What are Turkic peoples? Turkic group of languages: peoples, classification, distribution and interesting facts

Fermi energy. Effect of temperature on the Fermi-Dirac distribution

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function, which describes the distribution of fermions among states, has the following form:

Here E F- chemical potential of the fermion system, i.e. the work that must be expended to change the number of particles in the system by one. In the case of electrons, the quantity E F called Fermi energy.

Let us consider the form of the Fermi-Dirac function at a temperature tending to absolute zero. As is easy to see from formula (3.4), for any particle energy greater than the Fermi energy, the exponential in the denominator tends to infinity at , therefore f(E) tends to zero. This means that all energy states with E > E F completely free at absolute zero. If E< E F at , f(E) tends to unity. This means that all quantum states with energy less than the Fermi energy are completely occupied by electrons. This makes it clear physical meaning Fermi energy as a parameter of electron distribution among states: Fermi energy is the maximum possible energy of electrons in a metal at absolute zero temperature. The energy level corresponding to the Fermi energy is called Fermi level.

Form of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function at T = 0K shown in Fig. 3.2,a. In Fig. Figure 3.2b shows the distribution of electrons over energy levels in the conduction band of the metal at the same temperature.

If T 0K, then for a particle energy equal to the Fermi energy, the Fermi-Dirac distribution function is equal to 1/2 . This means that at any temperature different from absolute zero, the Fermi level is half filled. The form of the Fermi-Dirac function for two different temperatures is shown schematically in Fig. 3.3. The change in the nature of the distribution of electrons across states is associated with thermal excitation of electrons. In this case, some electrons go into states with energies greater than the Fermi energy. Accordingly, some states below the Fermi level turn out to be free. As a result, the function f(E)"blurred" near the Fermi energy. A small fraction of electrons located near the Fermi level are subject to thermal excitation. The Fermi-Dirac function differs noticeably from the form it had at absolute zero only at . The amount of "blur" is proportional to temperature (Fig. 3.3). The higher the temperature, the more significant the distribution function changes.

Given that

(3.5)

the exponent in the denominator becomes significantly greater than unity in formula (3.4). In this case, unity can be neglected and the Fermi-Dirac distribution is transformed to the form

Expression (3.6) coincides in form with the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function.

The probability that some energy level with energy E free, i.e. occupied by a hole, equal to

About 90% of the Turkic peoples of the former USSR belong to the Islamic faith. Most of them inhabit Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The rest of the Muslim Turks live in the Volga region and the Caucasus. Of the Turkic peoples, only the Gagauz and Chuvash living in Europe, as well as the Yakuts and Tuvans living in Asia, were not affected by Islam. The Turks have no common physical features, and only their language unites them.

The Volga Turks - Tatars, Chuvash, Bashkirs - were under the long-term influence of Slavic settlers, and now their ethnic areas do not have clear boundaries. The Turkmen and Uzbeks were influenced by Persian culture, and the Kyrgyz were influenced by the Mongols for a long time. Some nomadic Turkic peoples suffered significant losses during the period of collectivization, which forcibly attached them to the land.

In the Russian Federation, the peoples of this language group constitute the second largest “bloc”. All Turkic languages ​​are very close to each other, although they usually include several branches: Kipchak, Oguz, Bulgar, Karluk, etc.

Tatars (5522 thousand people) are concentrated mainly in Tataria (1765.4 thousand people), Bashkiria (1120.7 thousand people),

Udmurtia (110.5 thousand people), Mordovia (47.3 thousand people), Chuvashia (35.7 thousand people), Mari-El (43.8 thousand people), but live dispersedly in all regions of European Russia, as well as in Siberia and the Far East. The Tatar population is divided into three main ethno-territorial groups: Volga-Ural, Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars. The Tatar literary language was formed on the basis of the middle one, but with the noticeable participation western dialect. Stands out special group Crimean Tatars (21.3 thousand people; in Ukraine, mainly in Crimea, about 270 thousand people), speaking a special, Crimean Tatar, language.

Bashkirs (1345.3 thousand people) live in Bashkiria, as well as in the Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Kurgan, Tyumen regions and in Central Asia. Outside Bashkiria, 40.4% of the Bashkir population lives in the Russian Federation, and in Bashkiria itself this titular people constitutes the third largest ethnic group, after the Tatars and Russians.

Chuvash (1773.6 thousand people) linguistically represent a special, Bulgarian, branch Turkic languages. In Chuvashia the titular population is 907 thousand people, in Tataria - 134.2 thousand people, in Bashkiria - 118.6 thousand people, in the Samara region - 117.8

thousand people, in the Ulyanovsk region - 116.5 thousand people. However, currently the Chuvash people have relatively high degree consolidation.

Kazakhs (636 thousand people, the total number in the world is more than 9 million people) were divided into three territorial nomadic associations: Semirechye - Senior Zhuz (Uly Zhuz), Central Kazakhstan - Middle Zhuz (Orta Zhuz), Western Kazakhstan - Younger Zhuz (kishi zhuz). The zhuz structure of the Kazakhs has been preserved to this day.

Azerbaijanis (in the Russian Federation 335.9 thousand people, in Azerbaijan 5805 thousand people, in Iran about 10 million people, in total about 17 million people in the world) speak the language of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. Azerbaijan language is divided into eastern, western, northern and southern dialect groups. For the most part, Azerbaijanis profess Shiite Islam, and only in the north of Azerbaijan is Sunnism widespread.

The Gagauz (10.1 thousand people in the Russian Federation) live in the Tyumen region, Khabarovsk Territory, Moscow, St. Petersburg; the majority of Gagauz people live in Moldova (153.5 thousand people) and Ukraine (31.9 thousand people); separate groups- in Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Canada and Brazil. The Gagauz language belongs to the Oguz branch of the Turkic languages. 87.4% of Gagauz people consider the Gagauz language to be their native language. The Gagauz people are Orthodox by religion.

Meskhetian Turks (9.9 thousand people in the Russian Federation) also live in Uzbekistan (106 thousand people), Kazakhstan (49.6 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (21.3 thousand people), Azerbaijan ( 17.7 thousand people). The total number in the former USSR is 207.5 thousand.

People speak Turkish.

Khakass (78.5 thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Republic of Khakassia (62.9 thousand people), also live in Tuva (2.3 thousand people), Krasnoyarsk Territory (5.2 thousand people) .

Tuvans (206.2 thousand people, of which 198.4 thousand people are in Tuva). They also live in Mongolia (25 thousand people), China (3 thousand people). The total number of Tuvans is 235 thousand people. They are divided into western (mountain-steppe regions of western, central and southern Tuva) and eastern, or Tuvan-Todzha (mountain-taiga part of northeastern and southeastern Tuva).

Altaians (self-name Altai-Kizhi) are the indigenous population of the Altai Republic. 69.4 thousand people live in the Russian Federation, including 59.1 thousand people in the Altai Republic. Their total number is 70.8 thousand people. Exist ethnographic groups northern and southern Altaians. The Altai language is divided into northern (Tuba, Kumandin, Cheskan) and southern (Altai-Kizhi, Telengit) dialects. Most of the Altai believers are Orthodox, there are Baptists and others. At the beginning of the 20th century. Burkhanism, a type of Lamaism with elements of shamanism, spread among the southern Altaians. During the 1989 census, 89.3% of Altaians called their language their native language, and 77.7% indicated Fluency in Russian.

Teleuts are currently identified as a separate people. They speak one of the southern dialects of the Altai language. Their number is 3 thousand people, with the majority (about 2.5 thousand people) living in rural areas and cities Kemerovo region. The bulk of Teleut believers are Orthodox, but traditional religious beliefs are also common among them.

Chulym people (Chulym Turks) live in the Tomsk region and Krasnoyarsk Territory in the river basin. Chulym and its tributaries Yaya and Kii. Number of people - 0.75 thousand people. The Chulym believers are Orthodox Christians.

Uzbeks (126.9 thousand people) live in diaspora in Moscow and the Moscow region, in St. Petersburg and in the regions of Siberia. The total number of Uzbeks in the world reaches 18.5 million people.

The Kyrgyz (about 41.7 thousand people in the Russian Federation) are the main population of Kyrgyzstan (2229.7 thousand people). They also live in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang (PRC), and Mongolia. The total Kyrgyz population of the world exceeds 2.5 million people.

Karakalpaks (6.2 thousand people) in the Russian Federation live mainly in cities (73.7%), although in Central Asia they constitute a predominantly rural population. The total number of Karakalpaks exceeds 423.5

thousand people, of which 411.9 live in Uzbekistan

Karachais (150.3 thousand people) are the indigenous population of Karachay (in Karachay-Cherkessia), where most of them live (over 129.4 thousand people). Karachais also live in Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Turkey, Syria, and the USA. They speak the Karachay-Balkar language.

Balkars (78.3 thousand people) are the indigenous population of Kabardino-Balkaria (70.8 thousand people). They also live in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Their total number reaches 85.1

thousand people Balkars and related Karachais are Sunni Muslims.

Kumyks (277.2 thousand people, of which in Dagestan - 231.8 thousand people, in Checheno-Ingushetia - 9.9 thousand people, in North Ossetia - 9.5 thousand people; total number - 282.2

thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Kumyk plain and the foothills of Dagestan. The majority (97.4%) retained their native language - Kumyk.

The Nogais (73.7 thousand people) are settled within Dagestan (28.3 thousand people), Chechnya (6.9 thousand people) and the Stavropol Territory. They also live in Turkey, Romania and some other countries. The Nogai language is divided into Karanogai and Kuban dialects. Believing Nogais are Sunni Muslims.

The Shors (the self-name of the Shors) reach a population of 15.7 thousand people. The Shors are the indigenous population of the Kemerovo region (Mountain Shoria); they also live in Khakassia and the Altai Republic. Believing Shors are Orthodox Christians.

Official history says that the Turkic language arose in the first millennium when the first tribes belonging to this group appeared. But, as modern research shows, the language itself arose much earlier. There is even an opinion that the Turkic language came from a certain proto-language, which was spoken by all the inhabitants of Eurasia, as in the legend of the Tower of Babel. The main phenomenon of Turkic vocabulary is that it has practically not changed over the five thousand years of its existence. The ancient writings of the Sumerians will still be as understandable to the Kazakhs as modern books.

Spreading

The Turkic language group is very numerous. If you look territorially, peoples who speak similar languages ​​live like this: in the west the border begins with Turkey, in the east with the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, in the north with the East Siberian Sea and in the south with Khorasan.

Currently, the approximate number of people who speak Turkic is 164 million, this number is almost equal to the entire population of Russia. At the moment, there are different opinions on how the group of Turkic languages ​​is classified. We will consider further which languages ​​stand out in this group. Main ones: Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Uyghur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachay, Kumyk, Nogai, Tuvan, Khakass, Yakut, etc.

Ancient Turkic-speaking peoples

We know that the Turkic group of languages ​​has spread very widely across Eurasia. In ancient times, peoples who spoke this way were simply called Turks. Their main activities were cattle breeding and agriculture. But don't take everything modern peoples Turkic language group as descendants of an ancient ethnos. After thousands of years, their blood mixed with the blood of others ethnic groups Eurasia, and now there are simply no indigenous Turks.

The ancient peoples of this group include:

• Turkuts - tribes that settled in the Altai Mountains in the 5th century AD;
• Pechenegs - arose at the end of the 9th century and inhabited the region between Kievan Rus, Hungary, Alania and Mordovia;
• Polovtsians - with their appearance they ousted the Pechenegs, they were very freedom-loving and aggressive;
• Huns - arose in the 2nd-4th centuries and managed to create a huge state from the Volga to the Rhine, from them came the Avars and Hungarians;
• Bulgars - from these ancient tribes came such peoples as the Chuvash, Tatars, Bulgarians, Karachais, Balkars.
• Khazars - huge tribes that managed to create their own state and oust the Huns;
• Oghuz Turks - the ancestors of the Turkmens, Azerbaijanis, lived in Seljukia;
• Karluks - lived in the 8th-15th centuries.

Classification

The Turkic group of languages ​​has a very complex classification. Or rather, each historian offers his own version, which will differ from the other minor changes. We offer you the most common option:

1. Bulgarian group. The only currently existing representative is the Chuvash language.
2. The Yakut group is the easternmost of the peoples of the Turkic linguistic group. Residents speak Yakut and Dolgan dialects.
3. South Siberian - this group represents the languages ​​of peoples living mainly within the borders of the Russian Federation in the south of Siberia.
4. Southeastern, or Karluk. Examples are Uzbek and Uyghur languages.
5. The northwestern, or Kipchak group is represented by a large number of nationalities, many of which live on their own independent territory, for example Tatars, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz.
6. Southwestern, or Oghuz. The languages ​​included in the group are Turkmen, Salar, Turkish.

Yakuts

On their territory, the local population simply calls themselves Sakha. Hence the name of the region - the Republic of Sakha. Some representatives also settled in other neighboring areas. The Yakuts are the easternmost of the peoples of the Turkic linguistic group. Culture and traditions were borrowed in ancient times from tribes living in the central steppe part of Asia.

Khakassians

A region has been designated for this people - the Republic of Khakassia. The largest contingent of Khakass is located here - about 52 thousand people. Several thousand more moved to live in Tula and the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

Shors

This nation reached its greatest numbers in XVII-XVIII centuries. Now this is a small ethnic group that can only be found in the south of the Kemerovo region. Today the number is very small, about 10 thousand people.

Tuvans

Tuvinians are usually divided into three groups, differing from each other in some dialect features. They inhabit the Republic. This is a small eastern of the peoples of the Turkic linguistic group, living on the border with China.

Tofalar

This nation has practically disappeared. According to the 2010 census, in several villages Irkutsk region managed to find 762 people.

Siberian Tatars

The Eastern dialect of Tatar is the language that is considered to be the national language of the Siberian Tatars. This is also a Turkic group of languages. The peoples of this group are densely settled throughout Russia. They can be found in rural areas of the Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk and other regions.

Dolgans

A small group living in the northern regions of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They even have their own municipal district - Taimyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky. Today, there are only 7.5 thousand representatives of the Dolgans left.

Altaians

The Turkic group of languages ​​includes the Altai lexicon. Now in this area you can freely get acquainted with the culture and traditions of the ancient people.

Independent Turkic-speaking states

Today there are six separate independent states whose nationality is the indigenous Turkic population. First of all, these are Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Of course, Türkiye and Turkmenistan. And do not forget about Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, which belong to the Turkic language group in exactly the same way.

The Uighurs have their own autonomous region. It is located in China and is called Xinjiang. Other nationalities related to the Turks also live in this territory.

Kyrgyz

The Turkic group of languages ​​primarily includes Kyrgyz. Indeed, the Kyrgyz or Kyrgyz are the most ancient representatives of the Turks who lived in Eurasia. The first mentions of the Kirghiz are found in the 1st millennium BC. e. Throughout almost its entire history, the nation did not have its own sovereign territory, but at the same time managed to preserve its identity and culture. The Kyrgyz even have such a concept as “ashar”, meaning working together, close cooperation and unity.

The Kirghiz have long lived in sparsely populated steppe areas. This could not but affect some character traits. These people are extremely hospitable. When a new person arrived in the settlement before, he told news that no one had heard before. For this, the guest was rewarded with the best treats. It is still customary to honor guests sacredly.

Kazakhs

The Turkic language group could not exist without the most numerous Turkic people, living not only in the state of the same name, but throughout the world.

The folk morals of the Kazakhs are very harsh. From childhood, children are raised under strict rules and taught to be responsible and hardworking. For this nation, the concept of “dzhigit” is the pride of the people, a person who defends the honor of his fellow tribesman or his own at all costs.

In the appearance of the Kazakhs, a clear division into “white” and “black” can still be traced. In the modern world, this has long lost its meaning, but remnants of old concepts are still preserved. The peculiarity of the appearance of any Kazakh is that he can simultaneously look like both a European and a Chinese.

Turks

The Turkic group of languages ​​includes Turkish. Historically, Turkey has always cooperated closely with Russia. And these relations were not always peaceful. Byzantium and later Ottoman Empire, began its existence simultaneously with Kievan Rus. Even then there were the first conflicts for the right to rule the Black Sea. Over time, this enmity intensified, which largely influenced the relationship between the Russians and the Turks.

Turks are very peculiar. First of all, this can be seen from some of their features. They are hardy, patient and completely unpretentious in everyday life. The behavior of the representatives of the nation is very cautious. Even if they are angry, they will never express their dissatisfaction. But then they can harbor anger and take revenge. In serious matters the Turks are very cunning. They can smile in your face, but plot behind your back for their own benefit.

The Turks took their religion very seriously. Severe Muslim laws prescribed every step in the life of a Turk. For example, they could kill an unbeliever and not be punished for it. Another feature associated with this feature is a hostile attitude towards non-Muslims.

Conclusion

Turkic-speaking peoples are the largest ethnic group on Earth. The descendants of the ancient Turks settled across all continents, but most of them live in the indigenous territory - in the Altai Mountains and in the south of Siberia. Many peoples managed to preserve their identity within the borders of independent states.

Turks of Russia, Turks Wikipedia
Total: approximately 160-165 million people

Turkey Turkey - 55 million

Iran Iran - from 15 to 35 million (Azerbaijanis in Iran)
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan - 27 million
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan - 12 million
Russia Russia - 11 million
PRC PRC - 11 million
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan - 9 million
Turkmenistan Turkmenistan - 5 million
Germany Germany - 5 million
Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan - 5 million
Caucasus (without Azerbaijan) - 2 million
EU - 2 million (excluding UK, Germany and France)
Iraq Iraq - from 600 thousand to 3 million (Turkomans)
Tajikistan Tajikistan - 1 million
USA USA - 1 million
Mongolia Mongolia - 100 thousand.
Australia Australia - 60 thousand
Latin America (without Brazil and Argentina) - 8 thousand.
France France - 600 thousand.
Great Britain Great Britain - 50 thousand
Ukraine Ukraine and Belarus Belarus - 350 thousand.
Moldova Moldova - 147,500 (Gagauz)
Canada Canada - 20 thousand
Argentina Argentina - 1 thousand.
Japan Japan - 1 thousand
Brazil Brazil - 1 thousand.
Rest of the world - 1.4 million

Turkic languages

Islam, Orthodoxy, Buddhism, ayyy shamanism

Mongoloids, transitional between Mongoloids and Caucasoids (South Siberian race, Ural race) Caucasians (Caspian subtype, Pamir-Fergana type)

Türks(also Turkic peoples, Turkic-speaking peoples, peoples of the Turkic linguistic group) - an ethno-linguistic community. They speak languages ​​of the Turkic group.

Globalization and increased integration with other peoples have led to the widespread spread of the Turks beyond their historical area. Modern Turkic-speaking peoples live on different continents - in Eurasia, North America, Australia and in the territories of various states - from Central Asia, North Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Mediterranean, South and of Eastern Europe and further east - up to Far East Russia. There are also Turkic minorities in China, America, the Middle East and Western Europe. The largest settlement area is in Russia, and the largest population is in Turkey.

• 1 Origin of the ethnonym
• 2 Brief history
• 3 Culture and worldview
• 4 Lists of Turkic peoples
  • 4.1 Disappeared Turkic peoples
  • 4.2 Modern Turkic peoples
• 5 See also
• 6 Notes
• 7 Literature
• 8 Links

Origin of the ethnonym

According to A. N. Kononov, the word “Turk” originally meant “strong, strong.”

Short story

The ethnic history of the proto-Turkic substrate is marked by the synthesis of two population groups:

• formed west of the Volga, in the III-II millennium BC. e., during centuries-long migrations in eastern and southern directions, became the predominant population of the Volga region and Kazakhstan, Altai and the Upper Yenisei valley.
• which appeared in the steppes east of the Yenisei later, was of intra-Asian origin.

The history of the interaction and fusion of both groups of the ancient population over the course of two to two and a half thousand years is the process during which ethnic consolidation was carried out and Turkic-speaking people were formed ethnic communities. It was from among these closely related tribes that in the 2nd millennium BC. e. modern Turkic peoples of Russia and adjacent territories emerged.

D. G. Savinov wrote about the “Scythian” and “Hunnic” layers in the formation of the ancient Turkic cultural complex, according to which they “gradually modernized and mutually penetrated each other, became the common property of the culture of numerous population groups that became part of the Ancient Turkic Khaganate. The ideas of continuity of the ancient and early medieval culture of nomads are also reflected in works of art and ritual structures.”

Since the 6th century AD, the region in the middle reaches of the Syr Darya and the Chu River began to be called Turkestan. According to one version, the toponym is based on the ethnonym “Tur”, which was the common tribal name of the ancient nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples of Central Asia. Another version is based on an early analysis of the ethnonym at the beginning of the 20th century by a Danish Turkologist and President of the Danish Royal scientific society Wilhelm Thomsen and suggests the origin of this term from the word “toruk” or “turuk”, which from most Turkic languages ​​can be translated as “standing upright” or “strong”, “stable”. At the same time, a prominent Soviet Turkologist, Academician. Barthold criticized this hypothesis of Thomsen and on the basis detailed analysis texts of the Türkuts (Turgesh, Kök-Türks) concluded that the term was more likely derived from the word “Turu” (establishment, legality) and about the designation of the people under the rule of the Turkic Kagan - “Turkic future”, that is, “the people ruled by me " The nomadic type of state was for many centuries the predominant form of organization of power in the Asian steppes. Nomadic states, replacing each other, existed in Eurasia from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. until the 17th century.

One of the traditional occupations of the Turks was nomadic cattle breeding, as well as iron mining and processing.

In 552-745, the Turkic Khaganate existed in Central Asia, which in 603 split into two parts: the Eastern and Western Khaganates. The Western Kaganate (603-658) included the territory of Central Asia, the steppes of modern Kazakhstan and East Turkestan. The Eastern Kaganate included in its composition modern territories Mongolia, northern China and southern Siberia. In 658, the Western Kaganate fell under the blows of the Eastern Turks. 698 leader tribal union Turgesh - Uchelik founded a new Turkic state - the Turgesh Khaganate (698-766).

In the V-VIII centuries, the Turkic nomadic tribes of the Bulgars who came to Europe founded a number of states, of which the most durable were Danube Bulgaria in the Balkans and Volga Bulgaria in the Volga and Kama basin. 650-969 in the territory of the North Caucasus, the Volga region and the north-eastern Black Sea region there was the Khazar Khaganate. 960s it was defeated by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav. The Pechenegs, ousted in the second half of the 9th century by the Khazars, settled in the northern Black Sea region and posed a threat to Byzantium and Old Russian state. In 1019, the Pechenegs were defeated by Grand Duke Yaroslav. In the 11th century, the Pechenegs in the southern Russian steppes were replaced by the Cumans, who were defeated and conquered by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century. Western part of the Mongol Empire - Golden Horde- became a predominantly Turkic state in population. XV-XVI centuries it broke up into several independent khanates, on the basis of which a number of modern Turkic-speaking peoples. At the end of the 14th century, Tamerlane created his own empire in Central Asia, which, however, quickly disintegrated with his death (1405).

In the early Middle Ages, a settled and semi-nomadic Turkic-speaking population formed in the territory of the Central Asian interfluve, which was in close contact with the Iranian-speaking Sogdian, Khorezmian and Bactrian populations. Active processes of interaction and mutual influence led to the Turkic-Iranian symbiosis.

The initial penetration of Turkic-speaking tribes into the territory of Western Asia (Transcaucasia, Azerbaijan, Anatolia) began in the 5th century. AD, during the so-called “Great Migration.” This became more widespread in the 8th-10th centuries; it is believed that it was at this time that the Turkic tribes of Khalaj, Karluk, Kangly, Kipchak, Kynyk, Sadak and others appeared here in the middle of the 11th century. e. A massive invasion of Oguz tribes (Seljuks) began in these territories. The Seljuk invasion was accompanied by the conquest of many Transcaucasian cities. This led to the formation in the X-XIV centuries. Seljuk and its subordinate sultanates, which broke up into several Atabek states, in particular the state of the Ildegizids (territory of Azerbaijan and Iran).

After the invasion of Tamerlane, the sultanates of the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu were formed on the territory of Azerbaijan and Iran, which were replaced by the Safavid Empire, the third great Muslim empire in size and influence (after the Ottoman and Great Mughals), with a Turkic-speaking (Azerbaijani dialect of the Turkic language) imperial court, supreme clergy and army command. The founder of the empire, Ismail I, was the heir to the ancient Sufi order (based on an indigenous Aryan Iranian root), represented mainly by the Turkic-speaking “Kizilbash” (“red-headed”, wore red stripes on their turbans) and was also the direct heir to the Sultan of the Ak Koyunlu Empire, Uzun-Hasan ( Uzun Hasan); in 1501 he took the title of Shahinshah of Azerbaijan and Iran. The Safavid state existed for almost two and a half centuries and during its heyday covered the territories of modern Azerbaijan, Armenia and Iran (entirely), as well as modern Georgia, Dagestan, Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan (partially). Replaced on the throne of Azerbaijan and Iran in the 18th century. Safavid Nadir Shah was from the Turkic-speaking Afshar tribe (a sub-ethnos of Azerbaijanis living in Azerbaijani Iran, Turkey and part of Afghanistan) and founded the Afsharid dynasty. Nadir Shah became famous for his conquests, thanks to which he later received the title “Napoleon of the East” from Western historians. 1737 Nadir Shah invaded Afghanistan and captured Kabul, and in 1738-39. entered India, defeated the Mughal army and captured Delhi. After an unsuccessful campaign against Dagestan, Nadir, who fell ill on the way, died suddenly. The Afsharids did not rule the state for long, and in 1795 the throne was taken by representatives of another Turkic-speaking tribe, the “Qajars” (a subethnic group of Azerbaijanis in Northern Iran, the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Southern Dagestan), who founded the Qajar dynasty, which ruled for 130 years. The rulers of the northern Azerbaijani lands (historically located in the territories of the Seljuk atabeks and Safavid beglerbegs) took advantage of the fall of the Afsharids and declared their relative independence, which gave rise to the formation of 21 Azerbaijani khanates.

As a result of the conquests by the Ottoman Turks in the XIII-XVI centuries. territories in Europe, Asia and Africa, a huge Ottoman Empire was formed, but from the 17th century it began to decline. Having assimilated the majority of the local population, the Ottomans became the ethnic majority in Asia Minor. In the 16th-18th centuries, first the Russian state, and then, after the reforms of Peter I, the Russian Empire, included most of the lands of the former Golden Horde, on which the Turkic states existed (Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Siberian Khanate, Crimean Khanate, Nogai Horde.

IN early XIX century, Russia annexed a number of Azerbaijani khanates of Eastern Transcaucasia. At the same time, China annexes the Dzungar Khanate, exhausted after the war with the Kazakhs. After the annexation of the territories of Central Asia, the Kazakh Khanate and the Kokand Khanate to Russia, the Ottoman Empire, along with the Makin Khanate (Northern Iran) and the Khiva Khanate (Central Asia) remained the only Turkic states.

Culture and worldview

During the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, ethnocultural traditions took shape and were successively consolidated, which, often having different origins, gradually formed features that are, to one degree or another, inherent in all Turkic-speaking ethnic groups. The most intensive formation of this kind of stereotypes occurred in ancient Turkic times, that is, in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e.. Then the optimal forms of economic activity were determined (nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding), and in general an economic and cultural type emerged ( traditional home and clothing, means of transportation, food, decorations, etc.), spiritual culture, social and family organization, folk ethics have acquired a certain degree of completeness, art and folklore. The highest cultural achievement was the creation of its own written language, which spread from its Central Asian homeland (Mongolia, Altai, Upper Yenisei) to the Don region and the North Caucasus.

Shaman from Tuva during the ceremony

The religion of the ancient Turks was based on the cult of Heaven - Tengri; among its modern designations, the conventional name - Tengrism - stands out. The Turks had no idea about Tengri's appearance. According to ancient views, the world is divided into 3 layers:

• the upper one (the sky, the world of Tengri and Umai), was depicted as an outer large circle;
• middle (of earth and water), depicted as a middle square;
• the lower (underworld) was depicted as an inner small circle.

It was believed that originally Heaven and Earth were fused, creating chaos. Then they separated: a clear, clean Sky appeared above, and brown earth appeared below. The sons of men arose among them. This version was mentioned on steles in honor of Kül-tegin (died in 732) and Bilge Kagan (734).

Another version is about a duck(s). According to the Khakass version:

first there was a duck; making the other a comrade, she sent her to the bottom of the river for sand; she brings it three times and gives it first; the third time she left some of the sand in her mouth, this part became stones; the first duck scattered the sand, pushed for nine days, the earth grew; the mountains grew after the messenger duck spat stones out of his mouth; because of this, the first refuses to give her land; agrees to give land the size of a cane; the messenger pokes a hole in the ground and goes into it; the first duck (now God) creates a man from the earth, a woman from his rib, gives them cattle; second duck - Erlik Khan

Erlik is the god of the empty and cold underworld. He was represented as a three-eyed bull-headed creature. One of his eyes saw the past, the second - the present, the third - the future. “souls” languished in his palace. He sent troubles, bad weather, darkness and messengers of death.

Tengri's wife is the goddess of women's crafts, mothers and women in labor - Umai. In Turkic languages, words with the root “umai” have been preserved to this day. Many of them mean “umbilical cord”, “female reproductive organs”.

The deity Ydyk-Cher-Sug (Sacred Earth-Water) was called the patron of the earth.

There was also a cult of the wolf: many Turkic peoples still retain legends that they descend from this predator. The cult was partially preserved even among those peoples who adopted a different faith. Images of a wolf existed in the symbolism of many Turkic states. The image of a wolf is also present on national flag Gagauz.

In Turkic mythical traditions, legends and fairy tales, as well as in beliefs, customs, rituals and folk holidays The wolf acts as a totemic ancestor, patron and protector.

The cult of ancestors was also developed. There was polytheism with the deification of the forces of nature, which was preserved in the folklore of all Turkic peoples.

Lists of Turkic peoples

Disappeared Turkic peoples

Avars (debatable), Alty Chubs, Berendeys, Bulgars, Burtases (debatable), Bunturks, Huns, Dinlins, Dulu, Yenisei Kyrgyz, Karluks, Kimaks, Nushibis, Oguzes (Torks), Pechenegs, Polovtsians, Tyumens, Turkic-Shatos, Turkuts , Turgesh, Usun, Khazars, Black Klobuks and others.

Modern Turkic peoples

see also

• Turkology
• Pan-Turkism
• Turan
• Turkic (language)
• Turkisms in Russian
• Turkisms in the Ukrainian language
• Turkestan
• Nomadic state
• central Asia
• Turkvision Song Contest
• Proto-Turks
• Turk (disambiguation)

Notes

1. Gadzhieva N.Z. Turkic languages ​​// Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. - P. 527-529. - 685 s. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2.
2. Milliyet. 55 million kişi "etnik olarak" Türk. Retrieved January 18, 2012.
3. Estimates of the number of Iranian Azerbaijanis given in various sources can vary significantly - from 15 to 35 million. See, for example: Looklex Encyclopaedia, Iranian.com, “Ethnologue” Report for Azerbaijani Language, UNPO information on Southern Azerbaijan, Jamestown Foundation, The World Factbook: Ethnic groups by country (CIA)
4. VPN-2010
5. 1 2 Lev Nikolaevich Gumilev. Ancient Turks
6. Chapter 11. A War Within a War, page 112. // Losing Iraq: Inside the Postwar Reconstruction Fiasco. Author: David L. Phillips. Reprinted edition. Hardcover first published in 2005 by Westview Press. New York: Basic Books, 2014, 304 pages. ISBN 9780786736201 Original text (English)

   Behind the Arabs and the Kurds, Turkmen are the third-largest ethnic group in Iraq. The ITF claim Turkmen represent 12 percent of Iraq's population. In response, the Kurds point to the 1997 census which showed that there were only 600,000 Turkmen.

7. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. 2008. volume 1 page 826
8. Ayagan, B. G. Turkic peoples: an encyclopedic reference book. - Almaty: Kazakh encyclopedias. 2004.-382 p.: ill. ISBN 9965-9389-6-2
9. Turkic peoples of Siberia / resp. ed. D. A. Funk, N. A. Tomilov; Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology named after. N. N. Miklouho-Maclay RAS; Omsk branch of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS. - M.: Nauka, 2006. - 678 p. - (Peoples and cultures). - ISBN 5-02-033999-7
10. Turkic peoples of Eastern Siberia / comp. D. A. Funk; resp. editor: D. A. Funk, N. A. Alekseev; Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology named after. N. N. Miklouho-Maclay RAS. - M.: Nauka, 2008. - 422 p. - (Peoples and cultures). ISBN 978-5-02-035988-8
11. Turkic peoples of Crimea: Karaites. Crimean Tatars. Krymchaks / Rep. ed. S. Ya. Kozlov, L. V. Chizhova. - M., 2003. - 459 p. - (Peoples and cultures). ISBN 5-02-008853-6
12. Scientific Editorial Council, Chairman Chubaryan A. O. Scientific editor L. M. Mints. Illustrated encyclopedia "Russica". 2007. ISBN 978-5-373-00654-5
13. Tavadov G. T. Ethnology. Textbook for universities. M.: Project, 2002. 352 p. P. 106
14. Ethnopsychological Dictionary. - M.: MPSI. V. G. Krysko. 1999
15. Akhatov G. Kh.. Dialect of West Siberian Tatars. Ufa, 1963, 195 p.
16. Kononov A. N. Experience in analyzing the term Turk // Soviet ethnography. - 1949. - No. 1. - P. 40-47.
17. Klyashtorny S. G., Savinov D. G. Steppe empires of Eurasia // St. Petersburg: Farn. 1994. 166 pp. ISBN 5-900461-027-5 (erroneous)
18. Savinov D.G. About the “Scythian” and “Hunnic” layers in the formation of the ancient Turkic cultural complex // Questions of archeology of Kazakhstan. Vol. 2. Almaty-M.: 1998. P. 130-141
19. Eremeev D.E. “Turk” - an ethnonym of Iranian origin? // Soviet ethnography. 1990. No. 1
20. Bartold V.V. Türks: Twelve lectures on the history of the Turkish peoples of Central Asia (published according to the publication: academician V.V. Bartold, “Works”, vol. V. Publishing house “Science”, Main editorial office of Eastern literature, M., 1968) / R. Soboleva. - 1st. - Almaty: ZHALYN, 1998. - P. 23. - 193 p. - ISBN 5-610-01145-0.
21. Kradin N. N. Nomads, world-empires and social evolution // Alternative paths to civilization: Col. monograph / Ed. N. N. Kradina, A. V. Korotaeva, D. M. Bondarenko, V. A. Lynshi. - M., 2000.
22. A.Bakıxanov adına Tarix institutu. Azərbaycan tarixi. Yeddi cilddə. II cild (III-XIII əsrin I rübü) / Vəlixanlı N.. - Bakı: Elm, 2007. - P. 6. - 608 p. - ISBN 978-9952-448-34-4.
23. Eremeev D.E. Penetration of Turkic tribes into Asia Minor // Proceedings of the VII International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnographic Sciences. - Moscow: Science; Main editorial office eastern. Literature, 1970. - P. 89. - 563 p.
24. East in the Middle Ages. V. Transcaucasia in the XI-XV centuries
25. Soviet historical encyclopedia: in 16 volumes. Seljuk State / ed. E. M. Zhukova. - Moscow: Soviet encyclopedia, 1961-1976.
26. Quinn SA. The New Cambridge History of Islam / Morgan DO, Reid A.. - New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. - pp. 201-238.
27. Trapper R. Shahsevid in Sevefid Persia // Bulletin of the Schopol of Oriental and African studies, University of London. - 1974. - No. 37 (2). - pp. 321-354.
28. Safavids. Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia.
29. Süleymanov M. Nadir şah / Darabadi P.. - Tehran: Neqare Endişe, 2010. - P. 3-5. - 740 s.
30. Ter-Mkrtchyan L. The position of the Armenian people under the yoke of Nadir Shah // News of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR. - 1956. - No. 10. - P. 98.
31. Nadir Shah. Wikipedia is a free encyclopedia. Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (April 26, 2015).
32. Gevr J. Xacə şah (frans.dil.tərcümə), 2-ci kitab / Mehdiyev G.. - Bakı: Gənclik, 1994. - P. 198-206. - 224 s.
33. Mustafayeva N. Cənubi Azərbaycan xanlıqları / Əliyev F., Cabbarova S... - Bakı: Azərnəşr, 1995. - P. 3. - 96 p. - ISBN 5-5520-1570-3.
34. A.Bakıxanov adına Tarix institutu. Azərbaycan tarixi. Yeddi cilddə. III cild (XIII-XVIII əsrlər) / Əfəndiyev O.. - Bakı: Elm, 2007. - P. 443-448. - 592 s. - ISBN 978-9952-448-39-9.
35. Klyashtorny S. G. The main stages of politogenesis among the ancient nomads of Central Asia
36. Katanov N.F. Kachin legend of the creation of the world (Recorded in the Minusinsk district of the Yenisei province in the Kachin dialect of the Turkic language on June 2, 1890) // IOAIE, 1894, vol. XII, no. 2, pp. 185-188. http://www.ruthenia.ru/folklore/berezkin/143_11.htm
37. “Maral”, “Bear” and “Wolf” reward the winners of the Altai World Music Festival:: IA AMITEL
38. Turkology
39. Origin of the Turkic language
40. Cult of the wolf among the Bashkirs
41. Sela A. Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. - Revised and Updated Edition. - Bloomsbury Academic, 2002. - P. 197. - 945 p. - ISBN ISBN 0-8264-1413-3..
42. CIA. The World Factbook. - annual. - Central Intelligence Agency, 2013-14.
43. 1 2 Gale Group. Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. - vol.4. - Thomson Gale, 2004.

Literature

• Türks // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
• Turko-Tatars // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
• Akhatov G. Kh. On the ethnogenesis of the West Siberian Tatars // Questions of dialectology of Turkic languages. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 1960.
• Ganiev R. T. Eastern Turkic state in the VI-VIII centuries. - Ekaterinburg: Ural University Publishing House, 2006. - P. 152. - ISBN 5-7525-1611-0.
• Gumilyov L. N. History of the Xiongnu people
• Gumilyov L. N. Ancient Turks
• Mingazov Sh. Prehistoric Turks
• Bezertinov R. Ancient Turkic worldview “Tengrianism”
• Bezertinov R. Turkic-Tatar names
• Faizrakhmanov G. L. Ancient Turks in Siberia and Central Asia
• Zakiev M.Z. Origin of the Turks and Tatars. - M.: Publishing House "Insan", 2002. - 496 p. ISBN 5-85840-317-4
• Voitov V. E. The ancient Turkic pantheon and the model of the universe in the cult and memorial monuments of Mongolia in the 6th-8th centuries - M., 1996

Links

• Ancient Turkic dictionary
• - Texts and variants of the Kyrgyz epic “Manas”. Research. Historical, linguistic and philosophical aspects of the epic. “Small Epic” of the Kyrgyz. Kyrgyz folklore. Fairy tales, legends, customs.

Turks, Turks Wikipedia, Turks of India, Turks against Armenia, Turks of Russia, Seljuk Turks, Turkisms in Russian, Mikhail Leonidovich Turkin, Turkis cabbage, Turkistan

Turki Information About

During the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, ethnocultural traditions took shape and were successively consolidated, which, often having different origins, gradually formed features that are, to one degree or another, inherent in all Turkic-speaking ethnic groups. The most intensive formation of this kind of stereotypes occurred in ancient Turkic times, that is, in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Then the optimal forms of economic activity were determined (nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding), in general, an economic and cultural type took shape (traditional housing and clothing, means of transportation, food, jewelry, etc.), spiritual culture, social and family organization, folk ethics, fine arts and folklore. The highest cultural achievement was the creation of its own written language, which spread from its Central Asian homeland (Mongolia, Altai, Upper Yenisei) to the Don region and the North Caucasus.

Another version is about a duck(s). According to the Khakass version and.

first there was a duck; making the other a comrade, she sent her to the bottom of the river for sand; she brings it three times and gives it first; the third time she left some of the sand in her mouth, this part became stones; the first duck scattered the sand, pushed for nine days, the earth grew; the mountains grew after the messenger duck spat stones out of his mouth; because of this, the first refuses to give her land; agrees to give land the size of a cane; the messenger pokes a hole in the ground and goes into it; the first duck (now God) creates a man from the earth, a woman from his rib, gives them cattle; second duck - Erlik-ha

Erlik is the god of the empty and cold underworld. He was represented as a three-eyed bull-headed creature. One of his eyes saw the past, the second - the present, the third - the future. “Souls” languished in his palace. He sent troubles, bad weather, darkness and messengers of death.

The cult of ancestors was also developed. There was polytheism with the deification of the forces of nature, which was preserved in the folklore of all Turkic peoples.

Uighurs, UIII-IX centuries.

1: Uyghur prince, 9th century.
The exact name of the headdress is not known, but we can say with certainty that it meant social status owner. Wide pads under the waist belt were used by the Timurids as early as the 15th century. The bow case and quiver are of a fully formed medieval type. Boots that tilt at the waist with garters are quite archaic.

2: Uighur heavily armed horseman, 9th century.
The plate helmet was found among the Uyghurs. This one is made of bronze plates laid on a leather base. The rest of the armor is made of hard leather, some parts are varnished.

3: Sugdian merchant, 9th century.
According to the Great Silk Road The caravans were led by merchants of different nationalities, but the most numerous among them were Sugdians. That merchant's goods are placed in bales on the back of his Bactrian camel. The merchant wears eclectic clothing consisting of Sugdian and Central Asian details. An Iranian-type saber hangs from a Turkic waist belt.

Turkic armor

reconstruction of the appearance of the Turks

Turk from Mongolia

According to anthropologists, racially these people were 67-70% Mongoloid, and with 33-30% Caucasian admixture, from a technical point of view they are closer to Mongoloid race, but with an admixture. Also, they were often quite tall.
It is interesting that among them there were reddish and brown hair with gray and green eyes.

Rourans, 5th century BC

Plastic reconstruction based on the skull, women from a 13th century burial. Kazakhstan. Bozok settlement. Golden Horde.

T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya. Two sculptural reconstructions of a Bronze Age man and woman from the Gonur burial ground (Turkmenistan) were completed.

Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull of a man from the Karakystak burial ground, Western Kazakhstan (Turkic time: 5-8 centuries AD)
Author of the reconstruction: T.S. Balueva, E.V. Veselovskaya

Turkic armor and weapons

The light Turkic cavalry was armed with a powerful bow (a) with arrows (b), a broadsword (or saber) (c). In close combat, the riders used small eyed axes (g), which had a narrow triangular blade, a butt with a hammer and a long (up to 70 centimeters) handle. Sometimes spears were also used (d). VII-X centuries Reconstruction based on visual materials from Sayan-Altai.

When metal armor was unavailable for some reason, warriors used so-called “soft” armor. A close to the truth idea of ​​them is given by the fighters’ equipment, characteristic of equestrian duels, which until recently were carried out among some Turkic-speaking peoples (for example, among the Kyrgyz).

Kyrgyz fighters were equipped at such “tournaments” traditionally. Over their underwear they put on two pairs of trousers and tied them tightly at the waist with a rawhide belt. The body was protected by a quilted cotton jacket with leather armor made of thick, roughly tanned cowhide stretched over it. The armor was laced on the back. Unprotected areas - shoulders, armpits, neck, upper back, groin - were covered in four layers of felt, then these areas were tightly wrapped with cotton wool and three more layers of thin felt. Two robes completed the outfit. The lower one was quilted, with short sleeves, had a floor just above the knees and a high collar, up to the earlobes. At the front it was reinforced with three layers of thick felt. The sleeves at the elbow were also lined with an additional layer of felt. The robe had a slit at the back through which the saddle pommel could freely pass. The outer robe was chintz. The riders had boots on their feet - leather trousers went down over them. The hands remained unprotected.

The described protective clothing was practically copied from the “soft” armor of the ancient Turkic army. Such multilayer armor easily withstood the blow of an arrow - its tip, especially the three-bladed one, got stuck in the soft thickness. Apparently, it was also not possible to cut the dates in a fleeting horse fight; thick gaskets absorbed the blow. Lake or river sand and iron filings mixed into the lining effectively protected against a cutting blow from a saber. Perhaps the advent of “soft” armor forced gunsmiths of the second half of the 1st millennium to make broadswords with a double-edged sharpening of the tip, and sabers with a weak curvature of the blade, convenient for delivering a strong piercing blow.

One of the options for horse armor. It is shown lamellar. but it could well be laminar. Such clothing caused a lot of inconvenience to the horse, and it had to move at an exceptionally large trot. The brush under the muzzle is not only a badge of honor, but also a device to deter flies

The metal helmets of the ancient Turkic army were inlaid and resembled a narrow part of an egg, topped with a small cone. The variety of their shapes is achieved by changing the curvature of the walls and the proportions of this semi-oval figure. Similar helmets were found among Assyrian warriors in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., and in Siberia they were used by Tashtyk warriors. It is no exaggeration to say that they were ahead of their time. Such a helmet perfectly resisted saber strikes. The saber blade, losing energy, slid helplessly along its smooth wall down and to the side. Heads were made from both narrow and wide sector-shaped plates. The narrow parts, as before, were tied together with straps. Although this typesetting design seems unreliable, it has existed for many centuries and until recently was successfully used in the northeast of Siberia.

Sometimes typesetting helmets were not equipped with a pointed top. A convex round plate was placed on its bridge, and

Battles and tactics of the ancient Turks

The basis of the Turkic troops were formations of lightly armed horsemen who used bows and arrows and were fluent in these weapons. Muslim written sources They note the ability of such riders to hit a target without a miss while galloping from any position, to shoot “back and forth, right and left, up and down.” Archers took with them two or three bows and several quivers full of arrows into battle. Often it was they who decided the outcome of the battle with a swift attack. In case of failure, the mounted riflemen retreated, hiding behind a dense formation of heavily armed spearmen. There were not so many heavily armed horsemen in the ancient Turkic army, but it was precisely this armored cavalry that saved the situation in the most difficult cases. Apparently, Tabari writes about her as an “identically dressed” guard. A full set of defensive weapons was necessary only for those who stood in the forefront. The warriors of subsequent ranks, covered by armored men-at-arms, usually limited themselves to a breastplate for themselves and a light blanket for their horse.

The battle was opened by the warriors, who challenged representatives of the enemy army to a duel in front of the formation. This ancient tradition dates back to the era of tribal clashes, when rules of warfare were developed that limited the scale of bloodshed. Such rules included agreements on the duration of the battle, the number of killed, compensation for losses, and many others. And among them, the most spectacular and “humane” are probably the fights of leaders or heroes specially chosen for this. According to Tabari, “it was the custom of the Turks not to set out until three of their horsemen had left... Then, after the third had left, everyone set out.” Such traditional fights have survived centuries. And only, perhaps, the appearance firearms made this rule, which had a clear sacred meaning and the enormous importance of raising morale, a historical anachronism.

In preparation for the raid, the Turks paid great attention to reconnaissance. Reconnaissance was carried out by scouts and mobile detachments that made deep raids behind enemy lines. This is how the Western European knight Robert de Clary describes their actions: “Each of them has a dozen or a dozen horses; and they trained them so well that they follow them wherever they are led, from time to time they change to one or another horse. And each horse, when they roam like this, has a bag suspended from its muzzle in which food is stored; and this is how the horse feeds, following its owner, and they do not stop moving either day or night. And they move so quickly that in one night and in one day they cover a journey of 6, or 7, or 8 days. And while they move like this, they never pursue anyone and do not sniff anything until they turn back; when they return back, that’s when they seize the spoils, take people captive, and generally take everything they can get.” In the future, many nomadic formations will copy similar reconnaissance techniques from the Turks. Reconnaissance will become especially popular among the troops of the Golden Horde.

The fighting qualities of Turkic warriors in the medieval world were rated very highly. At the beginning of the 9th century, the Arab caliphs recruited their personal guard from them, and soon the emperors of the powerful Byzantium followed their example. Jahiz, in his essay “The Dignity of the Troops of the Caliphate and the Dignity of the Turks,” even came to the conclusion that no one “instills (such fear) in the Arab troops as the Turks,” because they have “no other thoughts than raiding, robbery, hunting, riding , the pursuit of knights, the search for prey and the conquest of countries... They mastered this matter to perfection and reached the limit in it. It became their craft."

m became very similar to a flat-bottomed inverted pot.