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Architecture Architecture

(Latin architectura, from Greek architeckton - architect, builder), architecture, the art of designing and building objects that design the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture - buildings, ensembles, as well as structures that organize open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). The planning and development of cities and populated areas constitute a special field of construction art - urban planning. Part of architecture are spaces formed by transforming and combining elements natural nature (cm. Landscape art).

In works of architecture, the resolution of practical utilitarian problems is inextricably combined with artistic creativity - the creation of architectural images that express a certain ideological and artistic content. Being part of the material culture of society, architecture is at the same time one of the leading types of plastic arts, in the forms of which social consciousness is expressed. Therefore, architecture plays an important ideological role, being a figurative embodiment of the social, philosophical, religious and artistic ideas of people.

At all stages of the development of society, architecture depends on the level of development of the productive forces, on the form of production relations. In antagonistic class societies, works of architecture are mainly created taking into account the requirements of the ruling class. Under socialism, the goal of architecture is the fullest possible satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of all segments of society. The development of architecture is closely related to the progress of science and technology, which determines its real capabilities. For its part, architecture stimulates the development of a number of branches of knowledge (for example, structural mechanics, the study of building materials), putting forward new practical tasks for science and technology. Throughout its entire historical development architecture has created various types of structures, operating with a large number of means of architectural and artistic expressiveness, which are imprinted in the architectural heritage of various eras and peoples, reflecting the peculiarities of their life, traditions and national culture, level of technology, the predominance of certain building materials, etc. The main types of architectural structures include housing, administrative and public buildings (theatres, museums, schools, stadiums, hospitals), various religious buildings, fortifications, industrial and transport buildings. Architecture also includes a number of engineering structures in which an artistic interpretation of building structures has been achieved (aqueducts, bridges, television towers, dams, etc.). Being part of certain building complexes, works of architecture are often combined into integral or historically established ensembles. An important quality of architecture is also its connection with the natural environment, serving as the embodiment of ideas about the relationship between man and the nature around him.

The functional, constructive and aesthetic qualities of architecture (usefulness, strength, beauty) are organically interrelated. For the construction of buildings and complexes, certain material conditions are required, first of all, a territory for construction, appropriate building materials and construction tools, and the direct performers of construction work. An architect (or a team of architects) not only develops a design for a structure, but also manages the actual construction of the project. The object of architectural creativity is, therefore, the entire structure (or group of structures) as a whole: placement of a building (or group of buildings) on the territory (master plan), distribution individual parts the internal space of the building (the actual plan of the building), the external appearance of the entire building and each of its facades, the composition and interior decoration of the interior, as well as all aspects of the technical and constructive implementation of the structure. The close relationship between architecture and construction technology is also manifested in the fact that certain architectural forms are formed on the basis of the creative processing of certain techniques of construction technology and artistic interpretation of structures. This is how architectural forms arose: columns, arches, vaults, domes, and post-and-beam, vaulted, frame-rib and other structures received artistic interpretation. In turn, architectural creativity causes the emergence and development of new structures and construction techniques. Solving social, everyday, construction, technical and ideological and artistic problems, architecture uses a variety of compositional and figurative means. The most important of them: general composition a separate building or ensemble, the ability to fit it into the surrounding urban or natural environment, a harmonious combination of the sizes of individual parts of the building among themselves and as a whole ( cm. Proportions), proportionality of the structure and its individual parts to man (scale), various ways division of volumes, wall planes, etc., plastic processing of parts and details of a building, the use of finishing materials with one or another texture and other plastic qualities, the use of color and various decorative elements, combination architectural forms with sculpture, painting and works of decorative and applied art ( cm. Synthesis of arts). The spatio-temporal, non-pictorial nature of a work of architecture speaks of its kinship with the temporal arts (for example, music). A work of architecture requires gradual inspection from different points of view, outside and inside the building. Originating at the earliest stages human society, architecture contributed to the separation of man from the natural world and the development of his creative powers. The beginnings of architecture as an art “appeared already at the highest stage of barbarism” (F. Engels, see K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. 16, part 1, p. 13). The first artificially constructed dwellings and settlements date back to the Neolithic. From natural materials (and in some regions from the 3rd millennium BC - from baked bricks) the simplest rectangular or round dwellings were built, in which pillars were used as supports, and beams laid horizontally on them, collapsible, served as ceilings temporary dwellings, primitive fortresses, megalithic structures (cm. also Primitive art). With the emergence of class societies, cities developed, which became characterized by a sharp differentiation of types of buildings (residential and public buildings), reflecting the class stratification of society (buildings for the ruling stratum, religious buildings, etc.). In large slave-owning despotisms, the concentration of power and material resources in the hands of the social elite, the exploitation of slave labor, and advances in the field of science and technology explain the appearance, along with dwellings, of colossal structures, whose scale and character of architecture served in the hands of the ruling class as a means of powerful ideological influence on the masses (pyramids in Ancient Egypt, ziggurats in Assyria and Babylonia, stupa in India, etc.). These buildings embodied the accumulated construction experience and established the principles of the compositional organization of individual buildings and ensembles. In ancient Eastern architecture, the post-beam design was artistically mastered, various types of columns appeared, the first stone vaulted structures were created, grandiose ensembles of temple and palace buildings were created, high level synthesis of arts. Huge cities were built that had the character of a fortified military camp, surrounded on all sides by residential areas with a free layout (in Assyria and Babylonia) and having powerful citadels (in Iran). During the heyday of Aegean art and the city-states of Ancient Greece, a system of regular city planning developed, many types of residential (including houses with rooms facing the courtyard), public (council houses - bouleuteria; theaters, stadiums) and religious buildings ( and greek temples combined the functions of religious and public buildings). The post-and-beam design received further development and artistic interpretation, and a system of classical orders emerged ( cm. Architectural orders), a certain combination of its load-bearing and supported parts, their structure and artistic treatment. The ideological and artistic features of ancient humanism were especially clearly reflected in the buildings classical period development of ancient Greek architecture. V century BC e. in Athens. Imbued with a humanistic spirit, the architecture of Ancient Greece had a profound impact on the subsequent development of world architecture. In Ancient Rome, the leading buildings were those that glorified the power of the state and the personality of the emperors. Large ensembles and individual structures arose, designed for huge masses of people: forums, amphitheaters and theaters, baths, covered markets, basilicas. Five- and six-story buildings - insulas and country villas - became widespread. The construction of engineering structures - bridges and aqueducts - has reached great perfection. Arched and vaulted structures were widely used, making it possible to create floors of large spans. Particular attention was paid to the layout and decoration of the interiors.

IN medieval period Numerous fortifications were built everywhere to protect cities and residences of feudal lords (castles and city fortifications in France, Germany, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland and other European countries, Central Asia and Transcaucasia, Russian kremlins and fortress monasteries). The ideological dominance of the church led to the widespread construction of various types of religious buildings. In Byzantium, the types of domed basilica (Sophia Church in Istanbul) and cross-domed temple with extensive internal space were formed. Byzantine architectural traditions became the basis for the development of architecture in Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia, Armenia, Georgia, and Ancient Rus', where local, deeply original schools of architecture developed. ( cm. Vladimir-Suzdal school, Novgorod school, Pskov school). With the unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow, a single Russian architectural school was formed. The Moscow Kremlin became the prototype of the Kremlins of ancient Russian cities. In the 16th century a unique type of hipped-roofed temple-towers arose. Festive picturesqueness and variety of forms are characteristic of Moscow churches of the 17th century. ( cm. Naryshkinsky style). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Wooden architecture reached high perfection.

In Western and Central Europe with the growth of cities from the end of the 10th century. A type of stone residential building with workshops and shops on the ground floor or in the basement was developed. Romanesque style architecture developed: monastery complexes with closed cloister courtyards, massive basilica-type churches with several monumental towers. In the middle of the 12th century. Gothic style arose in France, reflecting the mature stage of development of feudal society and the strengthening of cities, which was associated with the spread of new types of public buildings (town halls, houses, craft shops and guilds). A rational frame-rib system, based on the transfer of the thrust of the vaults through thrust arches - flying buttresses, to supporting pillars - buttresses - standing outside the building, made it possible to cover large spans, lighten the walls as much as possible and develop the vertical space of the interior (cathedrals in Paris, Reims and Amiens in France, Freiburg im Breisgau and Cologne in Germany, Canterbury in the UK, etc.). The exterior appearance of the buildings also received a complex, vertically developed silhouette. In housing construction, along with stone, half-timbered wood was widely used. In the countries of the Near and Middle East, a type of three-part fortified city with a citadel, an urban core (shahristan, medina) and trade and craft suburbs developed; vaulted-domed structures and new types of structures (covered markets, madrassas, mosques, mausoleums) developed. Stalactites, patterned bricks, stucco and marble carvings, and ceramic cladding were used in the decoration of the buildings. Manifold architectural types, the exceptional plasticity of structures is distinguished by the architecture of India, which influenced the formation of architecture South-East Asia. In the architecture of China and Japan, the lightness and simplicity of residential buildings contrasted with the monumentality of palaces, places of worship and fortifications. Based on Chinese models, Japanese architecture came to clarity in the proportions and compositions of light wooden buildings.

Renaissance architecture in Western and Central Europe is characterized by an appeal to the ancient heritage. Public buildings, palaces, villas, temples are clear, harmonious buildings and architectural ensembles. The classical order was widely used (architects F. Brunelleschi, L. B. Alberti, Michelozzo, D. Bramante, Michelangelo in Italy). A new type of palace appeared - a palazzo with a closed symmetrical courtyard. The theory of architecture developed (Alberti, G. Vignola, A. Palladio, etc.). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the harmony and completeness of spatial compositions are replaced by complex systems of merging spaces, plasticity and sculptural volumes of buildings of Baroque architecture, the dynamic rhythms of which included decorative sculpture and illusionistic painting (buildings by Italian architects L. Bernini, F. Borromini, C. Maderna, etc.). Garden and park construction has received widespread development. The Baroque style spread to Italy, Spain, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, and other countries Latin America. In France in the 17th century. Classicism became the dominant trend. The rationalistic worldview underlying it was expressed in the rigor and geometric composition of buildings and palace and park ensembles (Versailles). French architects (L. Levo, F. Mansart, A. Le Nôtre) used the order mainly as a decorative motif. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. classicism spread widely in Great Britain (architects I. Jones, K. Wren, Adam brothers), and with last third XVIII century - and in other European countries. In the architecture of Great Britain and the Netherlands, with the development of capitalist industry, new types of buildings appeared - industrial buildings, port facilities, exchanges, etc. In Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. Peter's reforms served as an incentive to expand civil engineering and strengthen the secular principle in architecture. Numerous public, administrative, industrial and commercial buildings, city and extensive country palaces and residences with regular parks were built ( cm. Petrodvorets). A new capital, St. Petersburg, was built and developed, the layout of which combined the principles of regularity and picturesque development, characterized by simplicity and rationality. From the middle of the 18th century. in Russian Baroque architecture (architects V.V. Rastrelli, S.I. Chevakinsky, D.V. Ukhtomsky) solemn monumentality, rich plastic and color decoration of facades are combined with clarity of plans and volumetric composition. In the last third of the 18th century. Baroque gives way to classicism (architects A.F. Kokorinov, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov). Ceremonial monumental city ensembles in the Empire style were created (architects A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, J. Thomas de Thomon, K. I. Rossi, V. P. Stasov, O. I. Bove). In the architecture of Western European countries in the middle and second half of the 18th century. After a short outbreak of the decorative and elaborate Rococo style, classicism received further development.

In the second half of the 19th century. the strengthening of the capitalist system in Europe and the USA, the development of industry determined fast growth cities: new types of production, trade, transport and other structures emerged - factories, factories, train stations, department stores, exhibition pavilions, banks, a new type of theater building with a hall divided into sectors emerged. Along with the private mansions of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, multi-story apartment buildings with apartments for rent, barracks and barracks for workers. The growth of construction and the requirements for profitability have prompted a search for methods that reduce construction time, save labor and materials. The construction used the achievements of industrial technology, new building materials - concrete, glass, and at the end of the century - reinforced concrete. New structural systems were created to cover large spans and frame structures of multi-story buildings. From the second half of the 19th century V. buildings were built from metal and glass (" Crystal Palace"in London, engineer J. Paxton), high-rise engineering structures with a metal frame (Eiffel Tower in Paris, engineer G. Eiffel). A group of architects of the so-called Chicago school in the USA created a specific form of high-rise office building - a skyscraper. However, innovative designs often hidden by decorative forms that reproduced the styles of different eras ( cm. Eclecticism). The contradiction between traditional architecture and new technology, architectural decoration and design, the architects tried to resolve the Art Nouveau style that arose in the 1890s. Building on new construction and artistic possibilities, they focused attention on the problems of plastic form, which sometimes received a pictorial and decorative interpretation in the works of A. Gaudi in Spain, C. R. Mackintosh in Great Britain, V. Horta in Belgium, J. Olbrich, J. Hofmann in Austria, F. O Shekhtel in Russia.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The search for new, rational and clear architectural forms, combining the achievements of modern technology with classical compositional principles, was carried out by O. Perret, T. Garnier in France, O. Wagner in Austria, P. Behrens in Germany. At the same time, buildings in classical forms were also built (I. A. Fomin, V. A. Shchuko, I. V. Zholtovsky in Russia, E. Lutyens in Great Britain, etc.). In the 20s leading direction in Western European architecture became rationalism. Based on technical achievements and the tasks of rational organization of life processes, creating a comfortable living environment that meets the requirements of people in this age advanced technology, architects (Le Corbusier in France, representatives of the Bauhaus in Germany) sought means of artistic expression in laconicism and contrast of architectural forms, attaching primary importance to the structural and technical basis of buildings and their functional organization ( cm. Functionalism). In a number of countries, neoclassicism took hold; exaggeratedly monumental forms, devoid of a humanistic principle, were sometimes used to express militant reactionary ideology (the architecture of fascist Italy and Germany). In the 30-50s. Organic architecture became widespread (American architect F. L. Wright), which sought to connect the composition of buildings with natural conditions and “reveal” their interiors into the surrounding landscape. In the 40-50s. the principles of functionalism were interpreted in accordance with local conditions and traditions (A. Aalto in Finland, Tange Kenzo in Japan, O. Niemeyer in Brazil, etc.). This trend countered the claims to international leadership in the field of architecture made by the United States, where the concept of “universal” architecture was put forward, based on the rhythmic clarity and simplicity of elementary geometric forms and large internal spaces (architect L. Mies van der Rohe). In contrast to it, the direction of brutalism developed, combining the functionality of buildings with deliberate massiveness and rough texture of exposed surfaces (architects L. Kahn and others in the USA). Irrationalistic, subjective-arbitrary forms also spread (the later works of Le Corbusier). The increased capabilities of construction technology, creating complex spatial forms of prefabricated reinforced concrete shells and cable-stayed coverings, received artistic interpretation in the buildings of P. L. Nervi in ​​Italy, F. Candela in Mexico, etc. In the 70s - early 80s. in the USA and Western Europe The so-called postmodernism spread, proclaiming an appeal to the multi-style historical architectural forms of past eras.

In a socialist society, for the first time in history, architecture is put at the service of the entire people, satisfying their growing material and spiritual needs. The tasks of architecture are solved on the basis of the planned development of the national economy. The possibility of the natural formation of the settlement system as a whole, as well as the individual populated areas included in it, became real. The needs of a socialist society determined the main directions of the search for Soviet architecture. In the 20s new types of residential buildings and public buildings were created - palaces of culture, workers' clubs, kitchen factories, kindergartens and nurseries, residential buildings with socialized public services (the so-called communal houses). Various people participated in their design creative groups- “constructivists” (the Vesnin brothers, M. Ya. Ginzburg), “functionalists” (K. S. Melnikov, N. A. Ladovsky), architects of the older generation who sought to continue the classical architectural traditions (A. V. Shchusev, I V. Zholtovsky, I. A. Fomin).

The industrialization of the country during the years of the first five-year plans caused the massive construction of large industrial complexes, residential areas and new cities (Magnitogorsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Zaporozhye). In the second half of the 30s. in the architecture of public buildings, trends of excessive representativeness arose, based on the use of the classical heritage, sometimes detrimental to the solution of modern social problems. During this period, fundamentally important urban planning ideas were born (more details cm. Urban planning), which resulted in master plans for the reconstruction of Moscow (1935) and Leningrad (1935-40). The construction of expressive administrative, transport, cultural, social, sanatorium and other public buildings has received widespread development; the Moscow Metro was built (architects A. N. Dushkin, I. A. Fomin, etc.), the stations of which were created as a spatially extended architectural complex monumental structures of the great public importance, large public and administrative buildings and complexes. IN post-war years Grandiose tasks of restoration and reconstruction of destroyed cities and towns were solved. New ensembles of centers in Volgograd, Kyiv, Minsk and other cities emerged. Creative restructuring of Soviet architecture in the second half of the 50s. opened up new opportunities for solving social, ideological and artistic problems of mass architecture. On the basis of industrialization, typification and standards were widely introduced, which initially led to monotony and monotony of construction, which were overcome in subsequent decades by improving construction methods, a variety of compositional use of standard parts, increasing the artistic expressiveness of building volumes and new techniques of spatial composition. Mixed development with buildings of different heights, enriching the silhouette of new areas and their spatial organization, makes it possible to use the features of the surrounding landscape. In the construction of public buildings, advanced construction equipment is widely used, which makes it possible to create simple, laconic structures with a free volumetric layout connected with the surrounding historically formed urban or natural environment. These are Kremlin Palace congresses in Moscow, the Palace of Pioneers in Kyiv, the Palace of Arts. V.I. Lenin in Almaty, Republican Library named after. K. Marx in Ashgabat, numerous theaters, concert halls, institutes, sports and memorial facilities in different cities THE USSR. Prefabricated construction methods were used to create resort complexes with a variety of layouts (pioneer camps "New ArtekL", "Chaika" in Crimea, a boarding house in Pitsunda, etc.). Great success achieved in the construction of industrial and hydraulic structures (Bratskaya HPP named after the 50th anniversary October revolution and etc.). The largest urban planning undertakings include the creation of the Lenin Memorial in Ulyanovsk, Kalinin Avenue in Moscow, the seaside part of Vasilyevsky Island in Leningrad, the center of Tashkent, etc., the development of the cities of Tolyatti, Brezhnev, Zelenograd in the RSFSR, Navoi in the Uzbek SSR, Shevchenko in the Kazakh SSR.

The task of expressing in architecture new social content related to the needs of the people is solved by architects and others socialist countries, through whose efforts old cities were restored and reconstructed, including those destroyed during the Second World War 1939-45 (Warsaw, Gdansk, Berlin, Sofia, Bucharest, Belgrade, Budapest). On their outskirts, numerous and varied architectural appearance modern residential areas. The architecture of socialist society, unified in its social orientation and at the same time diverse in its forms, is developing. Associated with the process of urbanization, the growing role of the artificial environment organized by architecture makes its artistic tasks increasingly complex and responsible, and the development and improvement of construction technology opens up new opportunities for the implementation of diverse and bold creative ideas. Literature: VIA, 1-2 ed., vol. 1-12, L.-M., 1944-77; IRI, vol. 1-13, M., 1953-69; M. P. Vitruvius, Ten books about architecture, trans. from Lat., M., 1936; O. Choisy, History of Architecture, trans. from French, vol. 1-2, M., 1935-1937; L. Alberti-B., Ten books about architecture, (translated from Italian), vol. 1-2, M., (1935)-37; N. I. Brunov, Essays on the history of architecture, vol. 1-2, M.-L., 1935-37; Viollet le E. E. Duc, Conversations on Architecture, trans. from French, vol. 1-2, M.-L., 1937-38; A. Palladio, Four books about architecture, (translated from Italian), 2nd ed., M., 1938; Vignola J.B., The Rule of the Five Orders of Architecture, trans. (from Italian), M., 1939; A.K. Burov, On architecture, M., 1960; Zhuravlev A. M., Khan-S. O. Magomedov, Soviet architecture, M., 1968; V. Gropius, Borders of Architecture, M., 1971; Masters of Architecture about Architecture, M., 1972; R. Banham, The New Brutalism, trans. from English, M., 1973; Composition in modern architecture, M., 1973; Modern Soviet architecture. 1960s - early 1970s, L., 1975. Z. Gidion, Space, time, architecture, trans. from German, 2nd ed., M., 1975; C. Le E. Corbusier, Architecture of the 20th century, 2nd ed., M., 1977; Designs and form in Soviet architecture, M., 1980; A. V. Ikonnikov, Foreign architecture. From "new architecture" to postmodernism, M., 1982; Wasmuths Lexikon der Baukunst, Bd 1-5, V., 1929-37, Major M., Geschichte der Architektur, Bd 1-3, Bdpst, 1957-60; Encyclopedia of modern architecture, L., (1963); History of World Architecture, ed. by P. L. Nervi, v. 1-14, N.Y., 1972-80 (series); Syrovе V., Architektura, 2 vyd., Prague, 1973; Krajewski K., Mala encyklopedia architektury i wnetrz, Wroclaw, 1974; Charytonow Ed., Zarys historii architektury, 6 wyd., Warsz., 1976; Broniewski T., Historia architektury dla wszystkich, 2 wyd., Wroclaw, 1980; Benevolo L., Histoire de l'architecture moderne, (t.) 1-2, P., 1979-80.

(Source: “Popular art encyclopedia.” Edited by V.M. Polevoy; M.: Publishing house " Soviet encyclopedia", 1986.)

(Latin architectura, from Greek architektōn - builder), architecture, the art of constructing buildings and structures; one of the types spatial arts. Forms a spatial environment for people’s life and activities. It is of paramount importance in the synthesis of arts (painting, sculpture, arts and crafts), combining them into an artistic ensemble. Architectural structures are, on the one hand, monuments of material culture (they testify to technical achievements and are associated with the practical needs of people); on the other hand, works of art that, with the help of a specific language, reveal the worldview of their era.

You can get a complete picture of an architectural monument only by moving, walking around a building or complex of structures from the outside and inside, and changing points of view. In addition to vision, touch takes part in the perception of an architectural image (the feeling of a rough or smooth wall, the warmth of wooden railings or the coolness of stone columns) and hearing (booming steps, echoes, creaking doors, etc. help to feel the scale and extent of the building). Additional information about the construction is provided by plans and drawings.
In a work of architecture, benefit (functionality), strength (engineering calculation) and beauty are inextricably linked (the design of the building expresses a certain aesthetic idea; building materials - stone, wood, concrete, etc. - are artistically interpreted). Expressive means architecture: shape, scale (dimensions of the structure, proportionality of the building and its parts to humans), proportions (ratio of parts and the whole), rhythm, tectonics (figurative expression of construction), color and texture materials, interaction of structures with the surrounding space. Various techniques for treating the surface of a building play a big role in creating an artistic image. The facing stone can be smoothly polished or roughly chipped; The veins of marble and the texture of wood have a unique pattern every time. Using color and texture, architects highlight the structural and decorative elements of a building (window frames in ancient Russian churches are decorated with tiles; the contrast of smooth planes of green or yellow walls and white columns is characteristic of buildings of the era classicism). Decorative details help organize the plane of the facade, emphasize the tectonics of the structure, enrich its rhythmic structure (kokoshniks in ancient Russian churches, arcature in medieval buildings, lancet arches in Gothic churches).

Architecture arose at the dawn of human civilization ( megaliths). In the cult complex Stonehenge in England (2nd millennium BC) and other ancient structures, the main elements of an architectural structure have already been identified - load-bearing (vertical supports) and load-bearing (horizontal ceilings). Each era found its own unique way of artistic interpretation of these elements. In Ancient Egypt, mighty columns in the form of bundles of papyrus stems or blooming lotuses, supporting a roof decorated with golden stars on a blue background, created the impression of a huge wonderful stone forest. In Ancient Greece post-beam design buildings was figuratively interpreted in three types of architectural order. IN ancient Roman era and later the order, having lost the meaning of a structural element, remains the most important means figurative expressiveness. The revolutionary innovation of the Romans was the invention of concrete, which made it possible to create various types of vaulted ceilings (arch, dome etc.) and build huge buildings – basilicas. The design of the basilica was adapted in the Middle Ages for church buildings and became the basis of Romanesque and Gothic churches, in a revised form - cross-domed churches Byzantium and Ancient Rus'. In the era Renaissance On the basis of the basilica design, majestic buildings were created, marked by clarity and harmony of forms (L.B. Alberti, D. Bramante, F. Brunelleschi). The architecture of Baroque and Classicism did not provide new constructive solutions, but filled the previous ones with unique figurative content. The walls of baroque buildings created the illusion of a moving, pulsating surface (D.L. Bernini, F. Borromini, B.F. Rastrelli). Classicism returned severity and reasonable orderliness of forms to architectural structures (J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot, C. N. Ledoux, M. F. Kazakov, K.I. Russia and etc.). New types of materials were discovered in the 19th and 20th centuries. even greater scope for imagination for architects who sought to combine laconicism and functionality with bright imagery (Eiffel Tower, 1889; V. G. Shukhov’s Shabolovskaya radio tower in Moscow, 1930s; buildings made of glass and concrete Le Corbusier, L. Mies van der Rohe, F.L. Wright, K.S. Melnikova, brothers L.A., V.A. and A.A. Vesnin).

Architecture is divided into two large sections: religious, or ecclesiastical ( temples, monasteries), and secular (residential buildings and palaces, public and industrial buildings, landscape architecture and urban planning - the art of planning and building cities). For thousands of years, the most important buildings for people were temples, which occupied the main place in the development of a city, square, or village. During the Renaissance, secular buildings began to compete with them - town halls, palaces, country villas, etc. Many types of secular architecture (residential building, palace, stadium, theater, etc.) developed in ancient times, although their layout, design, design have changed greatly over time. Others (post office, train station, factory, factory) appeared relatively recently. Buildings can have independent significance or be combined into architectural ensembles (see Art. Architectural ensemble). The most difficult task for an architect is to create a city ensemble.

Urban planning problems were already solved by ancient civilizations. At first, settlements were built spontaneously; over the centuries, buildings were attached to the main building - a palace, a sanctuary (Knossos on Crete, 3rd - mid-2nd millennium BC). In Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, cities were divided into geometrically regular quarters. Subsequently, three main planning systems emerged: radial annular, regular rectangular and fan-shaped. The radial ring layout (streets are arranged in rings around a single center) has existed since ancient times. This is how the ancient Greeks were built (around acropolis) and Old Russian (around Kremlin) cities. In the 5th century BC e. the architect Hippodamus of Miletus developed the principle of a regular urban layout (the streets intersected at right angles, the two main streets were oriented to the cardinal points). Following the Greeks, the Hippodamian system was used by the Romans, and then by other Western European peoples. The heyday of urban planning occurred during the period of dominance of Baroque and Classicism with their love for creating distant perspectives, straight highways, and wide open spaces. A striking example of a fan-shaped layout is St. Petersburg, the plan of which is based on three main streets radiating from a single center. Founded by Peter I in 1703, the new capital from the moment of its construction developed according to a single plan, which is why St. Petersburg is an outstanding monument of urban planning. Urban planning, like architecture in general, is designed to make people’s living environment not only comfortable, but also beautiful: a person’s material environment has a significant impact on his psyche and mood.

Architecture concept

Architecture(from Latin architectur, archi - chief, tektos - to build, erect) - architecture, the art of designing and building1. Architecture is capable of expressing human ideas about the world, time, space, art, nature and feelings in three-dimensional structures. Architecture is rightly considered a synthesis of art, science and production. It is these three components, interacting with each other, that form the basis of design activity. Architecture, unlike graphics and painting, does not depict the spatial world on a two-dimensional picture plane, but creates a closed spatial environment from geometric volumes in the form of various structures.

Today there are many definitions of architecture, which can be divided into a number of areas.

Architecture as part of artificial nature, i.e. a certain environment in which a person lives and acts. In this case, the objects of architecture are urban planning and large complexes, including elements of various functional purposes; residential areas, recreation areas, train stations, airports, ports, multi-level parking lots, complex pedestrian interchanges.

Duality of architecture. Identification of two spheres of the human factor (material and spiritual). Architectural objects in this case are also considered bilaterally. Thus, structures are classified as material sphere, and their artistic and aesthetic characteristics - to the spiritual.

Architecture as a combination of usefulness, strength and beauty. Since the time of the Roman builder and architectural theorist Marcus Polion Vitruvius, these three components have been considered relevant and fundamental in the construction of any architectural structure. We can find confirmation of these words in the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, where architecture is defined as an artistically meaningful structure created by a person for various life purposes (functionality, constructability, aesthetics). Thus, all components of Vitruvius' triad are found here.

1. Borev Yu. B. Aesthetics: in 2 volumes - Smolensk, 1997. - T. 2.

In the theory and practice of architecture, for a long time its artistic and material aspects were defined as separate areas of human activity. In this regard, the question of the relationship between benefit and beauty has become significant. Each era sought to find its own relationship between these components. In the 20th century, on the one hand, the problem of the relationship between the architectural form of a structure and its functional purpose is posed, on the other hand, for industrial structures where the functional purpose dominates, it is important to determine the interconnecting relationships between the constructive side of architecture and architectural forms. Thus, various types of architecture gradually emerged.

Types of architecture

For intended purpose 1:

- housing(multi-storey residential buildings, residential complexes, cottages, dachas, hostels, hotels, etc.);

- industrial(factories, factories, warehouses, workshops, mills, farms, storage facilities, etc.);

-decorative ( stairs, fountains, gazebos, bridges, arches);

- public-civil:

places of worship (churches, temples, cathedrals, mosques, synagogues, houses of worship, etc.);

cultural and leisure facilities (theaters, cinemas, museums, exhibition halls, vernissages, planetariums, libraries, circuses, dolphinariums, stadiums, swimming pools, entertainment centers, restaurants, gaming clubs etc.);

educational institutions (kindergartens, schools, technical schools, colleges, gymnasiums, lyceums, higher education institutions, academies, research institutes, etc.);

administrative and state (government institutions, banks, law enforcement buildings, courts, prosecutor's offices, prisons, etc.);

service establishments (shops, hospitals, clinics, canteens, laundries, baths, hairdressers, beauty salons, etc.);

communication facilities (train stations, bus stations, airports, ports, metro stations, terminals, post offices, etc.).

1.See: G.-F. Grube, A. Kuchmar. A Guide to Architectural Forms. - M., 2001. - P. 6

By character1:

- volumetric architecture, having the form of a closed structure consisting of walls, ceilings and roofs (housing, public-civil, religious, industrial, etc.);

- landscape architecture decorating the landscape (bridges, arches, fountains, gazebos, stairs, etc.);

Architecture is usually understood as a field of human activity that organizes space and solves all kinds of spatial problems. To put it simply, architecture deals with the tasks of improving human existence, surrounding it with harmonious and useful objects.

Architectural activity

This group includes types of activities aimed at creating an architectural object (building, structure, complex of buildings or structures, their interior, improvement objects, landscape or garden art):

Creation of an architectural project

Coordination of the development of all sections of design documentation for construction or reconstruction

Organization of professional activities of architects

There are currently four known types of architectural activity:

Urban planning . This concept refers to the theory and practice of urban planning and development. This is a separate discipline, covering a complex of artistic, architectural, socio-economic, technical, construction and sanitary-hygienic problems of humanity. This discipline has two principles: the will of the architect (urban planner) and historical conditions. In other words, cities can arise both by the will of some people (a striking example of this is the city of St. Petersburg, which was built by the will of Peter I), and as a result of any historical events(for example, Moscow, a city that arose as a result of many historically significant events).

Urban planning arose a very long time ago. Since ancient times, people began to gather in communities and build houses, thus forming small settlements, which later grew to the scale of cities. IN modern world urban planning includes several stages - regional planning, city master plan, detailed planning project, development project and detailed design.

Architecture. the main branch of architecture related to the design and construction of buildings and structures. This concept itself is synonymous with architecture. Accordingly, their definitions are the same. Previously, in Ancient Rus', architects were called architects, i.e., persons involved in the planning and construction of various structures. As a rule, this direction involves working with wooden materials. Nowadays, architecture is not as in demand as in the ancient and Middle Ages. This direction is mainly used in the construction of private houses made of wood according to individual projects.

Landscape design. This is a kind of art of using small architectural forms in green construction. In other words, these are certain actions to improve parks and gardens, planning various compositions of plantings. The task of landscape design is to create harmonious compositions that are combined with the main buildings and structures, or located separately from them. In this case, green spaces (trees, shrubs, flowers, etc.), bodies of water (streams, ponds, waterfalls, fountains) and various small forms (benches, lanterns, obelisks, etc.) can be used.

Interior Design . In this case, we mean the design of the interior decoration of the premises, the creation of a certain interior. In other words, this is the creation of a comfortable human living environment. In this case, the designer, taking into account the personal preferences of the owner of the room, creates such an interior of the room, living in which the owner will feel most comfortable.

Question. Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of the customer and architect.

Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

Civil Code of the Russian Federation, along with those adopted in accordance with it federal laws, is the main source of civil legislation in the Russian Federation. Rules of civil law contained in other regulations legal acts, cannot contradict the Civil Code. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation, work on which began at the end of 1992, and initially proceeded in parallel with work on the Russian Constitution of 1993, is a consolidated law consisting of four parts. Due to the huge volume of material that required inclusion in the Civil Code, it was decided to adopt it in parts.

The first part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, entered into force on January 1, 1995, (with the exception of certain provisions), includes three of the seven sections of the code (Section I “General Provisions”, Section II “Property Rights and Other Property Rights”, Section III “General part of the law of obligations”). This part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation contains the fundamental norms of civil law and its terminology (about the subject and general principles of civil law, the status of its subjects (individuals and legal entities)), objects of civil law ( various types property and property rights), transactions, representation, limitation period, property rights, as well as the general principles of the law of obligations.

The second part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which is a continuation and addition to the first part, came into force on March 1, 1996. It is entirely devoted to Section IV of the code “Certain types of obligations”. Based on the general principles of the new civil law of Russia, enshrined in the 1993 Constitution and part one of the Civil Code, part two establishes a detailed system of rules on individual obligations and contracts, obligations resulting from causing harm (torts) and unjust enrichment. In terms of its content and significance, part two of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation is a major stage in the creation of new civil legislation of the Russian Federation.

The third part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation includes section V “Inheritance Law” and section VI “Private International Law”. Compared to the legislation in force before the entry into force of Part Three of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation on March 1, 2002, the rules on inheritance have undergone major changes: new forms of wills have been added, the circle of heirs has been expanded, as well as the range of objects that can be transferred in the order of hereditary succession; Detailed rules have been introduced regarding the protection and management of inheritance. Section VI of the Civil Code, dedicated to the regulation of civil law relations complicated by a foreign element, is a codification of the norms of private international law. This section, in particular, contains rules on the qualification of legal concepts when determining the applicable law, on the application of the law of a country with a plurality of legal systems, on reciprocity, retroactive reference, and establishing the content of norms of foreign law.

The fourth part of the Civil Code (entered into force on January 1, 2008) consists entirely of Section VII “Rights to the results of intellectual activity and means of individualization.” Its structure includes general provisions - norms that apply to all types of results of intellectual activity and means of individualization or to a significant number of their types. The inclusion of norms on intellectual property rights in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation made it possible to better coordinate these norms with the general norms of civil law, as well as to unify the terminology used in the field of intellectual property. The adoption of the fourth part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation completed the codification of domestic civil legislation.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation has passed the test of time and extensive application practice, however, economic offenses, often committed under the guise of civil law, have revealed the lack of completeness in the law of a number of classical civil law institutions, such as the invalidity of transactions, the creation, reorganization and liquidation of legal entities, assignment claims and transfer of debt, pledge, etc., which necessitated the need to introduce a number of systemic changes to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. As noted by one of the initiators of making such changes, President of the Russian Federation D.A. Medvedev, “The existing system does not need to be restructured, fundamentally changed... but to be improved, to reveal its potential and to develop implementation mechanisms. The Civil Code has already become and should remain the basis for the formation and development of civilized market relations in the state, an effective mechanism for protecting all forms of property, as well as the rights and legitimate interests of citizens and legal entities. The Code does not require fundamental changes, but further improvement of civil legislation is necessary..."

On July 18, 2008, Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 1108 “On improving the Civil Code of the Russian Federation” was issued, which set the task of developing a concept for the development of civil legislation of the Russian Federation. On October 7, 2009, the Concept was approved by the decision of the Council for the Codification and Improvement of Russian Legislation and signed by the President of the Russian Federation.

Architecture is the art of constructing buildings, structures and their complexes to serve the social, everyday, ideological and artistic needs of human society.

The task of the architect is to create (sometimes together with an engineer) the very concept of the construction being undertaken. When a need arises for a building, for example, for housing, a school or an institution, and a place has been chosen for its construction, the architect, out of the entire large team that will have to work on its construction, is the first to begin work. He draws up a project for this building that meets all the practical requirements imposed on it by the conditions of the allocated territory, the purpose of the building, the funds allocated, etc.

The architect, solving a practical problem, simultaneously sets artistic goals, i.e. strive to express a certain ideological content in artistic forms and give a building or structure an appearance that will actively influence the consciousness of people.

Works of architecture are buildings for various purposes, individual fragments of urban development and the spatial organization of cities as a whole, engineering structures (bridges, radio and television towers, pipes, etc.), as well as structures intended for artistic enrichment and improvement of external space ( monuments, retaining walls, terraces, embankments).

Architectural art influences the emotions and consciousness of people. The appearance of buildings is perceived by the viewer as light or heavy, monumental or intimate. Being inside a building, a person perceives the characteristics of its space as overwhelming or uplifting, cozy or uncomfortable. Knowing the artistic laws of architectural form formation, the architect predetermines the intended emotional impact of a building or a complex of buildings in the design process.

The structure is the main component of architecture, regardless of whether a residential, civil or industrial building is being built. In all cases, with the help of certain materials, a certain volume is limited and the internal space is organized for certain purposes. The erected structure must have a specific functional purpose and be able to withstand the forces of nature. In addition to these utilitarian goals, people have always sought to satisfy aesthetic requirements, which sometimes exceeded the requirements of strength and economy.
Currently, a person is served by many buildings and structures, which can be divided into 3 groups: housing at home; public buildings; production facilities.

There is also architecture of “small forms” (opening stairs and platforms, pools and fountains, canopies and gazebos). “Small” and “large” architecture are linked together by the art of the city planner.

City planner- is the composer of the city. The composition of the building is very important. The impression that an architectural structure makes primarily depends on it. The combination of various volumes - high and low, rectilinear and curvilinear, alternation of spaces - open and closed - these are the main techniques that the architect uses when creating architectural compositions.
Modern architecture is undergoing a restructuring of traditional design methods. Based on the use of the results of a number of scientific disciplines (demography, sociology, anthropology, ergonomics, climatology, building physics, structural mechanics, etc.), their system analysis and generalization, the foundations of the scientific methodology for the design of buildings and structures are formed.

Technical progress in construction requires the design engineer to create, develop new rational design solutions, progressive methods for calculating structures, and increase the efficiency of design work.

Seven Wonders of the World in View ancient society- the most famous sights of architecture and nature. These are (in order of antiquity):

1. Egyptian pyramids at Giza (ca. 2700-1780 BC);
2. Terraced Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Babylon (605-562 BC);
3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (c. 550 BC);
4. statue of Zeus at Olympia (c. 430 BC);
5. Mausoleum in Halicarnassus (IV century BC);
6. statue of the sun god Helios on Rhodes (the so-called Colossus of Rhodes) 37m high. (c.292-280 BC);
7. Pharao lighthouse in Alexandria, probably 143m high (ca. 280 BC).

Unfortunately, most of these monuments no longer exist. Over the centuries, attempts have been made repeatedly to expand the circle of miracles. They tried to include the Eiffel Tower, the Statue of Liberty in America, the Ostankino TV tower, the Great Wall of China, a canal, etc. among them. The Chinese Wall is the largest structure of all centuries and peoples. Of course, many of the technical achievements of our time (for example, the operational tunnel under the English Channel) are very significant. However, it has not yet been possible to refute this opinion.
Some of the wonders include Kazakhstani structures: the High Mountain Ice Rink and the village protective dam at Medeo.

The first cities of the world

After people began to settle down in the Middle East about 11 thousand years ago, families grew, the size of settlements increased, and the first cities appeared. A division of labor developed in communities - artisans made things necessary for life, leaders managed the life of the community. People came to the city to buy and sell not only food products grown in its surroundings, but also metal products, clothing, jewelry, spices and much more.

Which city is the oldest in the world this is not known with complete certainty, but one of the most ancient is the city of Jericho in Israel: in the Middle East not far from dead sea. The ruins of some city walls are more than 11 thousand years old. These were massive stone structures 7m high. people lived in it until about 1500 BC. About 7 thousand years ago there were many other cities in the Middle East.

The first urban settlements in China two civilizations arose in Asia - in China and in India. Chinese civilization began to develop more than 7 thousand years ago, when people from the Shang-Yin tribe built the first settlements in the Yellow River valley (Eastern China).
The first cities were of considerable size (up to 6 sq. km.) and often had solid walls.

Catalhöyük in Asia Minor on the territory of modern Turkey is one of the most ancient cities in the world (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 The city of Çetalhöyük located in Turkey

Its exact age is unknown, but the surviving remains date back to 6250 BC. To protect against attacks, houses were built close to each other, and the entrance to them was on the roof. In case of danger, the stairs were removed.

Otrar (Turarband, Turar, Tarband, Farab) is a medieval (V-XV) city in Southern Kazakhstan. The city of Otrar is known throughout the world as a great city located on the Great Silk Road connecting China with Central Asia and Siberia. Chinese silk was a major trade commodity. The Great Silk Road is a caravan road that appeared in the second century BC and ran from Xi'an through Lanzhou and Dunhuang, and then bifurcated: the northern road, passing through Turfan, crossed the Pamirs, went to Fergana and the Kazakh steppes; the southern one passed by Lake Lop Nor along the southern edge of the Taklamakan desert through Yarkand and Pamir (in the southern part) and led to Bactria, and from there to Parthia, India and the Middle East.

The length of the Great Silk Road exceeds 7 thousand km. Historical information about Otrar as a center of science and education (madressah, mosque), art and architecture has been preserved to this day. The world famous Otrar Library was located in this city.
The city was surrounded by a wall and had three entrances. During the era of Genghis Khan's conquests, Otrar was completely destroyed (1220). At the beginning of the 16th century, the city passed to the Kazakhs.
The city of Khiva is located in Uzbekistan on the left bank of the Amu Darya. In the 9th-10th centuries, Khiva was the capital of Khorezm. Such great encyclopedist scientists as Muhammad al-Khorezmi, Abu Raikhan Biruni, Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna) worked in Khiva. Majestic palaces, mausoleums, mosques and minarets formed the best architectural ensembles.

One of the oldest cities in Kazakhstan is Taraz (Fig. 1.2.). The remains of which are hidden under buildings modern city Taraz. The city is located on the Talas River and was first mentioned by the Byzantine ambassador Zemarkh in 568. Several decades later, in 630, the Chinese traveler Xuan-Zang reported about it, calling Taraz an important trading center on the Great Silk Road. In the 8th century Taraz was known as Argu-Talas, Altyn-Argu-Talas-ulush, Talas-ulush. Taraz is a fortified trading city with a well-developed craft industry. Taraz was famous for its public bathhouse, built in the 11th-12th centuries, which had an original layout.

Figure 1.2 Ancient city of Taraz

At the end of the 13th century, Taraz continued to be an important center in the Mongol Empire, and then in the power of Timur. It was also known later, until the 16th century, when the lands of Semirechye became part of the Kazakh Khanate.

1856 the city received the new name Aulie-Ata “Holy Grandfather” and in January 1936 it was renamed the city of Mirzoyan (in honor of the then first secretary of Kazakhstan).
In May 1938 the city was given the name Zhambyl, in honor of the national akyn Z. Zhabaev. And the city bore this name until January 8, 1997, when the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev adopted a historic decree renaming the city of Zhambyl to the city of Taraz.

Turkestan (Yasi)- medieval (V-VI) settlement on the eastern outskirts of the modern city of Turkestan in the Shymkent region. It was first mentioned in sources from the second half of the 16th century, from the moment the city became the capital of the Kazakh Khanate. In the 10th century, in the region of Turkestan, the city of Shavgar was known, which was a suburban village. In the 14th century, the central position in this region was occupied by the city of Yasy, which was a suburban village of Shavgar. The heyday of Yasa falls on the 16th - 15th centuries, when the city grew rapidly, which was greatly facilitated by the growth of commodity-money relations that replaced natural exchange. In the middle of the century, Yassy had its own mint.

Medieval historians at the beginning of the 16th century mention it as the capital city of the rulers of the district and a large mall, which, like other Syrdarya cities, was constantly at the center of military clashes. The Ak-Orda khans fought for it with the rulers of Transoxiana-Timurids in the 14th and 15th centuries. It is on the territory of ancient Turkestan that the mausoleum-mosque of Kozha Ahmed Yassawi is located - a shrine of Muslims around the world, erected by the will of Emir Timur. The tombs of the Kazakh khans are also located here.

Architecture – This is an activity to create an artistically meaningful spatial environment for the life processes of society in specific natural conditions, organically combining the rationalism of the scientific and technical method with the freedom and creative inspiration of the artistic method.

The concept of architecture includes activity and its result, architectural design and the building itself. At the same time, for an architect, architecture is first and foremost activity, designation of the process of creating an architectural object.

architectural space– this is the real three-dimensional space of our planet that accommodates a person. The latter allows us to consider it four-dimensional. Architectural space is the subject of architecture and its central category.

So, subject of architecture – concrete historical space. Architectural space, as we understand it, is a combination of internal, enclosing and external spaces.

Inner space– functional-typological being of architecture, the soul of an architectural object. The interior space is saturated vital energy object, provides conditions for its normal functioning.

Enclosing space– material and structural. This is the physical body of an architectural object. The enclosing space is formed by a “dense” space of structures, building materials, and engineering equipment. The “material shell” of the enclosing space ensures the normal functioning of people in buildings.

External space– natural, urban – is a prerequisite and condition for the existence of an architectural object as a unity of internal and enclosing spaces. It shapes the spirit of an architectural object. External space is an information and energy field that exists in historical infinity, “feeding” the act of birth of an architectural object.

Visible form, as philosophers say, “appearance,” appearance, can only arise like a border between two of the listed spaces: external and enclosing (external form), enclosing and internal (internal form). In any building, the external visible form is its facade, the internal external form is the interior of the premises.

Properties architectural space, which are taken into account in architectural design:

– geometricity– the size and shape of the space are necessary for human activity, placement of equipment and movement of people;

– air condition(microclimate) - the volume of air for breathing with optimal parameters of temperature, humidity and speed of its movement, corresponding to the normal heat and moisture exchange of the human body for this activity, the degree of air purity;

– sound mode– conditions of audibility in the room and protection from disturbing sounds;

– light mode– operating conditions of the visual organs, determined by the degree of illumination of the room, color characteristics;

– visibility and visual perception– conditions for people to work associated with the need to see various objects in the room.

Quality architectural space depends on a combination of these properties.

Function – this is a concept, a theoretical abstraction, denoting the practical purpose of an architectural object. Translated from Latin it means “execution, implementation.” The function of a structure is the spatial embodiment of activity and activity embodied in the space of an architectural object. Function is not space or activity. Function is unity space and activity.

In architectural design, function is expressed in several forms:

– function as target creation of an architectural object;

– function as process, movement, change;

– function as expressed expediency.

The function is expressed in functional diagrams, materializes in the building plans, since all vital processes in architecture take place on a horizontal plane.

Each architectural object and all its elements perform their specific function. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish between main, main, auxiliary and additional functions. The value of the function depends on the element’s place in the object design system.

Architectural objects buildings, structures and structures are considered.

The structure, or structure of an architectural object, forms its internal form. Unlike the outer form, the inner form is invisible, or rather, it is very difficult to see. The perception of the internal form passes through all senses in time. You can understand and evaluate the structure of an architectural object by walking through the entire building, walking around it from the outside, or analyzing the drawings. The structure of an architectural object reflects the professional level of perception and assessment of buildings and is described using drawings - plans, sections, facades (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1 Structure of an architectural object

The patterns of formation of the structure of a building are studied in the basics of composition, and the skills of compositional modeling are consolidated in educational architectural design.

Internal form or structure represents organic compound into a single whole - an architectural object - of internal, enclosing and external space.

The internal space of an architectural object is its soul, is formed by function, and is evaluated by its benefits.

The enclosing space of an architectural object—its physical body—is formed by the structure and is assessed by its strength.

The external space of an architectural object determines its spirit, is formed by the context, and is assessed by beauty.

In this regard, the structure of an architectural object in the design process is formed by three groups of factors: social-functional, engineering-constructive and architectural-artistic.

To the group socio-functional factors includes socio-demographic and national-ethnographic characteristics of the consumer, life activity and behavior of the consumer, technology of services or production.

group engineering and design factors form structural systems and methods of building construction, building materials and engineering equipment.

group architectural and artistic factors are made up of natural-climatic, urban planning, socio-cultural and socio-economic conditions. Socio-cultural conditions include experience; values; traditions; assessments accumulated by society and peoples in the course of their historical development.

Each group of factors plays a dominant role in a certain type of space. Thus, socio-functional factors are the most important for the internal space, engineering and structural factors determine the design of the enclosing space, and architectural and artistic factors are more important for the external space.

An architect, having a certain shaping methods, i.e., the way of processing existing conditions and turning them into a building design, carries out the process of architectural design. The result of this process is the creation ideal model building - project, and then its construction.

Questions:

1. Define the concept of “architecture”.

2. What does the concept of architecture include?

3. What are the two objectives of architecture?

4. What are the properties of architectural space?

5. In what forms is the function of architectural design expressed?