Western Campaign".
1243 - Arrival of Russian princes at Batu's headquarters. Announcement of Prince Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich as “the oldest” Formation of the “Golden Horde”
1245 - Battle of Yaroslavl (Galitsky) - the last battle of Daniil Romanovich Galitsky in the struggle for possession of the Galician principality.
1246-1249 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatoslav III Vsevolodovich 1246 - Death of the Great Khan Batu
1249-1252 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yaroslavich.
1252 - The devastating "Nevryuev's army" to the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
1252-1263 - Reign of Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky. The campaign of Prince Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Novgorodians to Finland (1256).
1252-1263 - reign of the first Lithuanian prince Mindovg Ringoldovich.
1254 - foundation of the city of Saray - the capital of the Golden Horde. The struggle of Novgorod and Sweden for Southern Finland.
1257-1259 - The first Mongol census of the population of Rus', the creation of a Baska system for collecting tribute. The uprising of the townspeople in Novgorod (1259) against the Tatar "numerals".
1261 - Establishment of the Orthodox diocese in the city of Saray.
1262 - Uprisings of the townspeople of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir and Yaroslavl against Muslim tax farmers and tribute collectors. The assignment of collecting tribute to the Russian princes.
1263-1272 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav III Yaroslavich.
1267 - Genoa receives the khan's label for ownership of Kafa (Feodosia) in Crimea. The beginning of the Genoese colonization of the coast of the Azov and Black Seas. Formation of colonies in Kafa, Matrega (Tmutarakan), Mapa (Anapa), Tanya (Azov).
1268 - Joint campaign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, Novgorodians and Pskovites to Livonia, their victory at Rakovor.
1269 - Siege of Pskov by the Livonians, conclusion of peace with Livonia and stabilization of the western border of Pskov and Novgorod.
1272-1276 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavich 1275 - campaign of the Tatar-Mongol army against Lithuania
1272-1303 - Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich in Moscow. Foundation of the Moscow dynasty of princes.
1276 Second Mongolian census of Rus'.
1276-1294 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich of Pereyaslavl.
1288-1291 - struggle for the throne in the Golden Horde
1292 - Invasion of the Tatars led by Tudan (Deden).
1293-1323 - War of Novgorod with Sweden for the Karelian Isthmus.
1294-1304 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1299 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Kyiv to Vladimir by Metropolitan Maxim.
1300-1301 - Construction of the Landskrona fortress on the Neva by the Swedes and its destruction by the Novgorodians led by Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1300 - Victory of Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich over Ryazan. Annexation of Kolomna to Moscow.
1302 - Annexation of the Pereyaslav Principality to Moscow.
1303-1325 - Reign of Prince Yuri Daniilovich in Moscow. Conquest of the Mozhaisk appanage principality by Prince Yuri of Moscow (1303). The beginning of the struggle between Moscow and Tver.
1304-1319 - Reign of Grand Duke Mikhail II Yaroslavich of Tver (1319x). Construction (1310) by the Novgorodians of the Korela fortress (Kexgolm, modern Priozersk). Reign of Grand Duke Gediminas in Lithuania. Annexation of the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities to Lithuania
1308-1326 - Peter - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1312-1340 - reign of Uzbek Khan in the Golden Horde. The rise of the Golden Horde.
1319-1322 - Reign of Grand Duke Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow (1325x).
1322-1326 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes (1326x).
1323 - Construction of the Russian fortress Oreshek at the source of the Neva River.
1324 - Campaign of the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich with the Novgorodians to the Northern Dvina and Ustyug.
1325 - Tragic death in the Golden Horde of Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow. Victory of Lithuanian troops over the people of Kiev and Smolensk.
1326 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow by Metropolitan Theognostus.
1326-1328 - Reign of Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy (1339x).
1327 - Uprising in Tver against the Mongol-Tatars. The flight of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich from the punitive army of the Mongol-Tatars.
Rus' Moscow
1328-1340 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan I Danilovich Kalita. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Vladimir to Moscow.
The division of the Vladimir principality by Khan Uzbek between Grand Duke Ivan Kalita and Prince Alexander Vasilyevich of Suzdal.
1331 - Unification of the Vladimir principality by Grand Duke Ivan Kalita under his rule..
1339 - The tragic death of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy in the Golden Horde. Construction of a wooden Kremlin in Moscow.
1340 - Founding of the Trinity Monastery by Sergius of Radonezh (Trinity-Sergius Lavra) Death of Uzbek, Great Khan of the Golden Horde
1340-1353 - Reign of Grand Duke Simeon Ivanovich Proud 1345-1377 - Reign of Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich. Annexation of Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn and Podolsk lands to Lithuania.
1342 - Nizhny Novgorod, Unzha and Gorodets joined the Suzdal principality. Formation of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality.
1348-1349 - Crusades of the Swedish king Magnus I in the Novgorod lands and his defeat. Novgorod recognizes the independence of Pskov. Bolotovsky Treaty (1348).
1353-1359 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan II Ivanovich the Meek.
1354-1378 - Alexey - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1355 - Division of the Suzdal principality between Andrei (Nizhny Novgorod) and Dmitry (Suzdal) Konstantinovich.
1356 - subjugation of the Bryansk principality by Olgerd
1358-1386 - Reign of Svyatoslav Ioannovich in Smolensk and his struggle with Lithuania.
1359-1363 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal. The struggle for the great reign between Moscow and Suzdal.
1361 - seizure of power in the Golden Horde by Temnik Mamai
1363-1389 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy.
1363 - Olgerd's campaign to the Black Sea, his victory over the Tatars on the Blue Waters (a tributary of the Southern Bug), the subordination of the Kyiv land and Podolia to Lithuania
1367 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Mikulinsky came to power in Tver with the help of the Lithuanian army. Worsening relations between Moscow and Tver and Lithuania. Construction of the white stone walls of the Kremlin.
1368 - Olgerd’s 1st campaign against Moscow (“Lithuanianism”).
1370 - Olgerd’s 2nd campaign against Moscow.
1375 - Dmitry Donskoy's campaign against Tver.
1377 - Defeat of the troops of Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod from the Tatar prince Arab Shah (Arapsha) on the Pyana River Unification by Mamai of the uluses west of the Volga
1378 - Victory of the Moscow-Ryazan army over the Tatar army of Begich on the Vozha River.
1380 - Mamai’s campaign against Rus' and his defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. The defeat of Mamai by Khan Tokhtamysh on the Kalka River.
1382 - Tokhtamysh’s campaign against Moscow and the destruction of Moscow. The destruction of the Ryazan principality by the Moscow army.
OK. 1382 - Coin minting begins in Moscow.
1383 - Annexation of the Vyatka land to Nizhny Novgorod Principality. Death of the former Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal.
1385 - Judicial reform in Novgorod. Declaration of independence from the metropolitan court. Dmitry Donskoy's unsuccessful campaign against Murom and Ryazan. Krevo Union of Lithuania and Poland.
1386-1387 - Campaign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the head of a coalition of Vladimir princes to Novgorod. Payments of indemnity by Novgorod. Defeat of the Smolensk prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich in the battle with the Lithuanians (1386).
1389 - The appearance of firearms in Rus'.
1389-1425 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily I Dmitrievich, for the first time without the sanction of the Horde.
1392 - Annexation of the Nizhny Novgorod and Murom principalities to Moscow.
1393 - Campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Novgorod lands.
1395 - Defeat of the Golden Horde by the troops of Tamerlane. Establishment of vassal dependence of the Smolensk Principality on Lithuania.
1397-1398 - Campaign of the Moscow army to the Novgorod lands. Annexation of Novgorod possessions (Bezhetsky Verkh, Vologda, Ustyug and Komi lands) to Moscow, return of the Dvina land to Novgorod. Conquest of the Dvina land by the Novgorod army.
1399-1400 - Campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Kama against the Nizhny Novgorod princes who took refuge in Kazan 1399 - victory of Khan Timur-Kutlug over the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich.
1400-1426 - Reign of Prince Ivan Mikhailovich in Tver, strengthening of Tver 1404 - capture of Smolensk and the Smolensk principality by the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich
1402 - Annexation of the Vyatka land to Moscow.
1406-1408 - War of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I with Vitovt Keistutovich.
1408 - March on Moscow by Emir Edigei.
1410 - Death of Prince Vladimir Andreevich the Brave Battle of Grunwald. The Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army of Jogaila and Vytautas defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order
OK. 1418 - Popular uprising against the boyars in Novgorod.
OK. 1420 - Beginning of coinage in Novgorod.
1422 - Peace of Melno, agreement between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland with the Teutonic Order (concluded on September 27, 1422 on the shore of Lake Mielno). The Order finally abandoned Samogitia and Lithuanian Zanemanje, retaining the Klaipeda region and Polish Pomerania.
1425-1462 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark.
1425-1461 - Reign of Prince Boris Alexandrovich in Tver. An attempt to enhance the significance of Tver.
1426-1428 - Campaigns of Vytautas of Lithuania against Novgorod and Pskov.
1427 - Recognition of vassal dependence on Lithuania by the Tver and Ryazan principalities. 1430 - death of Vytautas of Lithuania. The beginning of the decline of the Lithuanian great power
1425-1453 - Internecine war in Rus' between Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark with Yuri Zvenigorodsky, cousins Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka.
1430 - 1432 - struggle in Lithuania between Svidrigail Olgerdovich, representing the “Russian” party, and Sigismund, representing the “Lithuanian” party.
1428 - Raid of the Horde army on the Kostroma lands - Galich Mersky, destruction and robbery of Kostroma, Ples and Lukh.
1432 - Trial in the Horde between Vasily II and Yuri Zvenigorodsky (on the initiative of Yuri Dmitrievich). Confirmation of Grand Duke Vasily II.
1433-1434 - Capture of Moscow and the great reign of Yuri of Zvenigorod.
1437 - Ulu-Muhammad's campaign to the Zaoksky lands. Battle of Belevskaya December 5, 1437 (defeat of the Moscow army).
1439 - Basil II refuses to accept the Florentine Union with the Roman Catholic Church. The campaign of the Kazan Khan Makhmet (Ulu-Muhammad) to Moscow.
1438 - separation of the Kazan Khanate from the Golden Horde. The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde.
1440 - Recognition of the independence of Pskov by Casimir of Lithuania.
1444-1445 - Raid of the Kazan Khan Makhmet (Ulu-Muhammad) on Ryazan, Murom and Suzdal.
1443 - separation of the Crimean Khanate from the Golden Horde
1444-1448 - War of Livonia with Novgorod and Pskov. The campaign of Tver residents to the Novgorod lands.
1446 - Transfer to Moscow service of Kasim Khan, brother of the Kazan Khan. The blinding of Vasily II by Dmitry Shemyaka.
1448 - Election of Jonah as Metropolitan at the Council of the Russian Clergy. Signing of a 25-year peace between Pskov and Novgorod and Livonia.
1449 - Agreement between Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark and Casimir of Lithuania. Recognition of the independence of Novgorod and Pskov.
OK. 1450 - First mention of St. George's Day.
1451 - Annexation of the Suzdal Principality to Moscow. The campaign of Mahmut, the son of Kichi-Muhammad, to Moscow. He burned the settlements, but the Kremlin did not take them.
1456 - The campaign of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark against Novgorod, the defeat of the Novgorod army near Staraya Russa. Yazhelbitsky Treaty of Novgorod with Moscow. The first restriction of Novgorod liberties. 1454-1466 - The Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the Teutonic Order, which ended with the recognition of the Teutonic Order as a vassal of the Polish king.
1458 The final division of the Kyiv Metropolis into Moscow and Kyiv. The refusal of the church council in Moscow to recognize Metropolitan Gregory sent from Rome and the decision to henceforth appoint a metropolitan by the will of the Grand Duke and the council without approval in Constantinople.
1459 - Subordination of Vyatka to Moscow.
1459 - Separation of the Astrakhan Khanate from the Golden Horde
1460 - Truce between Pskov and Livonia for 5 years. Recognition of Moscow's sovereignty by Pskov.
1462 - Death of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark.
Russian state (Russian centralized state)
1462-1505 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich.
1462 - Ivan III stopped issuing Russian coins with the name of the Khan of the Horde. Statement by Ivan III on the renunciation of the khan's label for the great reign..
1465 - Scriba's detachment reaches the Ob River.
1466-1469 - Travel of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin to India.
1467-1469 - campaigns of the Moscow army against the Kazan Khanate..
1468 - Campaign of Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat to Ryazan.
1471 - 1st campaign of Grand Duke Ivan III against Novgorod, defeat of the Novgorod army on the Sheloni River. Horde campaign to the Moscow borders in the Trans-Oka region.
1472 - Annexation of the Perm land (Great Perm) to Moscow.
1474 - Annexation of the Rostov Principality to Moscow. Conclusion of a 30-year truce between Moscow and Livonia. The conclusion of the alliance of the Crimean Khanate and Moscow against the Great Horde and Lithuania.
1475 - capture of Crimea by Turkish troops. The transition of the Crimean Khanate to vassal dependence on Turkey.
1478 - 2nd campaign of Grand Duke Ivan III to Novgorod.
Elimination of independence of Novgorod.
1480 - “Great Stand” on the Ugra River of Russian and Tatar troops. Ivan III's refusal to pay tribute to the Horde. The end of the Horde yoke.
1483 - The campaign of the Moscow governor F. Kurbsky in the Trans-Urals on the Irtysh to the city of Isker, then down the Irtysh to the Ob in the Ugra land. Conquest of the Pelym Principality.
1485 - Annexation of the Tver Principality to Moscow.
1487-1489 - Conquest of the Kazan Khanate. Capture of Kazan (1487), adoption by Ivan III of the title "Grand Duke of the Bulgars". Moscow's protégé, Khan Mohammed-Emin, was elevated to the Kazan throne. Introduction of a local land tenure system.
1489 - March on Vyatka and the final annexation of the Vyatka land to Moscow. Annexation of Arsk land (Udmurtia).
1491 - “Campaign into the Wild Field” of a 60,000-strong Russian army to help the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey against the khans of the Great Horde. The Kazan Khan Muhammad-Emin joins the campaign to attack the flank.
1492 - Superstitious expectations of the “end of the world” in connection with the end (March 1) of the 7th millennium “from the creation of the world.” September - decision of the Moscow Church Council to postpone the start of the year to September 1. The first use of the title "autocrat" was in a message to Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich. Foundation of the Ivangorod fortress on the Narva River.
1492-1494 - 1st war of Ivan III with Lithuania. Annexation of Vyazma and the Verkhovsky principalities to Moscow.
1493 - Treaty of Ivan III on an alliance with Denmark against the Hansa and Sweden. Denmark cedes its possessions in Finland in exchange for the cessation of Hanseatic trade in Novgorod.
1495 - separation of the Siberian Khanate from the Golden Horde. Collapse of the Golden Horde
1496-1497 - War of Moscow with Sweden.
1496-1502 - reign in Kazan of Abdyl-Letif (Abdul-Latif) under the protectorate of Grand Duke Ivan III
1497 - Code of Law of Ivan III. The first Russian embassy in Istanbul
1499 -1501 - Campaign of the Moscow governors F. Kurbsky and P. Ushaty to the Northern Trans-Urals and the lower reaches of the Ob.
1500-1503 - 2nd war of Ivan III with Lithuania for the Verkhovsky principalities. Annexation of the Seversk land to Moscow.
1501 - Formation of a coalition of Lithuania, Livonia and the Great Horde, directed against Moscow, Crimea and Kazan. On August 30, the 20,000-strong army of the Great Horde began the devastation of the Kursk land, approaching Rylsk, and by November it reached the Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky lands. The Tatars captured the city of Novgorod-Seversky, but did not go further to the Moscow lands.
1501-1503 - War between Russia and the Livonian Order.
1502 - The final defeat of the Great Horde by the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, the transfer of its territory to the Crimean Khanate
1503 - Annexation of half of the Ryazan principality (including Tula) to Moscow. Truce with Lithuania and annexation of Chernigov, Bryansk and Gomel (almost a third of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) to Russia. Truce between Russia and Livonia.
1505 - Anti-Russian uprising in Kazan. The beginning of the Kazan-Russian War (1505-1507).
1505-1533 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich.
1506 - Unsuccessful siege of Kazan.
1507 - First raid of the Crimean Tatars on the southern borders of Russia.
1507-1508 - War between Russia and Lithuania.
1508 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Sweden for 60 years.
1510 - Elimination of independence of Pskov.
1512-1522 - War between Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
1517-1519 - Publishing activity of Francis Skaryna in Prague. Skaryna publishes a translation from Church Slavonic into Russian - “The Russian Bible”.
1512 - "Eternal Peace" with Kazan. Unsuccessful siege of Smolensk.
1513 - Accession of the Volotsk inheritance to the Moscow Principality.
1514 - Capture of Smolensk by the troops of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich and annexation of the Smolensk lands.
1515, April - Death of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, a longtime ally of Ivan III;
1519 - Campaign of the Russian army to Vilno (Vilnius).
1518 - Moscow’s protégé, Khan (Tsar) Shah-Ali, came to power in Kazan
1520 - Conclusion of a truce with Lithuania for 5 years.
1521 - Campaign of the Crimean and Kazan Tatars led by Muhammad-Girey (Magmet-Girey), Khan of Crimea and Kazan Khan Saip-Girey (Sahib-Girey) to Moscow. Siege of Moscow by the Crimeans. Complete annexation of the Ryazan principality to Moscow. Seizure of the throne of the Kazan Khanate by the dynasty of the Crimean khans Giray (Khan Sahib-Girey).
1522 - Arrest of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Vasily Shemyachich. Annexation of the Novgorod-Seversky Principality to Moscow.
1523-1524 - 2nd Kazan-Russian War.
1523 - Anti-Russian protests in Kazan. The march of Russian troops into the lands of the Kazan Khanate. Construction of the Vasilsursk fortress on the Sura River. Capture of Astrakhan by Crimean troops..
1524 - New Russian campaign against Kazan. Peace negotiations between Moscow and Kazan. Proclamation of Safa-Girey as king of Kazan.
1529 - Russian-Kazan Peace Treaty Siege of Vienna by the Turks
1530 - Campaign of the Russian army to Kazan.
1533-1584 - Reign of the Grand Duke and Tsar (from 1547) Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible.
1533-1538 - Regency of the mother of Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich Elena Glinskaya (1538+).
1538-1547 - Boyar rule under the infant Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich (until 1544 - Shuiskys, from 1544 - Glinskys)
1544-1546 - Annexation of the lands of the Mari and Chuvash to Russia, campaign in the lands of the Kazan Khanate.
1547 - Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich accepted the royal title (coronation). Fires and civil unrest in Moscow.
1547-1549 - Political program of Ivan Peresvetov: the creation of a permanent Streltsy army, the support of royal power on the nobles, the seizure of the Kazan Khanate and the distribution of its lands to the nobles.
1547-1550 - Unsuccessful campaigns (1547-1548, 1549-1550) of Russian troops against Kazan. Campaign of the Crimean Khan against Astrakhan. Construction of a protege of Crimea in Astrakhan
1549 - First news of Cossack towns on the Don. Formation of the embassy order. Convening of the first Zemsky Sobor.
1550 - Sudebnik (code of laws) of Ivan the Terrible.
1551 - "Stoglavy" Cathedral. Approval of the reform program (with the exception of the secularization of church lands and the introduction of a secular court for clergy). 3rd Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible.
1552 - 4th (Great) campaign of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich to Kazan. Unsuccessful campaign of the Crimean troops to Tula. Siege and capture of Kazan. Liquidation of the Kazan Khanate.
1552-1558 - Subjugation of the territory of the Kazan Khanate.
1553 - Unsuccessful campaign of the 120,000-strong army of Prince Yusuf of the Nogai Horde against Moscow..
1554 - 1st campaign of Russian governors to Astrakhan.
1555 - Abolition of feedings (completion of the provincial and zemstvo reforms) Recognition of vassal dependence on Russia by the Khan of the Siberian Khanate Ediger
1555-1557 - War between Russia and Sweden.
1555-1560 - Campaigns of Russian governors to Crimea.
1556 - Capture of Astrakhan and annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia. The transition of the entire Volga region to Russian rule. Adoption of the “Code of Service” - regulation of the service of nobles and local salary standards. Disintegration of the Nogai Horde into the Greater, Lesser and Altyul Hordes..
1557 - The oath of allegiance of the ambassadors of the ruler of Kabarda to the Russian Tsar. Recognition of vassal dependence on Russia by Prince Ismail of the Great Nogai Horde. The transition of the western and central Bashkir tribes (subjects of the Nogai Horde) to the Russian Tsar.
1558-1583 - Russian Livonian War for access to the Baltic Sea and for the lands of Livonia.
1558 - Capture of Narva and Dorpat by Russian troops.
1559 - Truce with Livonia. D. Ardashev's campaign to Crimea. Transition of Livonia under the protectorate of Poland.
1560 - Victory of the Russian army at Ermes, capture of Fellin castle. The victory of A. Kurbsky was won by the Livonians near Wenden. The fall of the government of the Chosen Rada, A. Adashev fell from grace. Transition of Northern Livonia to Swedish citizenship.
1563 - Capture of Polotsk by Tsar Ivan IV Seizure of power in the Siberian Khanate by Kuchum. Severance of vassal relations with Russia
1564 - Publication of "Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov.
1565 - Introduction of oprichnina by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. The beginning of oprichnina persecution 1563-1570 - Northern Seven Years' War of the Danish-Swedish War for dominance in the Baltic Sea. The Peace of Stettin 1570 largely restored the status quo.
1566 - Completion of the construction of the Great Zasechnaya Line (Ryazan-Tula-Kozelsk and Alatyr-Temnikov-Shatsk-Ryazhsk). The city of Orel was founded.
1567 - Union of Russia and Sweden. Construction of the Terki fortress (Tersky town) at the confluence of the Terek and Sunzha rivers. The beginning of Russia's advance into the Caucasus.
1568-1569 - Mass executions in Moscow. Destruction by order of Ivan the Terrible of the last appanage prince Andrei Vladimirovich Staritsky. Conclusion of peace agreements between Turkey and Crimea with Poland and Lithuania. The beginning of the openly hostile policy of the Ottoman Empire towards Russia
1569 - Campaign of the Crimean Tatars and Turks to Astrakhan, unsuccessful siege of Astrakhan Union of Lublin - Formation of a single Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1570 - Punitive campaigns of Ivan the Terrible against Tver, Novgorod and Pskov. The devastation of the Ryazan land by the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey. The beginning of the Russian-Swedish war. Unsuccessful siege of Revel Formation of the vassal kingdom of Magnus (brother of the King of Denmark) in Livonia.
1571 - Campaign of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey to Moscow. Capture and burning of Moscow. Flight of Ivan the Terrible to Serpukhov, Alexandrov Sloboda, then to Rostov..
1572 - Negotiations between Ivan the Terrible and Devlet-Girey. A new campaign of the Crimean Tatars against Moscow. Victory of governor M.I. Vorotynsky on the Lopasna river. Retreat of Khan Devlet-Girey. Abolition of the oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible. Execution of oprichnina leaders.
1574 - Founding of the city of Ufa;.
1575-1577 - Campaigns of Russian troops in Northern Livonia and Livonia.
1575-1576 - Nominal reign of Simeon Bekbulatovich (1616+), Kasimov Khan, proclaimed by Ivan the Terrible "Grand Duke of All Rus'".
1576 - Founding of Samara. Capture of a number of strongholds in Livonia (Pernov (Pärnu), Venden, Paidu, etc.) Election of the Turkish protege Stefan Batory to the Polish throne (1586+).
1577 - Unsuccessful siege of Revel.
1579 - Capture of Polotsk and Velikiye Luki by Stefan Batory.
1580s - First news of Cossack towns on Yaik.
1580 - 2nd campaign of Stefan Batory to Russian lands and his capture of Velikiye Luki. Capture of Korela by the Swedish commander Delagardi. The decision of the church council to prohibit the acquisition of land by churches and monasteries.
1581 - Capture of the Russian fortresses of Narva and Ivangorod by Swedish troops. Cancellation of St. George's Day. The first mention of “reserved” years. The murder of his eldest son Ivan by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible.
1581-1582 - Stefan Batory’s siege of Pskov and its defense by I. Shuisky.
1581-1585 - The campaign of the Cossack ataman Ermak to Siberia and the defeat of the Siberian Khanate of Kuchum.
1582 - Yam-Zapolsky truce between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for 10 years. Transfer of Livonia and Polotsk into Polish possession. Relocation of part of the Don Cossacks to the Grebni tract in the North. Caucasus Bull of Pope Gregory XIII on calendar reform and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar.
1582-1584 - Mass uprisings of the peoples of the Middle Volga region (Tatars, Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts) against Moscow Introduction of a new calendar style in Catholic countries (Italy, Spain, Poland, France, etc.). "Calendar riots" in Riga (1584).
1583 - Plyus truce between Russia and Sweden for 10 years with the cession of Narva, Yama, Koporye, Ivangorod. The end of the Livonian War, which lasted (with interruptions) 25 years.
1584-1598 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich 1586 - election of Swedish prince Sigismund III Vasa as king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1632+)
1586-1618 - Accession Western Siberia to Russia. Founding of Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Berezov (1593), Obdorsk (1595), Tomsk (1604).
OK. 1598 - death of Khan Kuchum. The power of his son Ali remains in the upper reaches of the Ishim, Irtysh, and Tobol rivers.
1587 - Renewal of relations between Georgia and Russia.
1589 - Founding of the Tsaritsyn fortress at the portage between the Don and Volga. Establishment of the patriarchate in Russia.
1590 - Founding of Saratov.
1590-1593 - Successful war between Russia and Sweden 1592 - King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III Vasa came to power in Sweden. The beginning of Sigismund's struggle with another contender for the throne and relative Charles Vasa (future King Charles IX of Sweden)
1591 - Death of Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich in Uglich, uprising of the townspeople.
1592-1593 - Decree on the exemption from duties and taxes of the lands of landowners performing military service and living on their estates (the appearance of “white lands”). Decree banning peasant exit. The final attachment of peasants to the land.
1595 - Treaty of Tyavzin with Sweden. Return to Russia the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, Oreshek, Nyenshan. Recognition of Swedish control over Russia's Baltic trade.
1597 - Decree on indentured servants (lifetime of their condition without the possibility of paying off the debt, termination of service with the death of the master). Decree on a five-year period for searching for fugitive peasants (lesson years).
1598 - Death of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. The end of the Rurik dynasty. Adoption of the Babinovskaya road as the official government route to Siberia (instead of the old Cherdynskaya road).
Time of Troubles
1598-1605 - Reign of Tsar Boris Godunov.
1598 - Active construction of cities in Siberia begins.
1601-1603 - Famine in Russia. Partial restoration of St. George's Day and limited output of peasants.
1604 - Construction of the Tomsk fortress by a detachment from Surgut at the request of the prince of the Tomsk Tatars. The appearance of the impostor False Dmitry in Poland, his campaign at the head of the Cossacks and mercenaries against Moscow.
1605 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Borisovich Godunov (1605x).
1605-1606 - Reign of the impostor False Dmitry I
Preparation of a new Code allowing peasant exit.
1606 - Conspiracy of the boyars led by Prince V.I. Shuisky. Overthrow and murder of False Dmitry I. Proclamation of V.I. Shuisky as king.
1606-1610 - Reign of Tsar Vasily IV Ivanovich Shuisky.
1606-1607 - Rebellion of I.I. Bolotnikov and Lyapunov under the motto “Tsar Dmitry!”
1606 - Appearance of the impostor False Dmitry II.
1607 - Decrees on “voluntary slaves”, on a 15-year period for searching for runaway peasants and on sanctions for the reception and retention of runaway peasants. Cancellation of the reforms of Godunov and False Dmitry I.
1608 - Victory of False Dmitry II over government troops led by D.I. Shuisky near Bolkhov.
Creation of the Tushino camp near Moscow..
1608-1610 - Unsuccessful siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Polish and Lithuanian troops.
1609 - Appeal for help (February) against False Dmitry II to the Swedish king Charles IX at the cost territorial concessions. Advance of Swedish troops to Novgorod. Entry of the Polish king Sigismund III into the Russian state (September). The beginning of the Polish intervention in Russia. Naming Metropolitan Philaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov) patriarch in the Tushino camp. Confusion in the Tushino camp. Flight of False Dmitry II.
1609-1611 - Siege of Smolensk by Polish troops.
1610 - Battle of Klushin (June 24) between Russian and Polish troops. Liquidation of the Tushino camp. A new attempt by False Dmitry II to organize a campaign against Moscow. Death of False Dmitry II. Removal of Vasily Shuisky from the throne. The entry of the Poles into Moscow.
1610-1613 - Interregnum (“Seven Boyars”).
1611 - Defeat of Lyapunov's militia. The fall of Smolensk after a two-year siege. Captivity of Patriarch Filaret, V.I. Shuisky and others.
1611-1617 - Swedish intervention in Russia;.
1612 - Gathering of a new militia of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky. Liberation of Moscow, defeat of Polish troops. Death of the former Tsar Vasily Shuisky in captivity in Poland.
1613 - Convening of the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow. Election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne.
1613-1645 - Reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.
1615-1616 - Liquidation of the Cossack movement of Ataman Balovnya.
1617 - Peace of Stolbovo with Sweden. The return of Novgorod lands to Russia, the loss of access to the Baltic - the cities of Korela (Kexholm), Koporye, Oreshek, Yam, Ivangorod went to Sweden.
1618 - Deulin truce with Poland. Transfer of Smolensk lands (including Smolensk), except for Vyazma, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands with 29 cities to Poland. Refusal of the prince of Poland Vladislav from claims to the Russian throne. Election of Filaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov) as Patriarch.
1619-1633 - Patriarchate and reign of Filaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov).
1620-1624 - Beginning of Russian penetration into Eastern Siberia. Hiking to the Lena River and up the Lena to the land of the Buryats.
1621 - Establishment of the Siberian diocese.
1632 - Organization of troops of a “foreign system” in the Russian army. Founding of the first ironworks in Tula by A. Vinius. The war between Russia and Poland for the return of Smolensk. Foundation of the Yakut fort (in its present location since 1643) 1630-1634 - Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War, when the Swedish army, having invaded Germany (under the command of Gustav II Adolf), won victories at Breitenfeld (1631), Lützen (1632), but was defeated at Nördlingen (1634).
1633-1638 - Campaign of the Cossacks I. Perfilyev and I. Rebrov from the lower reaches of the Lena to the Yana and Indigirka rivers 1635-1648 - Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War, when with the entry of France into the war the clear superiority of the anti-Habsburg coalition was determined. As a result, the Habsburg plans collapsed, and political hegemony passed to France. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
1636 - Foundation of the Tambov fortress.
1637 - Capture of the Turkish fortress of Azov at the mouth of the Don by the Don Cossacks.
1638 - Hetman Ya. Ostranin, who rebelled against the Poles, moved with his army to Russian territory. The formation of suburban Ukraine began (regions of Kharkov, Kursk, etc. between the Don and Dnieper)
1638-1639 - Campaign of the Cossacks P. Ivanov from Yakutsk to the upper reaches of the Yana and Indigirka.
1639-1640 - Campaign of the Cossacks I. Moskvitin from Yakutsk to Lamsky (Sea of Okhotsk, access to Pacific Ocean. Completion of the latitudinal crossing of Siberia begun by Ermak.
1639 - Founding of the first glass factory in Russia.
1641 - Successful defense of the Azov fortress by the Don Cossacks at the mouth of the Don (“Azov Seat”).
1642 - Termination of the defense of the Azov fortress. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor to return Azov to Turkey. Registration of the noble military class.
1643 - Liquidation of the Koda Khanty principality on the right bank of the Ob. The sea voyage of the Cossacks, led by M. Starodukhin and D. Zdyryan, from Indigirka to Kolyma. The exit of Russian servicemen and industrial people to Baikal (K. Ivanov’s campaign) The discovery of Sakhalin by the Dutch navigator M. de Vries, who mistook Sakhalin Island for part of Hokkaido Island..
1643-1646 - V. Poyarkov’s campaign from Yakutsk to Aldan, Zeya, Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk.
1645-1676 - Reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov.
1646 - Replacement of direct taxes with a tax on salt. Cancellation of the salt tax and return to direct taxes due to mass unrest. Census of the draft and partly non-tax population.
1648-1654 - Construction of the Simbirsk abatis line (Simbirsk-Karsun-Saransk-Tambov). Construction of the Simbirsk fortress (1648).
1648 - S. Dezhnev’s voyage from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the mouth of the Anadyr River through the strait separating Eurasia from America. "Salt riot" in Moscow. Uprisings of citizens in Kursk, Yelets, Tomsk, Ustyug, etc. Concessions to the nobles: convening of the Zemsky Sobor to adopt a new Code, abolition of collection of arrears. The beginning of the uprising of B. Khmelnitsky against the Poles in Ukraine..
1649 - Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich. The final formalization of serfdom (the introduction of an indefinite search for fugitives), the liquidation of “white settlements” (feudal estates in cities exempt from taxes and duties). Legalization of the search for denunciation of intent against the Tsar or his insult (“The Sovereign’s Word and Deed”) Deprivation of the British trade privileges at the request of the Russian merchants..
1649-1652 - E. Khabarov’s campaigns on the Amur and Daurian land. The first clashes between the Russians and the Manchus. Creation of territorial regiments in Slobodskaya Ukraine (Ostrogozhsky, Akhtyrsky, Sumsky, Kharkovsky).
1651 - Beginning of church reform by Patriarch Nikon. Foundation of the German Settlement in Moscow.
1651-1660 - M. Stadukhin’s hike along the Anadyr-Okhotsk-Yakutsk route. Establishing a connection between the northern and southern routes to the Sea of Okhotsk.
1652-1656 - Construction of the Zakamskaya abatis line (Bely Yar - Menzelinsk).
1652-1667 - Clashes between secular and ecclesiastical authorities.
1653 - The decision of the Zemsky Sobor to accept the citizenship of Ukraine and the start of the war with Poland. Adoption of a trade charter regulating trade (a single trade duty, a ban on collecting travel duties in the possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords, limiting peasant trade to trade from carts, increasing duties for foreign merchants).
1654-1667 - Russian-Polish war for Ukraine.
1654 - Approval of Nikon's reforms by the church council. The emergence of the Old Believers led by Archpriest Avvakum, the beginning of a schism in the church. Approval by the Pereyaslav Rada of the Zaporozhye Treaty of the Zaporozhye Treaty (01/8/1654) on the transition of Ukraine (Poltava, Kiev, Chernihiv, Podolia, Volyn) to Russia with the preservation of broad autonomy (inviolability of the rights of the Cossacks, election of a hetman, independent foreign policy, non-jurisdiction of Moscow, payment of tribute without interference Moscow collectors). Capture of Polotsk, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Smolensk by Russian troops
1655 - Capture of Minsk, Vilna, Grodno by Russian troops, access to Brest. Swedish invasion of Poland. Beginning of the first Northern War
1656 - Capture of Nyenskans and Dorpat. Siege of Riga. Armistice with Poland and declaration of war on Sweden.
1656-1658 - Russian-Swedish war for access to the Baltic Sea.
1657 - Death of B. Khmelnitsky. Election of I. Vyhovsky as hetman of Ukraine.
1658 - Nikon open conflict with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Beginning of the issuance of copper money (payment of salaries in copper money and collection of taxes in silver). Termination of negotiations with Poland, resumption of the Russian-Polish war. Invasion of Russian troops into Ukraine Gadyach Treaty between Hetman of Ukraine Vyhovsky and Poland on the annexation of Ukraine as an autonomous “Russian principality” to Poland.
1659 - Defeat of Russian troops at Konotop from Hetman of Ukraine I. Vygovsky and the Crimean Tatars. Refusal of the Pereyaslav Rada to approve the Gadyach Treaty. Removal of Hetman I. Vygovsky and election of Hetman of Ukraine Yu. Khmelnytsky. Approval by the Rada of a new agreement with Russia. The defeat of Russian troops in Belarus, the betrayal of Hetman Yu. Khmelnitsky. The split of the Ukrainian Cossacks into supporters of Moscow and supporters of Poland.
1661 - Treaty of Kardis between Russia and Sweden. Russia's renunciation of the conquests of 1656, return to the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace of 1617 1660-1664 - Austro-Turkish War, division of the lands of the Kingdom of Hungary.
1662 - "Copper riot" in Moscow.
1663 - Founding of Penza. The split of Ukraine into the hetmanates of Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine
1665 - Reforms of A. Ordin-Nashchekin in Pskov: establishment of merchant companies, introduction of elements of self-government. Strengthening Moscow's position in Ukraine.
1665-1677 - hetmanship of P. Doroshenko in Right Bank Ukraine.
1666 - Nikon was deprived of the rank of patriarch and the condemnation of the Old Believers by a church council. Construction of a new Albazinsky fort on the Amur by the rebel Ilim Cossacks (accepted as Russian citizenship in 1672)..
1667 - Construction of ships for the Caspian flotilla. New trading charter. Archpriest Avvakum's exile to the Pustozersky prison for "heresies" (criticism) of the country's rulers. A. Ordin-Nashchekin at the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz (1667-1671). Conclusion of the Andrusovo truce with Poland by A. Ordin-Nashchekin. Implementation of the division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia (transition of Left Bank Ukraine under Russian rule).
1667-1676 - Solovetsky uprising of schismatic monks (“Solovetsky sitting”).
1669 - Hetman of Right Bank Ukraine P. Doroshenko comes under Turkish rule.
1670-1671 - Uprising of peasants and Cossacks led by Don Ataman S. Razin.
1672 - First self-immolation of schismatics (in Nizhny Novgorod). The first professional theater in Russia. Decree on the distribution of “wild fields” to servicemen and clergy in the “Ukrainian” regions. Russian-Polish agreement on assistance to Poland in the war with Turkey 1672-1676 - the war between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire for Right Bank Ukraine..
1673 - Campaign of Russian troops and Don Cossacks to Azov.
1673-1675 - Campaigns of Russian troops against Hetman P. Doroshenko (campaigns against Chigirin), defeat by Turkish and Crimean Tatar troops.
1675-1678 - Russian embassy mission to Beijing. The Qin government's refusal to consider Russia as an equal partner.
1676-1682 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich Romanov.
1676-1681 - Russian-Turkish war for Right Bank Ukraine.
1676 - Russian troops occupy the capital of Right Bank Ukraine, Chigirin. Zhuravsky peace of Poland and Turkey: Türkiye receives Podolia, P. Doroshenko is recognized as a vassal of Turkey
1677 - Victory of Russian troops over the Turks near Chigirin.
1678 - Russian-Polish treaty extending the truce with Poland for 13 years. Agreement of the parties on the preparation of "eternal peace". Capture of Chigirin by the Turks
1679-1681 - Tax reform. Transition to household taxation instead of taxation.
1681-1683 - Seit uprising in Bashkiria due to forced Christianization. Suppression of the uprising with the help of Kalmyks.
1681 - Abolition of the Kasimov kingdom. Bakhchisarai peace treaty between Russia and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. Establishment of the Russian-Turkish border along the Dnieper. Recognition of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv by Russia.
1682-1689 - Simultaneous reign of the princess-ruler Sofia Alekseevna and the kings Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1682-1689 - Armed conflict between Russia and China on the Amur.
1682 - Abolition of localism. The beginning of the Streltsy riot in Moscow. Establishment of the government of Princess Sophia. Suppression of the Streltsy revolt. Execution of Avvakum and his supporters in Pustozersk.
1683-1684 - Construction of the Syzran abatis line (Syzran-Penza).
1686 - “Eternal Peace” between Russia and Poland. Russia's accession to the anti-Turkish coalition of Poland, the Holy Empire and Venice (Holy League) with Russia's obligation to make a campaign against the Crimean Khanate.
1686-1700 - War between Russia and Turkey. Crimean campaigns of V. Golitsin.
1687 - Founding of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow.
1689 - Construction of the Verkhneudinsk fortress (modern Ulan-Ude) at the confluence of the Uda and Selenga rivers. Nerchinsk Treaty between Russia and China. Establishment of the border along the Argun - Stanovoy Range - Uda River to the Sea of Okhotsk. Overthrow of the government of Princess Sofia Alekseevna.
1689-1696 - Simultaneous reign of Tsars Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1695 - Establishment of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz. The first Azov campaign of Peter I. Organization of "companies" to finance the construction of the fleet, the creation of a shipyard on the Voronezh River.
1695-1696 - Uprisings of the local and Cossack population in Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and Transbaikalia.
1696 - Death of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich.
Russian empire
1689 - 1725 - Reign of Peter I.
1695 - 1696 - Azov campaigns.
1699 - Reform of city government.
1700 - Russian-Turkish truce agreement.
1700 - 1721 - Great Northern War.
1700, November 19 - Battle of Narva.
1703 - Founding of St. Petersburg.
1705 - 1706 - Uprising in Astrakhan.
1705 - 1711 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1708 - Provincial reform of Peter I.
1709, June 27 - Battle of Poltava.
1711 - Establishment of the Senate. Prut campaign of Peter I.
1711 - 1765 - Years of life of M.V. Lomonosov.
1716 - Military regulations of Peter I.
1718 - Establishment of the college. Beginning of the capitation census.
1721 - Establishment of the Chief Magistrate of the Synod. Decree on possessional peasants.
1721 - Peter I accepted the title of ALL-RUSSIAN EMPEROR. RUSSIA BECAME AN EMPIRE.
1722 - "Table of Ranks".
1722 -1723 - Russian - Iranian war.
1727 - 1730 - Reign of Peter II.
1730 - 1740 - Reign of Anna Ioannovna.
1730 - Repeal of the 1714 law on unified inheritance. Acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Younger Horde in Kazakhstan.
1735 - 1739 - Russian - Turkish War.
1735 - 1740 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1741 - 1761 - Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
1742 - Discovery of the northern tip of Asia by Chelyuskin.
1750 - Opening of the first Russian theater in Yaroslavl (F.G. Volkov).
1754 - Abolition of internal customs.
1755 - Foundation of Moscow University.
1757 - 1761 - Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War.
1757 - Establishment of the Academy of Arts.
1760 - 1764 - Mass unrest among assigned peasants in the Urals.
1761 - 1762 - Reign of Peter III.
1762 - Manifesto "on the freedom of the nobility."
1762 - 1796 - Reign of Catherine II.
1763 - 1765 - Invention of I.I. Polzunov's steam engine.
1764 - Secularization of church lands.
1765 - Decree allowing landowners to exile peasants to hard labor. Establishment of the Free Economic Society.
1767 - Decree prohibiting peasants from complaining about landowners.
1767 - 1768 - "Commission on the Code".
1768 - 1769 - "Koliivschina".
1768 - 1774 - Russian - Turkish War.
1771 - "Plague riot" in Moscow.
1772 - First partition of Poland.
1773 - 1775 - Peasant War led by E.I. Pugacheva.
1775 - Provincial reform. Manifesto on freedom of organization of industrial enterprises.
1783 - Annexation of Crimea. Treaty of Georgievsk on the Russian protectorate over Eastern Georgia.
1783 - 1797 - Uprising of Sym Datov in Kazakhstan.
1785 - Charter granted to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 - Russian - Turkish war.
1788 -1790 - Russian-Swedish war.
1790 - Publication of “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev.
1793 - Second partition of Poland.
1794 - Uprising in Poland led by T. Kosciuszko.
1795 - Third partition of Poland.
1796 - 1801 - Reign of Paul I.
1798 - 1800 - Mediterranean campaign of the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakova.
1799 - Italian and Swiss campaigns of Suvorov.
1801 - 1825 - Reign of Alexander I.
1803 - Decree "on free cultivators."
1804 - 1813 - War with Iran.
1805 - Creation of an alliance between Russia and England and Austria against France.
1806 - 1812 - War with Turkey.
1806 - 1807 - Creation of an alliance with England and Prussia against France.
1807 - Peace of Tilsit.
1808 - War with Sweden. Accession of Finland.
1810 - Creation of the State Council.
1812 - Annexation of Bessarabia to Russia.
1812, June - Invasion of Napoleonic army into Russia. The beginning of the Patriotic War. August 26 - Battle of Borodino. September 2 - leaving Moscow. December - Expulsion of Napoleonic army from Russia.
1813 - Annexation of Dagestan and part of Northern Azerbaijan to Russia.
1813 - 1814 - Foreign campaigns of the Russian army.
1815 - Congress in Vienna. The Duchy of Warsaw is part of Russia.
1816 - Creation of the first secret organization of the Decembrists, the Union of Salvation.
1819 - Uprising of military settlers in the city of Chuguev.
1819 - 1821 - Around the world expedition to Antarctica F.F. Bellingshausen.
1820 - Unrest of soldiers in the tsarist army. Creation of a "prosperity union".
1821 - 1822 - Creation of the "Southern Secret Society" and the "Northern Secret Society".
1825 - 1855 - Reign of Nicholas I.
1825, December 14 - Decembrist uprising on Senate Square.
1828 - Annexation of Eastern Armenia and all of Northern Azerbaijan to Russia.
1830 - Military uprising in Sevastopol.
1831 - Uprising in Staraya Russa.
1843 - 1851 - Construction of the railway between Moscow and St. Petersburg.
1849 - Help the Russian army in suppressing the Hungarian uprising in Austria.
1853 - Herzen created the “Free Russian Printing House” in London.
1853 - 1856 - Crimean War.
1854, September - 1855, August - Defense of Sevastopol.
1855 - 1881 - Reign of Alexander II.
1856 - Treaty of Paris.
1858 - The Aigun Treaty on the border with China was concluded.
1859 - 1861 - Revolutionary situation in Russia.
1860 - Beijing Treaty on the border with China. Foundation of Vladivostok.
1861, February 19 - Manifesto on the liberation of peasants from serfdom.
1863 - 1864 - Uprising in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus.
1864 - The entire Caucasus became part of Russia. Zemstvo and judicial reforms.
1868 - The Khanate of Kokand and the Emirate of Bukhara recognize political dependence on Russia.
1870 - Reform of city government.
1873 - The Khan of Khiva recognized political dependence on Russia.
1874 - Introduction of universal conscription.
1876 - Liquidation of the Kokand Khanate. Creation of a secret revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom".
1877 - 1878 - Russian - Turkish War.
1878 - Treaty of San Stefano.
1879 - Split of "Land and Freedom". Creation of the "Black Redistribution".
1881, March 1 - Assassination of Alexander II.
1881 - 1894 - Reign Alexandra III.
1891 - 1893 - Conclusion of the Franco-Russian alliance.
1885 - Morozov strike.
1894 - 1917 - Reign of Nicholas II.
1900 - 1903 - Economic crisis.
1904 - Murder of Plehve.
1904 - 1905 - Russian - Japanese War.
1905, January 9 - "Bloody Sunday".
1905 - 1907 - The first Russian revolution.
1906, April 27 - July 8 - First State Duma.
1906 - 1911 - Stolypin's agrarian reform.
1907, February 20 - June 2 - Second State Duma.
1907, November 1 - 1912, June 9 - Third State Duma.
1907 - Creation of the Entente.
1911, September 1 - Murder of Stolypin.
1913 - Celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty.
1914 - 1918 - First World War.
1917, February 18 - Strike at the Putilov plant. March 1 - creation of the Provisional Government. March 2 - Nicholas II abdicates the throne. June - July - crisis of power. August - Kornilov rebellion. September 1 - Russia is declared a republic. October - Bolshevik seizure of power.
1917, March 2 - Formation of the Provisional Government.
1917, March 3 - Abdication of Mikhail Alexandrovich.
1917, March 2 - Establishment of the Provisional Government.
Russian Republic and RSFSR
1918, July 17 - assassination of the deposed Emperor and royal family.
1917, July 3 - July Bolshevik uprisings.
1917, July 24 - Announcement of the composition of the second coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, August 12 - Convening of the State Conference.
1917, September 1 - Russia is declared a republic.
1917, September 20 - Formation of the Pre-Parliament.
1917, September 25 - Announcement of the composition of the third coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 25 - Appeal by V.I. Lenin on the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee.
1917, October 26 - Arrest of members of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 26 - Decrees on peace and land.
1917, December 7 - Establishment of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission.
1918, January 5 - Opening of the Constituent Assembly.
1918 - 1922 - Civil War.
1918, March 3 - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
1918, May - Uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps.
1919, November - Defeat of A.V. Kolchak.
1920, April - Transfer of power in the Volunteer Army from A.I. Denikin to P.N. Wrangel.
1920, November - Defeat of the army of P.N. Wrangel.
1921, March 18 - Signing of the Peace of Riga with Poland.
1921 - X Party Congress, resolution “On Party Unity.”
1921 - Beginning of the NEP.
1922, December 29 - Union Treaty.
1922 - “Philosophical Steamship”
1924, January 21 - Death of V.I. Lenin
1924, January 31 - Constitution of the USSR.
1925 - XVI Party Congress
1925 - Adoption of the resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) regarding the party’s policy in the field of culture
1929 - The year of the “great turning point”, the beginning of collectivization and industrialization
1932-1933 - Famine
1933 - Recognition of the USSR by the USA
1934 - First Congress of Writers
1934 - XVII Party Congress (“Congress of Winners”)
1934 - Inclusion of the USSR in the League of Nations
1936 - Constitution of the USSR
1938 - Clash with Japan at Lake Khasan
1939, May - Clash with Japan at the Khalkhin Gol River
1939, August 23 - Signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
1939, September 1 - Beginning of World War II
1939, September 17 - Soviet invasion of Poland
1939, September 28 - Signing of the Treaty with Germany “On Friendship and Borders”
1939, November 30 - Beginning of the war with Finland
December 14, 1939 - Expulsion of the USSR from the League of Nations
March 12, 1940 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Finland
1941, April 13 - Signing of a non-aggression pact with Japan
1941, June 22 - Invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany and its allies
1941, June 23 - The Headquarters of the High Command was formed
1941, June 28 - Capture of Minsk by German troops
1941, June 30 - Establishment of the State Defense Committee (GKO)
1941, August 5-October 16 - Defense of Odessa
1941, September 8 - Beginning of the siege of Leningrad
1941, September 29-October 1 - Moscow Conference
1941, September 30 - Start of implementation of the Typhoon plan
1941, December 5 - Beginning of the counter-offensive of Soviet troops in the Battle of Moscow
1941, December 5-6 - Defense of Sevastopol
1942, January 1 - Accession of the USSR to the Declaration of the United Nations
1942, May - Defeat of the Soviet army during the Kharkov operation
1942, July 17 - Beginning Battle of Stalingrad
1942, November 19-20 - Operation Uranus begins
1943, January 10 - Operation Ring begins
1943, January 18 - End of the siege of Leningrad
1943, July 5 - Beginning of the counteroffensive of Soviet troops in the Battle of Kursk
1943, July 12 - Beginning of the Battle of Kursk
1943, November 6 - Liberation of Kyiv
1943, November 28-December 1 - Tehran Conference
1944, June 23-24 - Beginning of the Iasi-Kishinev operation
1944, August 20 - Operation Bagration begins
1945, January 12-14 - Beginning of the Vistula-Oder operation
1945, February 4-11 - Yalta Conference
1945, April 16-18 - Beginning of the Berlin operation
1945, April 18 - Surrender of the Berlin garrison
1945, May 8 - Signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Germany
1945, July 17 - August 2 - Potsdam Conference
1945, August 8 - Announcement of soldiers of the USSR to Japan
1945, September 2 - Japanese surrender.
1946 - Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad””
1949 - Testing of USSR atomic weapons. Leningrad affair". Testing of Soviet nuclear weapons. Education of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. 1949 Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
1950-1953 - Korean War
1952 - XIX Party Congress
1952-1953 - “the doctors’ case”
1953 - Test of hydrogen weapons of the USSR
1953, March 5 - Death of I.V. Stalin
1955 - Formation of the Warsaw Pact organization
1956 - XX Party Congress, debunking the personality cult of J.V. Stalin
1957 - Completion of construction of the nuclear-powered icebreaker "Lenin"
1957 - The USSR launches the first satellite into space
1957 - Establishment of Economic Councils
1961, April 12 - Yu. A. Gagarin's flight into space
1961 - XXII Party Congress
1961 - Kosygin reforms
1962 - Unrest in Novocherkassk
1964 - Removal of N. S. Khrushchev from the post of First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
1965 - Construction of the Berlin Wall
1968 - Introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia
1969 - Military clash between the USSR and China
1974 - Construction of BAM begins
1972 - A.I. Brodsky expelled from the USSR
1974 - A.I. Solzhenitsyn expelled from the USSR
1975 - Helsinki Agreement
1977 - New Constitution
1979 - Entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
1980-1981 - Political crisis in Poland.
1982-1984 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Yu.V. Andropova
1984-1985 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee K.U. Chernenko
1985-1991 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev
1988 - XIX Party Conference
1988 - Beginning of the armed conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan
1989 - Election of the Congress of People's Deputies
1989 - Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan
1990 - Election of M. S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR
1991, August 19-22 - Creation of the State Emergency Committee. Coup attempt
1991, August 24 - Mikhail Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee (August 29, the Russian parliament prohibits the activities of the Communist Party and seizes party property).
1991, December 8 - Belovezhskaya Agreement, abolition of the USSR, creation of the CIS.
1991, December 25 - M.S. Gorbachev resigns as president of the USSR.
Russian Federation
1992 - Beginning of market reforms in the Russian Federation.
1993, September 21 - “Decree on phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation.” The beginning of the political crisis.
1993, October 2-3 - clashes in Moscow between supporters of the parliamentary opposition and the police.
1993, October 4 - military units seized the White House, arrested A.V. Rutsky and R.I. Khasbulatova.
1993, December 12 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Elections to the first State Duma of the Russian Federation for a transition period (2 years).
1994, December 11 - Entry of Russian troops into the Chechen Republic to establish “constitutional order.”
1995 - Elections to the State Duma for 4 years.
1996 - Elections to the position of President of the Russian Federation. B.N. Yeltsin gains 54% of the vote and becomes President of the Russian Federation.
1996 - Signing of a temporary agreement on the suspension of hostilities.
1997 - completion of the withdrawal of federal troops from Chechnya.
1998, August 17 - economic crisis in Russia, default.
1999, August - Chechen militants invaded the mountainous regions of Dagestan. Beginning of the Second Chechen Campaign.
1999, December 31 - B.N. Yeltsin announced his early resignation as President of the Russian Federation and the appointment of V.V. Putin as acting president of Russia.
2000, March - election of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, August - the death of the nuclear submarine Kursk. 117 crew members of the Kursk nuclear submarine were posthumously awarded the Order of Courage, the captain was posthumously awarded the Hero's Star.
2000, April 14 - The State Duma decided to ratify the Russian-American START-2 treaty. This agreement involves further reductions in the strategic offensive weapons of both countries.
2000, May 7 - Official entry of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, May 17 - Approval of M.M. Kasyanov Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation.
2000, August 8 - Terrorist act in Moscow - explosion in underground passage Pushkinskaya metro station. 13 people were killed, a hundred were injured.
2004, August 21-22 - There was an invasion of Grozny by a detachment of militants numbering more than 200 people. For three hours they held the city center and killed more than 100 people.
2004, August 24 - Two passenger planes taking off from Moscow Domodedovo Airport to Sochi and Volgograd were simultaneously blown up in the skies over the Tula and Rostov regions. 90 people died.
2005, May 9 - Parade on Red Square on May 9, 2005 in honor of the 60th anniversary of Victory Day.
2005, August - Scandal with the beating of the children of Russian diplomats in Poland and the “retaliatory” beating of Poles in Moscow.
2005, November 1 - A successful test launch of the Topol-M missile with a new warhead was carried out from the Kapustin Yar test site in the Astrakhan region.
2006, January 1 - Municipal reform in Russia.
2006, March 12 - First Unified Voting Day (changes in the electoral legislation of the Russian Federation).
2006, July 10 - Chechen terrorist “number 1” Shamil Basayev was killed.
2006, October 10, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Federal Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel unveiled a monument to Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky in Dresden folk artist Russia Alexandra Rukavishnikov.
2006, October 13 - Russian Vladimir Kramnik was declared the absolute world chess champion after winning a match over Bulgarian Veselin Topalov.
2007, January 1 - Krasnoyarsk region, Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) and Evenki Autonomous Okrugs merged into a single subject of the Russian Federation - the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
2007, February 10 - President of Russia V.V. Putin said the so-called "Munich speech".
2007, May 17 - In the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Savior, Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II and the First Hierarch of the ROCOR, Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York Laurus, signed the “Act of Canonical Communion,” a document that put an end to the division between the Russian Church Abroad and the Moscow Patriarchate.
2007, July 1 - The Kamchatka region and the Koryak Autonomous Okrug merged into the Kamchatka Territory.
2007, August 13 - Nevsky Express train accident.
2007, September 12 - The government of Mikhail Fradkov resigned.
2007, September 14 - Viktor Zubkov was appointed as the new Prime Minister of Russia.
2007, October 17 - The Russian national football team led by Guus Hiddink defeated the English national team with a score of 2:1.
2007, December 2 - Elections to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the 5th convocation.
2007, December 10 - Dmitry Medvedev was nominated as a candidate for President of the Russian Federation from United Russia.
2008, March 2 - The elections of the third president of the Russian Federation were held. Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev won.
2008, May 7 - Inauguration of the third President of the Russian Federation, Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev.
2008, August 8 - Active hostilities began in the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, Russia officially joined the armed conflict on the side of South Ossetia.
2008, August 11 - Active hostilities began in the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, Russia officially joined the armed conflict on the side of South Ossetia.
2008, August 26 - Russian President D. A. Medvedev signed a decree recognizing the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
2008, September 14 - A Boeing 737 passenger plane crashed in Perm.
2008, December 5 - Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II died. Temporarily, the place of the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church is occupied by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad.
2009, January 1 - The Unified State Exam became mandatory throughout Russia.
2009, January 25-27 - Extraordinary Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church elected a new Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. It was Kirill.
2009, February 1 - Enthronement of the newly elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Kirill.
2009, July 6-7 - Visit of US President Barack Obama to Russia.
Today, there are several variants of approaches to periodization in general and Russia in particular: civilizational, formational and world-systemic. Each of these approaches is distinguished not only by the criteria by which the historical process is conditionally segmented, but by its general semantic content, the way of understanding the historical process of human development. That is, criteria such as type of thinking or means of production, socio-economic relations or religion can be used for periodization. The most famous are the formational approach and the approach to the periodization of Russian history from the position of liberalism.
Formational approach
The main criterion for periodization in the formational approach is the assessment of the type of socio-economic relations in society. This principle makes it possible to formulate a fairly clear sequence of various stages in the development of society. Moreover, each stage has its own socio-economic formation. The formational approach became most widespread in Russia during the Soviet era, since one of the authors of the approach was Marx and the meaning of the approach harmoniously fit into the ideological concept of the USSR.
Thus, at different times, supporters of the formational approach distinguished at least five or seven periods in the history of Russia according to the number of formations of the social system, that is, the primitive communal period, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist. Today, adherents of the formational approach distinguish between the historical periods of Ancient Rus' (IX-XII centuries), Appanage Rus' (XII century - first half of the 15th century), United (second half of the 15th century - first half of the 16th century), Russia from the second half XVI century until the first third of the 18th century. The next period is associated with the reign of Anna Ioanovna and lasts until the abolition of serfdom in 1861.
The three remaining periods are obvious: Russia from 1861 to 1917, Soviet Russia 1917–1991. and Russia since the 90s. Until now. However, critics of the formational approach note the artificiality of such periodization and the obvious artificiality of the temporary and territorial historical space of Russia. At the same time, it is noted that the slave system did not have historical place in Russia, and capitalism as such lasted no more than half a century from the date of the abolition of serfdom in 1861 until the events of the October Revolution. It should be noted that the formational approach is developing and today a global relay-formation concept of world history has been formed. According to this concept, a “young” society generally does not go through all formations sequentially, but can begin from the stage at which its development predecessors stopped.
An approach to Russian history from the perspective of liberalism
Recently, a liberal approach to the periodization of Russian history has become widespread. The criterion of the approach is the principle of the development of statehood (from approximately the 9th century), the evolution of public institutions, and the organization of governance in Rus', Russia and the Soviet Union. Thus, five periods are distinguished in the history of Russia: the Old Russian state, the Moscow state, the Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, the Russian Federation. According to the authors of the concept, the division reflects the main stages Russian history. Moreover, this concept describes the most important feature of Russian history, namely the fact that for almost a thousand years Russia remained, in fact, an authoritarian state.
The periodization of Russian history contains such time periods of the country's development that differ from each other in political, economic, social, cultural and other fundamental criteria.
Initial periodization. Dozens of periodizations of Russian history are known. Let us take for example those proposed by the patriarchs of Russian history: N.M. Karamzin (main work “History of the Russian State”), S.M. Soloviev (main work “History of Russia since ancient times”), V.O. Klyuchevsky (main work “Course of Russian History”).
N.M. Karamzin identifies three periods in the history of Russia (Table 1):
Table 1
As we can see, N.M. based his periodization. Karamzin laid down the concept: “The history of the people belongs to the king.”
CM. Soloviev identified four periods in Russian history (Table 2):
table 2
|
Period |
Personalized or chronological framework | ||
|
From Rurik to Andrey Bogolyubsky |
Period of tribal dominance relations in political |
||
|
From Andrey Bogolyubsky until the beginning of the 17th century. |
Period of tribal struggle and government principles, completed triumph state principle |
||
|
a) from Andrei Bogolyubsky to Ivan Kalita |
The beginning of the struggle between tribal and state relations |
||
|
b) from Ivan Kalita to |
Time for the unification of Rus' around Moscow |
||
|
c) from Ivan III to the beginning |
The period of struggle for complete triumph of the state |
||
|
From the beginning of the 17th century to mid-18th century centuries |
Entry period Russia into the system European countries |
||
|
From the middle of the 18th century to the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century. |
New period of Russian |
Periodization S.M. Solovyov reflects, first of all, the history of the state.
IN. Klyuchevsky also identified four periods in the history of Russia (Table 3):
Table 3
|
period |
Chronological framework | |
|
From the 7th to the 13th centuries. |
Rus' Dnieper, city, shopping |
|
|
From the XIII to the middle of the XV century. |
Upper Volga Rus', appanage princely, free agricultural |
|
|
From the half of the 15th to the second decade of the 17th century. |
Great Rus', Moscow, royal-boyar, military-agricultural |
|
|
From the beginning of the 17th to the half of the 19th century. |
All-Russian period imperial-noble, serf period economy, agricultural and factory |
The basis for the periodization of the historical development of Russia V.O. Klyuchevsky put more emphasis on economic development, focusing considerable attention on the factor of colonization.
Meanwhile, we believe that the periodization of N.M. Karamzina, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky were acceptable for their time (the level of scientific development of historiography and source studies), today it is enough to know them, and not to use them as the basis for teaching a university history course - too much time has passed since then.
The time of obvious active searches for the periodization of history was the end of the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same time, the greatest controversy has always been caused by the first period of development of the Russian state.
In textbooks pre-revolutionary (D.I. Ilovaisky and others) and post-revolutionary (M.V. Nechkina and A.V. Fadeev, B.A. Rybakov, etc.), including modern times (late 90s. XX century - A.N. Sakharov and V.I. Buganov, Sh.M. Munchaev and V.M. Ustinov, etc.), it is easy to notice that, for example, the concepts of Kievan Rus and Novgorod are used either sporadically or not used at all. It must be assumed that the textbooks reflect different concepts of the origin of Rus'. There are many of them, but in modern conditions the most common are the Norman, Kiev and theories of the heterogeneous origin of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples (at the same time, we do not accept the “theories” of Fomenko, Koder, Kondyba and Zolin with their “exotic” concepts of the history of Rus', far from scientific justification and openly Russophobic-falsified). Textbooks most often discuss the Norman, or “Kievan” version of the origin of Rus'.
According to the “Kyiv” concept, Kyiv and only Kyiv is the beginning of Russian statehood. At the same time, Novgorod is not assigned any role; Vladimir and Moscow are considered a continuation of the development of Kievan Rus.
The Norman theory to a certain extent confirms the Novgorod beginning of Rus', but at the same time it seems to infringe on the pride of the Russians: after all, according to the chronicle, the Varangians began to reign in the Novgorod land - the brothers Rurik (in Novgorod), Sineus (in Beloozero) and Truvor (in Izborsk). 1
And if these lands are considered the fundamental basis of the Russian state, then such an assumption seems to strengthen the Norman theory. Based on this, apparently, the emphasis was placed on “Kievan Rus” as the only beginning of the Russian state.
I would like to give some thoughts regarding the Norman roots of Russian statehood. Of the three princes mentioned in the chronicle (PVL), only Rurik was proven to be a real person. As for Sineus and Truvor, their appearance on the historical stage, according to A.M. Kuznetsova, nothing more than a “curiosity of historiography.” Academician B.A. Rybakov in his work “Early Centuries of Russian History” writes: “Historians have long paid attention to the anecdotal nature of Rurik’s “brothers”..., “brothers” turned out to be a Russian translation of Swedish words. It is said about Rurik that he came “with his family” (“Sineuse” - “his relatives” - Sineus) and his faithful squad (“Truwar” - “faithful squad” - Truvor) ... In other words, the chronicle included a retelling of some Scandinavian legend about the activities of Rurik (the author of the chronicle, a Novgorodian, who did not know Swedish well, mistook the mention in the oral care (presentation - I.P.) of the king’s traditional entourage for the names of his brothers). The reliability of the legend as a whole... is not great.” 2
Regarding the beginning of Russian statehood, we will make the following assumption. Many detachments (teams) of the Varangians (Normans, Scandinavians) rushed (for various reasons, in our opinion, the main one was material and economic) to the West, South and East for plunder, seizure of lands, with the aim of settling on them, etc. One of these detachments, led by the military leader Rurik, who was looking for land for plunder, ended up in the Novgorod land, and for a short time captured Novgorod, becoming its ruler (according to another version, the Ilmen Slavs called him to reign together with the “brothers” Sineus and Truvor in Novgorod; the fact of inviting the Varangians to reign in the Russian land has not been established). Meanwhile, the Varangians were soon expelled from Novgorod. N.M. Karamzin writes: “The Slavic boyars (led by the elder, Prince Gostomysl - I.P.), dissatisfied with the power of the conquerors, which destroyed their own..., armed (the Novgorodians - I.P.) against the Normans, and drove them out...". 3 Consequently, in Novgorod there was a princely power headed by Prince Gostomysl (the first half of the 9th century). Moreover, in the “Life of St. Stephen of Sourozh,” who was for a long time an archbishop in the Byzantine colony in Crimea in the city of Sourozh (present-day Sudak) and died in 787, talks about the Novgorod prince Bravlin: “The warlike and strong prince of Russian Novgorod... Bravlin... with a large army he devastated the places from Korsun to Kerch, approached Surozh with great force... broke the iron gates, entered the city...". 4 And thus, “Life...” testifies that Novgorod already existed in the 8th century. and Bravlin reigned in it. Since the reign of Bravlin (second half of the 8th century) and Gostomysl (first half of the 9th century) already presupposes statehood, we consider the second half of the 8th century to be the beginning of Rus' as a state formation. (Novgorod), and not the end of the 9th century. (connected with the “calling” of the Varangians to reign in Kyiv.) It can be assumed that on this basis A.T. Stepanishchev considers Novgorod the first capital of the Old Russian state and therefore the “Norman theory” of the origin of the Russian state is untenable from his point of view. Taking into account the arguments of A.T. Stepanishchev about Novgorod - the first capital of the Old Russian state - the periodization of the last two centuries of the first millennium and the first three centuries of the second millennium could have the following specific form, coinciding with the time of the transfer of the capital of the Russian lands: Novgorod period - until 882 G.; Kyiv period- until 1157; Vladimir-Suzdal period - until 1326; Moscow period - after 1326 5
To a certain extent, one could agree with the reasoning of A.T. Stepanishchev. But still, I would like to clarify the situation regarding the “first capital” and the beginning of Russian statehood. According to the research of academician B.A. Rybakov “... who in Kyiv began first than the principality...”, he refers to the 6th century. (during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian (527-565), which is also dated by Byzantine coins). In all likelihood, it was at this time that several forest-steppe Slavic tribes merged into one large union. The union of the Middle Dnieper Slavic tribes was called Russia (primacy in the new union, one might think, originally belonged to the Rus, but Polyansky Kyiv became the capital). At the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. The Dnieper Union is growing into a super-union, uniting several unions of Slavic tribes. Such an association was already a real state or was becoming one. This is yet another evidence of the inconsistency of the “Norman theory” of the origin of the Russian state.
In our opinion, Novgorod statehood took shape already at the beginning of the 8th century, in the form of an early feudal republic, administratively divided into pyatinas, headed by elected governing bodies - posadnik, tysyatsky and veche - which carried out direct democracy (rule of people) and survived until the end of the 15th century. - early 16th centuries Kiev statehood began to take shape in the 9th century, in the form of an early feudal monarchy, administratively and territorially divided into volosts and appanages, with the Grand Duke and a feudal assembly of nobility at the head. It can be assumed that two centers with different types (republic and monarchy) of Russian statehood were formed. The interaction of these two centers, as well as international interaction with other states (Novgorod with the Hanseatic League, Scandinavian countries, etc.; Kiev with Byzantium, Western European countries, etc.) formed the Old Russian state (the specifics of Novgorod statehood remained until the 15th and even the 18th centuries). 6
After 1917, the Norman theory became unacceptable for Soviet historiography and source research for political, ideological and patriotic reasons. Therefore, along with the Norman theory, Novgorod was also pushed aside as part of it. At the same time, the concept of “Kievan Rus” was not particularly advertised, and the development of the theory and heterogeneity of the origin of Russia and Ukraine was hampered.
Another relevant point in developing a periodization of Russian history is the abolition of serfdom as a main milestone in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Many authors argue that the Manifesto of February 19, 1861 gave practically nothing to Russia and the situation of the peasants worsened even more, etc., although they mark this act as a turning point in the movement towards capitalism. There are also supporters of another concept, who propose to consider the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907 as the beginning of the development of capitalism in Russia. and the subsequent Stolypin agrarian reform. Moreover, parliamentarism as a sign of bourgeoisism arose precisely in these years. There is something to think about here, since Stolypin’s agrarian reform also gave Russia little, it even caused protests from the peasantry, which even led to clashes with the police.
Along with the uncertainty of certain provisions of the periodization of Russian history until October 1917, there are difficulties in assessing the time from 1917 to 1991, etc. Based on an analysis of the concepts of many modern historians, we can propose the use of the following periodization in a university course on the history of Russia (Table 4):
Table 4
|
Chronological framework | ||
|
From the turn of the 7th-9th centuries. until the 13th century |
Education and formation Old Russian states |
|
|
From the 13th century until the middle of the 15th century. |
Specific fragmentation |
|
|
XV – XVIII centuries |
United Russians principalities into one centralized state, expansion Russian lands |
|
|
XVIII – early XX centuries. |
Russian empire |
|
|
Late 10's - end 80s of XX century. |
Soviet state |
|
|
Since the beginning of the 90s. |
New Russia (conditional name) |
It should be noted that this periodization of Russian history is not indisputable, but it absorbs the diversity of points of view of different authors and specialists. In educational work, one should also consider the re-odization given in the textbooks that students use.
Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries.
Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries).
Russian lands in the second half of the XII-XIII centuries.
1.1. Main periods
VI-VIII centuries - first mention of Eastern Slavs, tribal unions, the collapse of clan relations, the transition to a neighboring community, the emergence of tribal princes
IX - first half of the XII century. - Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv
XII-XIII centuries - fragmentation of Russian lands, the fight against external invasions, the establishment of dependence on the Golden Horde
1.2. Key dates and events
862 - calling of the Varangians ( Rurik and his associates), their rule in Northwestern Rus'
879-912 – reign Oleg the Prophet in Kyiv
882 - unification of the East Slavic lands (Novgorod and Kyiv) under the rule of Prince Oleg
907 - Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople, the first treaty with Byzantium
912-945 – reign Igor in Kyiv
941, 944 - Prince Igor’s campaigns against Constantinople,
945 - signing of a treaty with Byzantium
945 - uprising of the Drevlyans, murder of Igor
945-964 – reign Olga in Kyiv
957 - Princess Olga's trip to Constantinople, Olga's baptism
964-972 - reign of the prince Svyatoslav in Kyiv: campaigns against the Vyatichi, Khazars (964-966), in Danube Bulgaria, defeat of the Pechenegs, war with Byzantium (968-971)
980-1015 - reign of the prince Vladimir in Kyiv: campaigns against the Vyatichi, Radimichi, etc., conclusion of a military alliance with Byzantium
988 - baptism of Rus'
1019-1054 - reign of the prince Yaroslav the Wise in Kyiv: compilation of the Russian Pravda (Pravda Yaroslav), defeat of the Pechenegs, creation of the Kyiv Metropolis
1st half of the 11th century - construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral and the Golden Gate in Kyiv, the Church of St. Sophia in Novgorod
1097 - congress of Russian princes in Lyubech (the division of Rus' into princely “fatherlands” was consolidated)
1113-1125 - governing body Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv
1125-1132 – reign Mstislav the Great in Kyiv
1125-1157 – reign Yuri Dolgoruky on Suzdal land and in Kyiv
1147 - the first chronicle mention of Moscow
1157-1174 – reign Andrey Bogolyubsky
1176-1212 – reign Vsevoluda Big Nest in the Vladimir-Suzdal land
1223 - Battle of Kalka
1237-1238 - invasion of Batu Khan's troops into North-Eastern Rus'
1238 – Battle of the City River
1239 - campaign of Mongol-Tatar troops in the southern Russian principalities
1240 - Battle of the Neva (Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky)
Siege and capture of Kyiv by Batu's army
1242 - Battle of the Ice
1252-1263 – reign Alexander Nevsky in Vladimir, Grand Duke of Vladimir
1.3. Basic Concepts
Tribe Paganism. Christianity, Orthodoxy, baptism, metropolitan. Mosaic, fresco. Slavic writing, Glagolitic, Cyrillic (Cyril and Methodius). Chronicle. Norman theory
Veche. Varangians. Prince. Squad. Patrimony. Smerd, ryadovich, purchaser, serf, servant, outcast. Rent, polyudye. Tithe. Vira. The path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” Political fragmentation (feudal fragmentation). Golden Horde. Baskak. Label for the Great Reign
1.4. Historical sources
Russian Truth (Yaroslav's Truth, Yaroslavich's Truth 1030s - 1070s), "The Tale of Bygone Years" (Nestor, 1113-1118), "The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Tale of Igor's Host" (late 12th century):
Rus, Russia in the XIV - early X VII V. Formation and strengthening of the Russian centralized state. Troubles
1.1. Main periods
The end of the 13th - 1st half of the 14th century. ~ strengthening of the Moscow principality, the beginning of the expansion of the land holdings of the Moscow princes, rivalry between Moscow and Tver for supremacy in North-Eastern Rus'
2nd half of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. - assertion of the primacy of Moscow as the center of Russian lands, organization of the struggle for independence from the Golden Horde
2nd quarter of the 15th century. - struggle for power in the Grand Duchy of Moscow (feudal war)
2nd half of the 15th - 1st third of the 16th century. - completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the formation of the Russian state, Ivan III - “Sovereign of All Rus'”
XVI century - expansion of territory and strengthening of the Russian state, the formation of the Russian autocracy
Beginning of the 17th century - Time of Troubles
1.2. Key dates and events
The end of the XIII-XIV centuries.
1276-1303 – reign Daniil Alexandrovich in Moscow, founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes (the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky)
1276 - formation of an independent Moscow principality
1303-1325 - reign in Moscow Yuri Danilovich(the first of the Moscow princes to receive a label for the great reign in the Horde)
1318-1340 - the struggle of the Tver and Moscow princes for the label for the great reign
1325-1340 - reign in Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita(from 1328 - Grand Duke)
1326 - transfer of the metropolitan throne from Vladimir to Moscow
1340-1353 – reign Simeon the Proud in Moscow
1353-1359 – reign Ivan the Red in Moscow
1359-1389 - reign in Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich DONSKOGO(from 1362 - Grand Duke)
1378 - battle on the Vozha River, the first major victory of Russian troops (led by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich) over the Horde army
1380 - Battle of Kulikovo
1382 - Khan Tokhtamysh’s campaign against Moscow
1389-1425 - Great Moscow reign Vasily Dmitrievich, - unification of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and the Principality of Moscow
1425-1453 - struggle for power in the Grand Duchy of Moscow
1425-1462 - reign intermittently Vasily Dark in Moscow
1462-1505 - reign of the Grand Duke Ivana III in Vladimir and Moscow
1463 - annexation of the Yaroslavl principality to Moscow
1471 - Ivan III’s campaign against Veliky Novgorod, battle on the Sheloni River
1474 - the annexation of the lands of the Rostov Principality, purchased by Ivan III, to Moscow
1478 - liquidation of the Novgorod Republic, annexation of its lands to Moscow
1480 - “standing” on the river. Eel
1485 - annexation of the Tver Principality to Moscow
1497 - introduction of a national code of laws of the Code of Laws of Ivan III, establishment of a single deadline for the transition of peasants (St. George's Day)
1st half of the 15th century - construction of the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Chamber of Facets, walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin (Aristotle Fioravanti)
1505-1533 - governing body Vasily III in Vladimir and Moscow
1533-1584 - governing body Ivan IV(1547 - crowning of Ivan IV): boyar Duma, orders
1547-1560 - activities of the Elected Rada (A.F. Adashev, A.M. Kurbsky, Sylvester, etc.), reforms (military, monetary, judicial code, monetary, labial)
1549 - convening of the first Zemsky Sobor
1550 - adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan IV
1551 - Cathedral of the Russian Orthodox Church (Stoglavy)
1552 - conquest of the Kazan Khanate
1556 - annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate
1557 - Bashkiria joins the Russian state
1558-1583 - Livonian War: large losses of land and people
1565-1572 – oprichnina: devastation of oprichnina lands, increased mortality
1569-1570 - march of the oprichnina army to Novgorod
1571, 1572 - raids of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey on Moscow
1580-1590s - conquest of Eastern Siberia (Ermak Timofeevich)
1581 - the first ban on peasants crossing on St. George’s Day (introduction of reserved years)
1584-1598 - reign Fedor Ivanovich
1589 - establishment of the patriarchate in Russia
1597 - decree on scheduled flights
End of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Troubles
1598-1605. - reign Boris Godunov
1604-1618 - Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention in Russia
1605-1606 - governing body False Dmitry I
1606-1610 - governing body Vasily Shuisky
1606-1607 GG. - uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov
1608-1610 - the struggle of False Dmitry II for power
1610-1613 - governing body Boyar Duma(“seven boyars”)
1611-1612 - the first and second militias against the interventionists (P. Lyapunov, D. Pozharsky, K. Minin)
1613 - election by the Zemsky Sobor to the Russian throne Mikhail Romanov
1617 - Treaty of Stolbovo between Russia and Sweden
1618 - Deulin truce of Russia with Rech Poslolita
1.3. Basic Concepts
Votchina, estate. Corvee, quitrent, lovaz. Elderly, 1 St. George's Day, reserved summers, lesson summers. Serfdom. Posad, settlement, white settlement. Lawyer Tsar. The chosen one is glad. Order, clerk. Localism, feeding. Boyar Duma. Zemsky Sobor. Sagittarius. Oprichnina, zemshchina. "Uglich case." Cross-kissing record.
Non-possessors, Josephites. Heresy.
1.4. Historical sources
Epics. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”.
“Walking across Three Seas” by A. Nikitin.
"Apostle", "Cheti-Minea". "Domostroy".
Russia in the 15th II -XV III BB.
1.1. Main periods
The history of Russia in these centuries is not divided into periods that would be characterized by different forms of power, trends in economic development, change of dynasty, etc. In this case, we are talking mainly about the change of reigns, each of which had its own characteristics. At the same time, in the series of reigns over the two-century period under consideration historical path In Russia, several periods larger than a single reign can be distinguished. Among them:
The reign of the first Romanovs, which covered most of the 17th century: the period of revival economic life and strengthening political power
The era of Peter I - the end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century: transformations in all spheres of state and public life, the formation of the Russian Empire
The period of palace coups - 1725-1762.
The era of Catherine 11 - 1762-1796: expansion and strengthening of the empire
1.2. Key dates and events
1613-1676 – Rebellious time
1613-1645 - reign Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov: estate-representative monarchy
1626-1633 - military reforms, creation of regiments of the “new system”
1632-1634 - Smolensk War
1645-1676 - reign Alexey Mikhailovich
1649 - Zemsky Sobor, adoption of the Council Code (increased the land salary of the archers; impoverished landowners were allocated land; indefinite search for fugitive peasants; serfdom is inherited; landowners dispose of the peasants; Passad people are prohibited from moving or leaving the city)
1650s - carrying out church reform by Patriarch Nikon (carried out according to Greek models; cross with 3 fingers; sing “Hallelujah” 3 times instead of 2 times; Choir of the Cross - move against the sun; bows not to the ground, but from the waist (“do not break the forehead”); “Jesus”)
1654 - Pereyaslav Rada, annexation of Ukraine to Russia
1667 - adoption of the New Trade Charter
Social performances during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich:
1648 - Salt riot,
1662 - Copper riot,
1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising,
1670-1671 – uprising (Peasant War) led by S.T. Razin
1676-1682 - reign Fedor Alekseevich(Results: direct tax was introduced; household tax distribution was carried out; a new structure for the organization of military forces was introduced; the power of the governor was strengthened; localism was abolished; a school was organized at the printing court and an attempt to create schools at almshouses; sought to weaken the boyar duma and the power of the patriarch)
1682-1689 - regency Sofia Alekseevna
1682-1696 - management Ivan V Alekseevich And Petra I Alekseevich
1682-1725 - reign Petra I
1686 - conclusion of eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland)
1687 - founding of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (the first higher educational institution in Russia)
1687, 1689 - campaigns of the Russian army under the command of V.V. Golitsyn to Crimea
1695-1696 - Azov campaigns of Peter I
1697-1698 - “Great Embassy” of Peter I to Europe
1698 - Streltsy riot in Moscow
1700 - transition to a new chronology (from the birth of Christ)
1700-1721 - Northern War (Reasons: need access to the Black and Baltic seas; improve trade connections with Europe and the east)
(Results: victory; acquired new lands, including Finland; strengthened in the Baltic; a regulative army and navy appeared; became one of the leading powers; became an empire)
1700 - defeat near Narva;
1703 - foundation of St. Petersburg;
1708 - battle near the village of Lesnaya;
1709 - Battle of Poltava (a turning point in the Northern War occurred; the allies perked up; the Anti-Swedish coalition was restored; Augustus II returned to
1714 - victory of the Russian fleet at Cape Gangut;
1720 - victory of the Russian fleet near the island of Grenham
1701 - opening of Navigation and Artillery schools in Moscow
1702 - the beginning of publication of the first printed newspaper “Vedomosti”
1702-1704 - beginning of construction of the Baltic fleet
1705 - introduction of annual conscription (the beginning of the creation of a regular army was laid)
Social performances:
1705-1706 - uprising in Astrakhan;
1705-1711 - uprising in Bashkiria;
1707-1708 - uprising led by KA. Bulavin
1708 - establishment of provinces
1710 - house-to-house tax census
1710-1713 - Russian-Turkish war
1711 - establishment of the Governing Senate
1714 - publication of the “Decree on Single Inheritance”
1718 - introduction of assemblies
1718-1721 - creation of boards (abolition of orders)
1718-1724 - capitation census
1721 - decision of the Senate to award Peter I the titles of “Father of the Fatherland”, “Great” and All-Russian Emperor; proclamation of Russia as an empire
1722 - publication by Peter I of the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne” - introduction of the “Table of Ranks”
1722-1723 - Russian-Persian war
1725 - Peter I signed a decree on the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg (the Academy was opened in 1726)
1725-1727 - reign Catherine I
1726 - creation of the Supreme Privy Council
1727-1730 - reign Petra II
1730-1740 - reign Anna Ioannovna
1740-1741 - reign Ivana V I Antonovich(regency of E. Biron and then Anna Leopoldovna)
1741-1761 - reign Elizaveta Petrovna
1750 - opening of the first Russian theater by F. G. Volkov in Yaroslavl
1755 - foundation of Moscow University
1757-1762 - Russian participation in the Seven Years' War (England and Prussia - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden)
1756-1763 - battles of Gross-Jägersdorf, Kunersdorf, capture of Berlin by Russian troops
1761-1762 - reign Petra III
1762-1796 - reign Catherine II
1764 - publication of a decree on the secularization of church lands
1767-1768 - activities of the Statutory Commission
Russian-Turkish wars:
1768-1774 (1770 - Chesme fight, battles of Larga and Kagul; F. F. Ushakov; as a result of the war Russia
won access to the Black Sea),
1787-1791 (1788 - capture of Ochakov, 1789 - battles near Fokshani and on the Rymnik river, 1790 - capture of Izmail; A.V. Suvorov; as a result of the war, Crimea was recognized as possession of Russia)
1772, 1793, 1795 - Russian participation in the partitions of Poland
1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva (Reason: due to serfdom)
(Causes of defeat: lack of weapons; poor military training)
1775 - the beginning of the provincial reform.
1783 - publication of the decree of Catherine II on the annexation of Crimea to Russia
1783 - signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk on the Russian protectorate over Eastern Georgia
1785 - publication of the Charter to the nobility and the Charter to the cities
1796-1801 - reign Pavel I
1798-1799 - Russian participation in anti-French coalitions, Italian and Swiss campaigns by A.V. Suvorov
1.3. Basic Concepts
Manufactory. All-Russian market, fair. Mercantilism, protectionism. Serfdom. Assigned peasants, possession peasants. Secularization of church and monastic lands.
Absolutism, autocracy. Senate, collegiums, Synod. Supreme Privy Council. Palace coup. Guard. Favoritism. Bironovism. Enlightened absolutism. Stacked commission. Province, provincial institutions.
"Rebellious Age" Schism, Old Believers (Old Believers). Khovanshchina. Peasant War.
Explorers, fort, colonization. Yasak.
Tent style. Moscow (Naryshkinskoe) baroque. Sentimentalism. Classicism. Parsuna. Kunstkamera. Assembly.
1.4. Historical sources
Cathedral Code of 1649, “Decree on Single Inheritance.” Table of ranks. "Conditions". “Mandate” of Catherine II, Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. A charter granted to the nobility, a charter granted for rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire. "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum." "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow." “An honest mirror of youth.”
Russia in the 19th century
1.1. Main periods
When periodizing Russian history in the 19th century. both the framework of individual reigns and larger periods associated with modernization processes and the great reforms of the 60-70s are taken into account. XIX century (pre-reform and post-reform Russia).
1.2. Key dates and events
1801-1825 - reign Alexandra I(creation of the “Unofficial Committee”; reforms: establishment of ministries; decree on free cultivators; creation of the State Council; creation of military settlements)
1801 - annexation of Eastern Georgia to Russia
1802 - creation of ministries (instead of colleges)
1803 - publication of the decree “on free (free) cultivators.”
1804-1813 - Russian-Persian war
1805-1807 - Russian participation in the III, IV anti-Napoleonic coalitions
1806-1812 - war between Russia and Turkey (annexation of Bisarabia)
1807 - signing of the Peace of Tilsit between Russia and France
1808-1809 - Russian-Swedish war, inclusion of Finland into the Russian Empire
1810 – Military settlements
1810 - establishment of the State Council
1811 - opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum
early August - Battle of Smolensk;
September-October - Tarutino march-maneuver;
November - Battle of the Berezina River
1813-1814 - foreign campaign of the Russian army (October 1813 - battle of Leipzig)
1814-1815 - Congress of Vienna
1815 - formation of the Holy Alliance
1816-1818 – Union of Salvation (A. Muravyov)
1818-1821 – Union of Prosperity (A. Muravyov)
1821-1822 – Northern society (S. Trubetskoy, “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov) and Southern society (P. Pestel, “Russian Truth” by P. Pestel)
1816-1821 - establishment of military settlements
1816-1825 - activities of Decembrist organizations
1817-1864 - Caucasian War
1821 - uprising of the Semenovsky regiment
December 14, 1825 - speech of the Decembrists in St. Petersburg (Prerequisites: dissemination of Radishchev’s ideas (a rebel worse than Pugachev); influence of the Fatherland War and foreign campaigns; influence of bourgeois revolutionary influence of French enlighteners)
1825-1855 - reign Nicholas I
1826-1828 - transformations in the system of central government bodies (creation of branches of the imperial chancellery), tightening of censorship
1826-1828 - Russian-Persian war
1828-1829 - Russian-Turkish war
1830-1833 - compilation of the “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”
1830-1831 - uprising in Poland, its suppression by tsarist troops
1837 - opening of the first railway in Russia St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo
1837-1841 - reform of state peasant management (carried out under the leadership of P.D. Kiselev)
1839-1843 - monetary reform E.F. Kankrina
1842 - publication of a decree on “obligated peasants”
1848-1849 - participation of Russian troops in the suppression of revolutionary protests in a number of European countries
1851 - opening of the St. Petersburg – Moscow railway
1853-1856 - Crimean War (Russia - Turkey, England, France, Sardinia; V.A. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin; P.S. Nakhimov; Russia sought to expand influence in the Balkans and took pressure off Turkey; Russia lost islands in Danube Delta, part of southern Bessarabia, ban on having a fleet on the Black Sea; Peace of Paris)
1855-1881 - reign Alexandra II
1858, 1860 - Aigun and Beijing treaties between Russia and China (establishment of borders).
1861-1864 - activities of the first organization “Land and Freedom”
1862 - opening of the first conservatory in Russia (in St. Petersburg)
1864 - beginning of zemstvo, judicial, school, military reforms
1864-1885 - annexation of Central Asia to Russia
1874, 1876 - mass “going to the people” (Propaganda - P.L. Lavrov, Rebellious - M.A. Bakunin, Conspiratorial - P.N. Tkachev)
1875, 1878 - organization of the first workers' unions
1876-1879 - activities of the second organization “3land and freedom”
1879 - the organization split into “Black Redistribution” and “People’s Will”
1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war (the struggle of the Balkan peoples for independence; San Stefano Peace Treaty, Berlin Congress)
1881-1894 - reign Alexandra III(Counter-reforms: provision on enhanced and emergency security; obligatory ransom of peasants; position of Sudema precinct commanders)
1881 - the beginning of the mandatory transfer of peasants to buy land
1883 - creation of the “Emancipation of Labor” group (G.V. Plekhanov and others)
1885 - strike at the S.T. Morozov in Orekhovo-3uevo (“Morozov strike”)
1891-1905 - construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway
1891-1893 - formation of the Franco-Russian alliance
1894-1917 - reign Nicholas II
1895 - creation of the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class”
1898 - founding congress of the Russian Social Democratic Party in Minsk
1.3. Basic Concepts
Russian empire. Autocracy. Ministry: State Council. The theory of official nationality. Censorship. Corps of Gendarmes.
Estates (nobles, clergy, burghers, peasants, Cossacks). Serfdom. Serfs, appanages, state peasants. Corvee, rent, month. Recruitment duty. Military settlements. Otkhodnik, “capitalist” peasant. Sharecropping.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution). Factory. Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. Temporarily obliged peasants, redemption payments, segments, labor. Zemstvo, zemstvo movement. Counter-reforms of the 1880s.
Decembrists. Slavophiles, Westerners. Petrashevtsy. Populists. "Walking among the people." Anarchists. Social Democrats.
Islam. Imamat. Gazavat. Muridism. Anti-Napoleonic coalitions. Patriotic War.
Holy Alliance. Eastern question.
Sentimentalism, classicism, empire style, romanticism, Russian-Byzantine style. Realism. The Wanderers.
1.4. Historical sources
Constitution N.M., Muravyova, “Russian Truth” P.I. Pestel. “Philosophical Letters” by P.Ya. Chaadaeva. “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom” (02/19/1861). Manifesto of Alexander III “On the Inviolability of Autocracy”
Russia in 1900-1915
Main periods
Periodization of Russian history 1900-1945. determined by turning events that led to a change in statehood and social system. The most large-scale of them are the events of 1917. At the same time, one cannot help but study the dates, processes and major events world history, including the First and Second World Wars, in which our country was an active participant. We also have to take into account the difference of opinions existing in modern historical science about the starting point of the newest era in world history: in this capacity, the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, 1914, 1917, 1918 are called. The named features of the periodizations of the modern history of Russia and world are reflected in school textbooks. Consideration of the positions of individual textbook authors is not part of our task. Let us present the most accepted version of periodization in textbooks, indicating in parentheses existing differences in interpretations of periods
1900-1916 - Russia at the beginning (on the threshold) of modern times - relatively dynamic economic development, crisis political system, Russian participation in the First World War
1917 - early 1920s - Russian Revolution and Civil War (in some textbooks the authors limit the revolution to February - October 1917, in others they extend it to the entire specified period)
1920-1930s - formation and strengthening of the Soviet state
1939-1945. gg. - World War II and the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.
Russia in 1900-1916.
1.1. Key dates and events
1900-1903 - economic crisis
1901 - creation of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)
1902 – II Congress of the RSDLP - founding of the party, emergence of the Bolshevik and Menshevik movements
1904-1905 - Russo-Japanese War (Peace of Portsmouth)
1905-1907 - first Russian revolution
March - formation of the first trade unions;
May-June - strike in Ivanovo-Voznesensk, creation of the first Council;
June - uprising on the battleship "Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky";
August - adoption of the law establishing the legislative advisory State Duma (Bulyginskaya Duma);
October - All-Russian political strike;
December – armed uprising in Moscow;
1906 - activities of the First State Duma;
1907 - activities of the Second State Duma;
1906, 1910 - publication of a decree and law on the agrarian (Stolypin) reform
1907 - signing of an agreement between Russia and England on the delimitation of interests in Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet; This agreement completed the creation of the Triple Entente - the Entente
1907-1912 - activity III State Duma
1910 - the beginning of the Russian seasons in Paris, organized. SL. Diaghilev
April 1912 - execution of workers at the Lena mines
1912-1917 - activities of the IV State Duma
1914-1918 - World War I
August-September - operations in East Prussia, Galicia;
1915 – defeat of Russian troops in Galicia (Gorlitsky breakthrough);
1915 - formation of the “Progressive Bloc” in the Duma
1.2. Basic Concepts
Monopoly, cartel, concern, trust, syndicate. Imperialism. Stolypin reform, farm, cut. Bolshevism Menshevism. Socialist Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionaries). Cadets, Octobrists. Black Hundreds Zubatovshchina. Revolutionary situation. Adviсe. The State Duma. June 3rd coup. Trudoviks. “Progressive bloc Modernism, symbolism, avant-garde Decadence. Maecenas. “World of Art” Russian seasons Entente Triple Alliance. Military-industrial committees
1.3. Historical sources
Manifesto “On the Improvement of State Order” (October 17, 1905). Decree of 1906 and Law of 1910 “On amendments and additions to certain regulations relating to peasant land ownership and land use.”
Russia in 1917-1920
1.1. Key dates and events
February 27, 1917 - uprising in Petrograd, formation of the Petrograd Soviet, creation of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma
March 2, 1917 - Nicholas II abdicated the throne; creation of a Provisional Government headed by G.E. Lvov
April, June, July 1917 - crises of the Provisional Government (April: the reason for the note of P.N. Milyukov, he and A.I. Guchkov were removed from the Provisional Rights)
July 1917 – head of the Provisional Government - A.F.Kerensky
August 1917 - adoption by the VI Congress of the RSDLP (b) of a course towards an armed uprising; holding a State Conference in Moscow in support of “strong power”; speech by General L.G. Kornilov
October 25-27 - II Congress of Soviets: proclamation of Soviet power, adoption of the “Decree on Peace” and “Decree on Land”, creation of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK)
October 1917 - February 1918 - establishment of Soviet power in most of the territory of the former Russian Empire; first transformations of Soviet power
January 1918 - publication of a decree on the separation of church from state, school from church
March 1918 - signing of the Peace Treaty between Russia and Germany in Brest-Litovsk (Brest Peace Treaty)
July 1918 - armed uprisings of the left Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow and other cities, adoption of the first Constitution RSFSR
1918-1920 - Civil War in Russia
March - August 1918 - invasion of interventionist forces (North, Far East, Transcaucasia, uprising of the Czechoslovak corps) and speeches by internal opponents of the Bolshevik power (Volunteer Army, Komuch, Siberian government in Omsk, etc.) - Soviet Republic in the ring of fronts;.
autumn 1918 - March 1919 - counter-offensive of the Red Army on the Eastern Front, on the Don, in the Baltic states; expansion of intervention (in the South of Russia) and actions of anti-Bolshevik forces (Directory in Ukraine, A.V. Kolchak in Siberia, Armed Forces of the South of Russia, troops of N.N. Yudenich in the North-West);
March 1919 - March 1920 - decisive battles on the Eastern and Southern fronts; defeat of N.N. troops by the Red Army Yudenich (near Petrograd), A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin;
April - November 1920 - The final stage wars in the European part of Russia: the Soviet-Polish war, the defeat of the army of P.N. Wrangel in Crimea;
end of 1920 - 1922 - end of the Civil War throughout the entire territory of the RSFSR (Transcaucasia, Far East)
1919-1920 - publication of decrees of the Council of People's Commissars on the elimination of illiteracy, the opening of workers' faculties (workers' faculties)
1.2. Basic Concepts
Provisional government. Dual power. Kornilov rebellion. Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC). All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Council of People's Commissars. Decree. Constituent Assembly. Dictatorship of the proletariat. Red Guard attack on capital. Nationalization. Confiscation. "War communism". Committees of the Poor (Committees of the Poor). Surplus appropriation. Food detachment. Subbotnik. Sabotage. Civil War. Intervention. Reds. Whites, White movement. "Green". Terror. Emigration. Contribution. Reparations. Educational program, workers' faculty.
1.3. Historical sources
Order of the Petrograd Soviet, “April Theses” by V.I. Lenin, Decree on Peace, Decree on Land, “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” (November 1917), “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People” (January 1918).
Russia, USSR in the 1920-1930s.
1.1. Key dates and events
Establishment of diplomatic relations of the RSFSR with neighboring states:
1920 - signing peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland;
1921 - signing of the Riga Peace Treaty with Poland (March), peace treaties with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Mongolia
March 1921 - X Congress of the RCP(b), transition from the policy of “War Communism” to the new economic policy; decree on replacing the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind
1922 - confiscation of church valuables, lawsuits against church ministers
April - May 1922 - participation of the RSFSR delegation in the Genoa Conference, signing of the Soviet-German Treaty in Rapallo
August 1922 - expulsion of scientific and cultural figures from Russia (“philosophical ship”)
December 30, 1922 - I All-Union Congress of Soviets, approval of the Declaration and Treaty on education of the USSR
January 1924 - approval of the Constitution of the USSR
1924-1925 - streak of diplomatic recognition of the USSR: establishment of diplomatic relations with 13 states (Great Britain, Italy, France, etc.)
December 1925 - XIV Congress of the CPSU (b), adoption of a course for accelerated industrialization
December 1927 - 10th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), putting forward the tasks of collectivization
1928 - introduction of five-year plans:
1st Five-Year Plan 1928-1932,
2nd Five-Year Plan - 1933-1937
1929 - expulsion of L.D. Trotsky from the USSR
1931 - release of the first Soviet sound films
1932, 1934 - creation creative unions: Union of Composers of the USSR, Union of Soviet Architects, Union of Soviet Writers
1933 - establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the USA
1933-1934 - polar expedition O.Yu. Schmidt on the ship "Chelyuskin"
1934 - XVII Congress of the CPSU (b) - “Congress of the Winners” September
1934 - admission of the USSR to the League of Nations
December 1934 - murder of S.M. Kirov
May 1935 - signing of mutual assistance agreements with France and Czechoslovakia
Launch of the first line of the Moscow Metro
August 1935 - the beginning of the Stakhanov movement
1936-1937 - a series of political trials of prominent party figures and military leaders
December 1936 - adoption of the new Constitution of the USSR
1936-1939 - the Soviet Union providing assistance to the Spanish Republic
1937 - non-stop flights of Soviet pilots to the USA
1938 - armed conflict between Soviet and Japanese troops in the area of Lake Khasan
1939 - battles between Soviet and Japanese troops in the area of the river. Khalkhin Gol (Mongolia)
August 1939 - negotiations between the military delegations of the USSR, Great Britain and France in Moscow.
August 23, 1939 - signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression treaty and the secret protocol on the division of spheres of interest in Eastern Europe
December 1939 - exclusion of the USSR from the League of Nations
1939-1940 - inclusion of the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR (1939),
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (1940)
1.2. Basic Concepts
New Economic Policy (NEP). Tax in kind. Cost accounting. Concession. Syndicate, trust. GOELRO plan. Industrialization. Collectivization, collective farm, twenty-five thousandth, “great turning point.” Five-year plan. Drummer. Stakhanov movement.
Trotskyism. Repressions, “Great Terror”, Gulag. Antonovschina. Autonomation. Federation.
Cultural revolution. Socialist realism. Comintern. The League of nations. Peaceful coexistence. Collective security policy.
1.3. Historical sources
“Letter to the Congress” by V.I. Lenin (1923). Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the pace of collectivization and measures of state assistance to collective farm construction” (1930). Article by I.V. Stalin's "Dizziness from Success" (1930).
Great Patriotic War 1941-1945
World War II 1939-1945
1.1. Main periods
1944 - May 9, 1945 - the final period of the Great Patriotic War and the war in Europe, the liberation of the USSR and European countries, the defeat of Nazi Germany
1.2. Key dates and events
December 1941 - Japanese troops attack Pearl Harbor, US entry into the war
April - May - unsuccessful offensive of the Red Army in Crimea
May - creation of the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement
January - breaking the siege of Leningrad
January - February - liberation of the Caucasus
August 5 - the first fireworks display in Moscow in honor of the victory of the Soviet troops (liberation of Orel and Belgorod)
August - December - Battle of the Dnieper
1944 Military operations of the Soviet troops and the most important events in the general course of the war
January - February - Leningrad-Novgorod operation, Korsun - Shevchenko operation
January - March - Dnieper-Carpathian operation
April - May - Crimean operation
June - August - Belarusian operation (“Bagration”)
July - August - Lviv-Sandomierz operation
July - September - Baltic operation
August - Iasi-Kishinev operation
September - October - East Carpathian operation
October - Petsamo-Kirkenes operation
January - February - Vistula-Oder operation
January - April - East Prussian and Pomeranian operation
February - Crimean (Yalta) conference of heads of government of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA
February - Budapest operation
March - April - Vienna operation
April - June 1945 - United Nations conference in San Francisco, adoption of the UN Charter
July 11 - August 1 - Berlin (Potsdam) conference of heads of government of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA
August 8 - the USSR entered the war against Japan, during August - the defeat of the Kwantung Army
1.3. Basic Concepts
Patriotic War. Evacuation. Card system. Deportation. Blockade. "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war). Occupation, genocide. Partisan movement. Underground. "Rail War". A radical turning point in the course of the war. Anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-Lease. Second front. Reparations. Occupation zones.
1.4. Historical sources
Plan "Barbarossa", plan "Ost". Statement of the Soviet government on June 22, 1941. Order No. 227 (“Not a step back!”). UN Charter (1945)
USSR in 1945-1991.
1.1. Main periods
The main periods in the history of the Soviet state and society of the second half of the twentieth century. Several periods are distinguished, characterized by different processes and trends in the development of the country, changes in the policies of government leaders:
second half of the 1940s - early 1950s. - post-war reconstruction, “the apogee of Stalinism.”
second half of the 1950s - mid-1960s. - “thaw”, liberal trends and contradictions of the Khrushchev leadership
second half of the 1960s - mid-1980s. - conservation of the political and economic foundations of the social system, Brezhnev’s “stagnation”
second half of the 1980s - “perestroika”, course M.S. Gorbachev on changes in domestic development and foreign policy
1.2. Key dates and events
1946-1950 - five-year plan for the restoration and further development of the national economy (4th five-year plan)
1947 - monetary reform, abolition of the card system
1949 - creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA)
Test of the first Soviet atomic bomb
1946-1953 - a wave of ideological and political
campaigns and repressions (decrees on magazines, films, musical works, campaign against “cosmopolitanism”, “Leningrad case”, “Doctors’ case”)
March 1953 - death of I.V. Stalin
September 1953 - election N.S. Khrushcheva First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
Testing of the first hydrogen bomb in the USSR
1950-1955 - the beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of Stalinist repressions
1954 - the beginning of the development of virgin and fallow lands
Launch of the world's first nuclear power plant
1955 - creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization
October 1956 - XX Congress of the CPSU
Participation of Soviet troops in suppressing the uprising in Hungary
February 1957 - creation of economic councils instead of ministries
June 1957 - condemnation of the “anti-party group” V.M. Molotov, G.M. Malenkova, L.M. Kaganovich
summer 1957 - held in Moscow VI World Festival youth and students
October 1957 - launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite
1961 – XXII Congress of the CPSU, adoption of the program for building communism
June 1962 - suppression of workers' protest in Novocherkassk
October 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis
1963 - signing in Moscow of an agreement between the USSR, Great Britain and the USA on the prohibition of nuclear tests in the atmosphere, space, under water
October 1964 - removal of research assistant Khrushchev from the leadership of the party and the country, election as First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
L.I.Brezhneva
1965 - the beginning of economic reform (Kosygin reform), restoration of the sectoral method of economic management
mid-1960s - the beginning of the dissident movement
August 1968 - entry of troops of the USSR and other member states of the Warsaw Division into Czechoslovakia
1975 - participation of the USSR delegation in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki)
October 1977 - adoption of the new Constitution of the USSR (the Constitution of “developed socialism”)
December 1979 - entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, beginning of the Afghan war
summer 1980 - the XXII Olympic Games were held in Moscow
May 1982 - adoption of the Food Program
November 1982 - death of L.I. Brezhnev
November 1982 - February 1984 - holding leadership positions in the party and state Yu.V. Andropova
February 1984 - March 1985 - holding leadership positions in the party and state K.U. Chernenko
March 1985 - election M.S.Gorbachev General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
1986 - accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
1987 - signing of an agreement between the USSR and the USA on the elimination of intermediate- and shorter-range nuclear missiles
1988 - XIX Conference of the CPSU, the beginning of political reforms
May-June 1989 – First Congress of People's Deputies
1989 - completion of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan
1990-1991 - withdrawal of Soviet troops from Eastern European countries
March - May 1990 - decisions of the parliaments of Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia on the restoration of the independence of the republics
June 1991 - election B.N. Yeltsin President of the RSFSR
1991 - dissolution of the Department of Internal Affairs and CMEA
August 1991 - State Emergency Committee speech
December 1991 - Belovezhskaya agreements “On the dissolution of the USSR (B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk, S.S. Shushkevich)
and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CHS)",
Statement by M.S. Gorbachev on his resignation from the post of President of the USSR
1.3. Basic Concepts
Currency reform. Passport regime. "Cosmopolitanism". Formalism in art. "Lysenkoism." Cult of personality.
De-Stalinization. Rehabilitation. Liberalization. Voluntarism. Decentralization of management. Sovnarkhoz. Scientific and technological revolution. Military-industrial complex. "Stagnation". Nomenclature. Commodity shortage. Shadow economy.
"Thaw". Sixties. Dissidents. Samizdat. Human rights activists. "Cold War", "Iron Curtain". Caribbean crisis. Peaceful coexistence. Relief of international tension. Helsinki process. Military-strategic parity. Bipolar system of international relations.
Perestroika. Multi-party system. Publicity. Market economy. Corporatization. Cooperation. Lease contract. CIS. Regional conflicts. New political thinking in international relations. Demilitarization
1.4. Historical sources
Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (b) on the magazines “Zvezda” and (“Leningrad” (1946). Report by N.S. Khrushchev “On the cult of personality and its consequences” (1956). Constitution of the USSR 1977 “Declaration of state sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" (1990). Belovezhskaya Accords 1991
Russia in 1992-2004
1.2. Key dates and events
January 1992 - declaration of the Russian Federation as the legal successor of the USSR in international issues
March 1992 - signing of the Federal Agreement “On the delimitation of subjects, jurisdiction and powers between the federal government bodies of the Russian Federation and the authorities of the republics within the Russian Federation)
August 1992 - beginning of voucher privatization
January 1993 - signing of the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START-2) by the leaders of the Russian Federation and the United States (B.N. Yeltsin, G. Bush)
March 1993 - the beginning of the confrontation between the highest legislative (Supreme Council) and executive (President) powers
October 3-4, 1993 - armed clashes between supporters of the President and the Supreme Council; storming of the White House by government troops
December 12, 1993 - the first elections to the State Duma in post-Soviet history and a referendum on the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation
January 11, 1994 - the beginning of the work of the Russian parliament - the Federal Assembly (consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma)
March 1996 - Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On the implementation of the constitutional rights of citizens to land”
July 1996 - election of B.N. Yeltsin as President of the Russian Federation for a second term
August 1998 - default, devaluation of the ruble
May 1999 - discussion in the State Duma of the issue of impeachment of President B.N. Yeltsin
September 1999 - the beginning of hostilities (“counterterrorism operation”) of federal troops in Chechnya
March 2000 - election V.V.Putin for the post of President of the Russian Federation
March 2004 - election of V.V. Putin to the post of President of the Russian Federation for a second term
September. 2004 - terrorists seized a school in Beslan (North Ossetia)
1.3. Basic Concepts
Presidential republic. Federal Assembly. Council of the Federation. The State Duma. Separation of powers.
Referendum. Impeachment. Privatization. Liberalization of prices. "Shock therapy". Promotion. Exchange. Voucher. Devaluation. Default. Conversion. CIS. Near Abroad.
1.4. Historical sources
Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993).
Decree “On the implementation of the constitutional rights of citizens to land” (1996).
Law “On the privatization of state property and the basis for the privatization of municipal property in the Russian Federation” (1997)
