Household story of the 17th century. Household stories of the 17th century
Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
The lexical meaning of a word is the reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).
The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic as an element of a certain grammar class(for example, table is a masculine noun), as an element of an inflectional series (table, table, table, etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is connected with other words (table leg, Put the book on the table).
The lexical meaning of a word is individual: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
Grammatical meaning, on the contrary, characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting various items. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.
An important feature of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the lexical meaning, is the obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning (using endings, prepositions, etc.).
P.). So, when pronouncing the word table, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table) . All these features of the table form are its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection (about the concept of zero inflection, see the section “Morphology” // Russian language: In 2 parts / Edited by L. Yu. Maksimov. - Part II .- M., 1989).
When pronouncing the word form with a table (for example, in the sentence They blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express the grammatical meanings of the instrumental case (cf. endings used to express other case meanings: stol-a, stol-u, stol-e), masculine gender (cf. the ending that they have in instrumental case feminine nouns: water-oh), singular(cf. tables). The lexical meaning of the word table is “a piece of home furniture, which is a surface made of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and used to put something on it” - in all case forms this word remains unchanged. Apart from the root stem stol-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar means expressions of grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
More on the topic § 52. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL MEANING OF THE WORD:
- 7. The word as the main nominative unit of language. Signs of a word. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.
- A2. Lexical norms (use of a word in accordance with the exact lexical meaning and the requirement of lexical compatibility, paronyms).
Meaning GRAMMARICAL MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms
GRAMMATIC MEANING
(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses different relationships(relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the speaker’s relationship to what is being reported, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has a feminine meaning, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:
a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);
b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);
c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);
d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);
f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).
The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence. The tram left the depot.— The tram left the depot (meanings accusative case the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive word in the second are created in both cases different connections this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of words and what GRAMMATICAL MEANING is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRAMMATIC MEANING in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. IN … - GRAMMAR
INTERPRETATION - interpretation of a rule of law, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. Gt. suggests that... - MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING
content associated with one or another expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The history of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
content associated with one or another expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING V Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -I, Wed. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, designates. 3. glance, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical... - MEANING
LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of a word, reflecting and consolidating in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon and... - MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
VALUE, importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. Content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign... - MEANING in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
meaning, meanings, meanings, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meaning, meanings, meanings, … - MEANING in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-I'm with. 1) Meaning, content of something. The meaning of the gesture. Meaning of the word. She is troubled by a dream. Not knowing how to understand it, a terrible dream... - MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
- MEANING in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
1. Syn: importance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ... - MEANING in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
meaning, reason; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Present, figurative, direct, proper, strict, figurative, literal, broad meaning words. "This girl... - MEANING in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
Syn: significance, importance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ... - MEANING in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
Wed 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning... - MEANING full spelling dictionary Russian language:
meaning, … - MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
meaning... - MEANING in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes by gaze, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical z. words (meant by... - MEANING in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
1) importance, significance, role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) Content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ... - MEANING in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
values, cf. (book). 1. The meaning is that this item(Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word "sick"... - MEANING in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
value avg. 1) What does someone mean? or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
Wed 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence,... - MEANING in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
I Wed. Having the ability to express, mean something, have some meaning. II Wed. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence,... - GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION
-interpretation of legal norms, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. this year suggests that in words... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation... - GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION
-interpretation of legal norms, which consists in analyzing the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. T.g. suggests that in words... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the Big Legal Dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation... - TENSE GRAMMAR in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
grammatical, a grammatical category that serves to localize in time the event that is indicated by the verb or predicate of a sentence: tense forms express the relation ... - JACOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian... - INTERPRETATION OF LAW in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
- INTERPRETATION OF LAW in the Big Legal Dictionary:
- activity government agencies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the generally binding will of the legislator, ... - JAPANESE in the Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
For a long time it was believed that Japanese is not included in any of the known language families, occupying in the genealogical classification of languages... - HAC in the Yoga Dictionary:
, Vach (Vak or Vach) Oral speech; utterance, pronunciation. "Vakya" means grammatical sentence, and "mahavakya" is "great speech", ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
NORMS OF LAW - the activities of government bodies, various organizations and individual citizens aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of generally mandatory... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT - understanding the true intention of the parties to the agreement and the actual meaning of its provisions. The purpose of interpretation is to be as complete as possible... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
GRAMMARICAL - see GRAMMARICAL INTERPRETATION; INTERPRETATION OF STANDARDS... - OFFER in the Literary Encyclopedia:
the basic unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic (the presence of so-called predication - see below) and structural (choice, arrangement and connection... - INVERSION in the Literary Encyclopedia:
violation of the accepted colloquial speech word order and thus normal intonation; the latter with I. is characterized by a larger than usual number ... - DIALECTOLOGY in the Literary Encyclopedia:
department of linguistics, the subject of study of which is dialect as a whole. So. arr. unlike other departments of linguistics, which distinguish... - GRAMMAR in the Literary Encyclopedia:
[from Greek grammata - “writings”, “scriptures”]. In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including ... - ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
language mixed. By its origin it is associated with the western branch German group language (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the … - FORTUNATOV in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
Philip Fedorovich (1848-1914), linguist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1898). The founder of the Moscow, so-called. Fortunatovsky, linguistic school. Since 1876, professor at Moscow University. IN … - FRANCE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- WORD FORM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
words, 1) a set of morphological and phonological characteristics of a word that determine its grammatical meaning. Thus, the composition of the morphemes of the word “teacher” (uchitel-nits-a) indicates ...
Words act as building material for the tongue. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be combined into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The branch of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its modification.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.
Thus, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology in to a greater extent we are interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its signs and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house And smoke, table And chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, and have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning, inherent in a number of words, independent of their real-material content.
For example, words smoke And house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collective) people living in it; smoke– an aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change according to cases and numbers, and act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, and intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): read– verb in the past tense form.
When grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, it is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, the meanings of singular and plural are combined into a system of number values. In such cases we talk about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of this word called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, and that of adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm happens:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete– there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, adjective voiced in a phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: sonorous, more sonorous, most sonorous). This is the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, verb run in the meaning of “to move quickly” is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite a long time until he fell completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning – the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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Grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical categories of words
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, a morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of a language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changing words and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing a statement. According to the duality of the object, traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form refers to morphology. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of a language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of a language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: just fragments
in reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying glass
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
“deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2.Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic structures, which finds its regular and typified 3) expression in the language. For example, in the sentence Petrov - student The following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, the masculine gender).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic connections of the word
information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glokka kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curls the bokrenka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. For example, it is clear to the listener which parts of speech all the words of this phrase belong to, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, and the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence over a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in the Russian language express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
Closedness of the list: if the lexical system of each language is open in nature and is constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, for Russian nouns these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typical expression: grammatical meanings are conveyed in languages in strictly defined ways - using specially assigned means: affixes, function words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English languages, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of definiteness/indeterminacy is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and ungrammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: going - going);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - white in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (Idu - Shel)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (function words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let him go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a auxiliary element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: a synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and an analytical type (in which the tendency towards analytism predominates). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in a language. In synthetic languages, a word retains its grammatical characteristics outside of a sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires grammatical characteristics only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of contrasting one linguistic unit with another. Thus, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, function words, intonation, etc.) In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for meanings to be contrasted on some basis, they must also have some common feature. Thus, the present tense can be contrasted with the past and future, since they all relate to the sequence of events being described. In this regard, we can give another definition of a grammatical category: it is a unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in a language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammemes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationships between them, the more features there are in the content of each grammeme.
Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong various forms the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot be changed according to the classifying criterion. For example, the category of gender for nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but bed, beds, bed is feminine. However, the gender of a noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since the forms of agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: the big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relations that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the angle from which reality is viewed, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammatical categories of words
It is necessary to distinguish grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
A semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and influence the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within parts of speech, smaller groups are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are groupings of words by type of conjugation (conjugative classes), by type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
