The difference between the Slavs and the Finno-Ugric peoples. Johan Beckman: “Finns and Russians are, if not one people, then at least brothers

Russia's defeat can be explained by three groups of reasons or factors.

The political reason for Russia's defeat during Crimean War was the unification against it of the main Western powers (England and France) with the benevolent (for the aggressor) neutrality of the rest. This war demonstrated the consolidation of the West against a civilization alien to them.

The technical reason for the defeat was the relative backwardness of the Russian army's weapons.

The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serfdom, which is inextricably linked with the limitation of industrial development.

Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. killed over 522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British Military Encyclopedia. T. I. M., 1977. P. 487..

In terms of its grandiose scale - the width of the theater of military operations and the number of mobilized troops - this war was quite comparable to the world war. Defending on several fronts - in Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky - Russia acted alone in this war. It was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia, which inflicted a crushing defeat on our country.

The defeat in the Crimean War led to the fact that the country's authority in the international arena dropped extremely. The destruction of the remnants of the battle fleet on the Black Sea and the liquidation of the fortress on the coast opened the southern border of the country to any enemy invasion. In the Balkans, Russia's position as a great power has been shaken due to a number of restrictive restrictions. According to the articles of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea fleet, but the neutralization of the sea was only an appearance: through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, the Turks could always enter there from Mediterranean Sea their squadrons. Soon after his accession to the throne, Alexander II dismissed Nesselrode: he was an obedient executor of the will of the former sovereign, but for independent activity no good. Meanwhile, Russian diplomacy faced the most difficult and important task- achieve the abolition of the humiliating and difficult articles of the Paris Treaty for Russia. The country was in complete political isolation and had no allies in Europe. M.D. was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Nesselrode. Gorchakov. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of judgment, he knew how to accurately correlate Russia's capabilities and its specific actions, and brilliantly mastered the art of diplomatic play. In choosing allies, he was guided by practical goals, and not by likes and dislikes or speculative principles.

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War ushered in the era of the Anglo-French redivision of the world. Having knocked the Russian Empire out of world politics and secured their rear in Europe, the Western powers actively used the gained advantage to achieve planetary domination. The path to the successes of England and France in Hong Kong or Senegal lay through the destroyed bastions of Sevastopol. Soon after the Crimean War, England and France attacked China. Having achieved a more impressive victory over him, they turned this giant into a semi-colony. By 1914, the countries they captured or controlled accounted for 2/3 of the world's territory.

The main lesson of the Crimean War for Russia was that in order to achieve its global goals, the West is without hesitation ready to combine its power with Muslim East. IN in this case, to crush the third center of force - Orthodox Russia. The Crimean War also frankly exposed the fact that when the situation at the Russian borders worsened, all the allies of the empire smoothly moved into the camp of its opponents. At the western Russian borders: from Sweden to Austria, as in 1812, there was a smell of gunpowder.

The Crimean War clearly demonstrated to the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lag behind Europe threatened with more serious consequences.

At the same time, the Crimean War served as a kind of indicator of the effectiveness of the military reforms undertaken in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I (1825 - 1855). Distinctive feature This war had poor troop management (on both sides). At the same time, the soldiers, despite appalling conditions, fought exceptionally courageously See Smolin N.N. The role of the moral factor of the Russian army during the Crimean War. 1853-1856 // Diss. Ph.D. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.02. M, 2002. under the leadership of outstanding Russian commanders: P.S. Nakhimova, V.A. Kornilova, E.I. Totleben and others.

The main task foreign policy Russia 1856 - 1871, began the struggle for the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace. Russia could not accept a situation in which its Black Sea border remained unprotected and open to military attack. The economic and political interests of the country, as well as the security interests of the state, required the cancellation of the neutralization of the Black Sea. But this task had to be solved in conditions of foreign policy isolation and military-economic backwardness not through military means, but through diplomacy, using the contradictions of the European powers. This explains the major role of Russian diplomacy during these years.

In 1857 - 1860 Russia managed to achieve diplomatic rapprochement with France. However, the very first diplomatic initiatives of the Russian government on the very narrow issue of Turkey carrying out reforms for Christian peoples in the Balkan provinces showed that France does not intend to support Russia.

At the beginning of 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus. The rebels demanded independence, civil equality and the allocation of land to the peasants. Soon after the events began, on January 27, an agreement was reached between Russia and Prussia on mutual assistance in suppressing the uprising. This convention sharply worsened Russia's relations with England and France.

The result of these international events a new balance of power emerged. Mutual alienation between Russia and England increased even more. The Polish crisis interrupted the rapprochement between Russia and France. There was a noticeable improvement in relations between Russia and Prussia, in which both countries were interested. The Russian government abandoned its traditional course in Central Europe aimed at preserving a fragmented Germany.

Crimean War 1853−1856 (or Eastern War) is a conflict between the Russian Empire and coalitions of countries, the cause of which was the desire of a number of countries to gain a foothold in the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea, as well as to reduce the influence of the Russian Empire in this region.

Basic information

Participants in the conflict

Almost all leading European countries became participants in the conflict. Against the Russian Empire, on whose side there was only Greece (until 1854) and the vassal Megrelian principality, a coalition consisting of:

Ottoman Empire;
French Empire;
British Empire;
Kingdom of Sardinia.

Support for the coalition troops was also provided by: the North Caucasian Imamate (until 1955), the Abkhazian Principality (part of the Abkhazians sided with the Russian Empire and led against the coalition troops guerrilla warfare), Circassians.

It should also be noted, that the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Sweden showed friendly neutrality to the coalition countries.

Thus, the allies in Europe Russian empire I couldn’t find it for myself.

Numerical aspect ratio

Numerical ratio ( ground troops and fleet) at the time of the outbreak of hostilities it was approximately as follows:

Russian Empire and allies (Bulgarian Legion, Greek Legion and foreign voluntary formations) - 755 thousand people;
coalition forces - about 700 thousand people.

From a logistical point of view, the army of the Russian Empire was significantly inferior armed forces coalition, although none of the officials and generals wanted to accept this fact . Moreover, the command staff, in terms of its preparedness was also inferior to the command staff of the combined enemy forces.

Geography of combat operations

For four years The fighting took place:

in the Caucasus;
on the territory of the Danube principalities (Balkans);
in Crimea;
on the Black, Azov, Baltic, White and Barents Seas;
in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

This geography is explained, first of all, by the fact that the opponents actively used the navy against each other (a map of military operations is presented below).

Brief history of the Crimean War of 1853−1856

Political situation on the eve of the war

The political situation on the eve of the war was extremely acute. The main reason for this exacerbation was, first of all, the obvious weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the strengthening of the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans and the Black Sea. It was at this time that Greece gained independence (1830), Turkey lost its Janissary corps (1826) and fleet (1827, Battle of Navarino), Algeria ceded to France (1830), Egypt also renounced its historical vassalage (1831).

At the same time, the Russian Empire received the right to freely use the Black Sea straits, achieved autonomy for Serbia and a protectorate over the Danube principalities. Having supported Ottoman Empire in the war with Egypt, the Russian Empire seeks from Turkey a promise to close the straits to any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in force until 1941).

Naturally, such a strengthening of the Russian Empire instilled a certain fear in the European powers. In particular, Great Britain did everything, so that the London Convention on the Straits would come into force, which would prevent their closure and open up the possibility for France and England to intervene in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict. Also, the government of the British Empire achieved “most favored nation treatment” in trade from Turkey. In fact, this meant the complete subordination of the Turkish economy.

At this time, Britain did not want to further weaken the Ottomans, since this eastern empire had become a huge market in which English goods could be sold. Britain was also concerned about the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus and the Balkans, its advance into Central Asia, and that is why it interfered with Russian foreign policy in every possible way.

France was not particularly interested in affairs in the Balkans, but many in the Empire, especially the new Emperor Napoleon III, thirsted for revenge (after the events of 1812-1814).

Austria, despite the agreements and general work in the Holy Alliance, did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans and did not want the formation of new states there, independent of the Ottomans.

Thus, each of the strong European states had its own reasons for starting (or heating up) the conflict, and also pursued its own goals, strictly determined by geopolitics, the solution of which was possible only if Russia was weakened, involved in a military conflict with several opponents at once.

Causes of the Crimean War and the reason for the outbreak of hostilities

So, the reasons for the war are quite clear:

Great Britain’s desire to preserve the weak and controlled Ottoman Empire and through it to control the operation of the Black Sea straits;
the desire of Austria-Hungary to prevent a split in the Balkans (which would lead to unrest within the multinational Austria-Hungary) and the strengthening of Russia’s positions there;
the desire of France (or, more precisely, Napoleon III) to distract the French from internal problems and strengthen their rather shaky power.

It is clear that the main desire of all European states was to weaken the Russian Empire. The so-called Palmerston Plan (the leader of British diplomacy) provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia: Finland, the Åland Islands, the Baltic states, Crimea and the Caucasus. According to this plan, the Danube principalities were to go to Austria. The Kingdom of Poland was to be restored, which would serve as a barrier between Prussia and Russia.

Naturally, the Russian Empire also had certain goals. Under Nicholas I, all officials and all the generals wanted to strengthen Russia’s position in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The establishment of a favorable regime for the Black Sea straits was also a priority.

The reason for the war was the conflict around the Church of the Nativity of Christ located in Bethlehem, the keys to which were administered by Orthodox monks. Formally, this gave them the right to “speak” on behalf of Christians all over the world and dispose of the greatest Christian shrines at their own discretion.

The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, demanded that the Turkish Sultan hand over the keys to the hands of Vatican representatives. This offended Nicholas I, who protested and sent His Serene Highness Prince A.S. Menshikov to the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov was unable to achieve a positive solution to the issue. Most likely, this was due to the fact that the leading European powers had already entered into a conspiracy against Russia and in every possible way pushed the Sultan to war, promising him support.

In response to the provocative actions of the Ottomans and European ambassadors, the Russian Empire breaks off diplomatic relations with Turkey and sends troops into the Danube principalities. Nicholas I, understanding the complexity of the situation, was ready to make concessions and sign the so-called Vienna Note, which ordered the withdrawal of troops from the southern borders and the liberation of Wallachia and Moldova, but when Turkey tried to dictate the terms, the conflict became inevitable. After the Emperor of Russia refused to sign the note with the amendments made by the Turkish Sultan, the Ottoman ruler declared the start of war with the Russian Empire. In October 1853 (when Russia was not yet completely ready for hostilities), the war began.

Progress of the Crimean War: fighting

The entire war can be divided into two large stages:

October 1953 - April 1954 - this is directly a Russian-Turkish company; theater of military operations - the Caucasus and the Danube principalities;
April 1854 - February 1956 - military operations against the coalition (Crimean, Azov, Baltic, White Sea and Kinburn companies).

The main events of the first stage can be considered the defeat of the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay by P. S. Nakhimov (November 18 (30), 1853).

The second stage of the war was much more eventful.

It can be said that failures in the Crimean direction led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander I. I. (Nicholas I died in 1855) decided to begin peace negotiations.

It cannot be said that Russian troops suffered defeats because of their commanders-in-chief. In the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by the talented Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov (who also later led the defense of Sevastopol and died in 1855), the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoiko, but even the enthusiasm and tactical genius of these officers did not help in the war, which was fought according to the new rules.

Treaty of Paris

The diplomatic mission was headed by Prince A.F. Orlov. After long negotiations in Paris 18 (30).03. In 1856, a peace treaty was signed between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia, on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Reasons for defeat in the war

Even before the conclusion of the Paris Peace The reasons for the defeat in the war were obvious to the emperor and leading politicians of the empire:

foreign policy isolation of the empire;
superior forces enemy;
backwardness of the Russian Empire in socio-economic and military-technical terms.

Foreign policy and domestic political consequences of defeat

The foreign policy and domestic political results of the war were also disastrous, although somewhat softened by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

the international authority of the Russian Empire fell (for the first time since 1812);
the geopolitical situation and balance of power in Europe have changed;
Russia's influence in the Balkans, Caucasus and the Middle East has weakened;
the security of the country's southern borders has been violated;
positions in the Black Sea and Baltic have been weakened;
The country's financial system is upset.

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation inside and outside the country after the defeat in the Crimean War, it was precisely this that became the catalyst that led to the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

In the spring of 1854, Britain and France declared war on the Russian Empire. This was the beginning of a radical change in the Crimean War. It was from this moment that the account of the end and decline of the once powerful Russian Empire began

Overestimation of power

Nicholas I was convinced of the invincibility of the Russian Empire. Successful military operations in the Caucasus, Turkey and Central Asia gave rise to the Russian emperor's ambitions to secede the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, as well as faith in the power of Russia and its ability to claim hegemony in Europe. Baron Stockmar, friend and educator of Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, wrote in 1851: “When I was young, Napoleon ruled over the continent of Europe. Now it looks like the Russian Emperor has taken Napoleon’s place and that, at least for several years, he, with other intentions and other means, will also dictate laws to the continent.” Nikolai himself thought something like this. The situation was aggravated by the fact that he was always surrounded by flatterers. The historian Tarle wrote that at the beginning of 1854 in the Baltic states, in noble circles, a poem in numerous copies was distributed in German, in the first stanza of which the author addressed the king with the words: “You, from whom not a single mortal disputes the right to be called greatest man, which the earth has only seen. The vain Frenchman, the proud Briton bow before you, burning with envy - the whole world lies in prostration at your feet.” It is not surprising, therefore, that Nicholas I was burning with ambition and eager to implement his plans, which cost Russia thousands of lives.

Rampant embezzlement

A common story has become about how Karamzin was asked in Europe to tell in a nutshell about the situation in Russia, but he didn’t even need two words, he answered with one: “They are stealing.” TO mid-19th centuries the situation has not changed in better side. Embezzlement in Russia has acquired total proportions. Tarle quotes a contemporary of the events of the Crimean War: “In the Russian army, which was stationed in Estland in 1854–1855 and was not in contact with the enemy, great devastation was caused by starvation typhus that appeared among the soldiers, since the commanding staff stole and left the rank and file to starve to death.” In no other European army was the situation so dire. Nicholas I knew about the scale of this disaster, but could not do anything about the situation. Thus, he was stunned by the case of the director of the office of the disabled fund, Politkovsky, who stole from the budget more than a million rubles The scale of corruption during the Crimean War was such that Russia was able to restore the treasury deficit only 14 years after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

Backwardness of the army

One of the fatal factors in the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War was the backwardness of the weapons of our army. It appeared back on September 8, 1854, during the battle on the Alma River: the Russian infantry was armed with smooth-bore rifles with a firing range of 120 meters, while the British and French had rifled rifles with a firing range of up to 400 meters. In addition, the Russian army was armed with guns of various calibers: 6-12-pound field guns, 12-24-pound and pound siege unicorns, 6, 12, 18, 24 and 36-pound bomb guns. Such a number of calibers significantly complicated the supply of ammunition to the army. Finally, Russia had practically no steam ships, and sailing ships had to be flooded at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, which was obviously an extreme measure to deter the enemy.

Negative image of Russia

During the reign of Nicholas I, the Russian Empire began to claim the title of “gendarme of Europe.” In 1826-1828, the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates went to Russia, next year, after the war with Turkey, the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube were annexed to Russia. Russia's advance in Central Asia also continued. By 1853, the Russians came close to the Syr Darya.

Russia defended itself on several fronts - in Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and the Kamchatka front. In fact, Russia fought alone, with insignificant Bulgarian forces (3,000 soldiers) and the Greek legion (800 people) on our side. Having turned everyone against itself, showing insatiable ambitions, in fact Russia did not have the reserve power to resist England and France. During the Crimean War, Russia did not yet have the concept of propaganda, while the British made full use of their propaganda machine to whip up a negative image of the Russian army.

Diplomacy failure

The Crimean War showed not only weakness Russian army, but also the weakness of diplomacy. The peace treaty was signed on March 30, 1856 in Paris at an international congress with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The peace conditions were frankly unfavorable for Russia. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia returned Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, Balaklava and other cities in Crimea captured by the Allies; ceded to the Moldavian principality the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia. The Black Sea was declared neutral, but Russia and Turkey could not maintain a navy there. Russia and Turkey could only maintain 6 steam ships of 800 tons each and 4 ships of 200 tons each for patrol duty.

The autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities was confirmed, but the supreme power of the Turkish Sultan over them was preserved. The previously adopted provisions of the London Convention of 1841 on the closure of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to military vessels of all countries except Turkey were confirmed. Russia pledged not to build military fortifications on the Åland Islands and in the Baltic Sea. The patronage of Turkish Christians was transferred to the hands of the “concern” of all the great powers, that is, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Finally, the treaty deprived our country of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.

Ignorance of Nicholas I

Many historians associate main reason defeat in the Crimean War with the figure of Emperor Nicholas I. Thus, the Russian historian Tarle wrote: “As for his weaknesses as the leader of the empire’s foreign policy, one of the main ones was his deep, truly impenetrable, comprehensive, so to speak, ignorance.” . The Russian emperor did not know life in Russia at all, he valued discipline with a stick, and he suppressed any manifestation of independent thinking. Fyodor Tyutchev wrote about Nicholas I: “In order to create such a hopeless situation, the monstrous stupidity of this unfortunate man was needed, who during his thirty-year reign, constantly in the most favorable conditions, did not take advantage of anything and missed everything, managing to start a fight under the most impossible circumstances." Thus, we can say that the Crimean War, which turned into a disaster for Russia, was caused by the personal ambitions of the emperor, prone to adventure and seeking to maximally expand the boundaries of his power.

Shepherd's Ambition

One of the main reasons for the Crimean War was the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholic Church in resolving the issue of “Palestinian shrines”. Here the interests of Russia and France collided. Nicholas I, who did not recognize Napoleon III as a legitimate emperor, was confident that Russia would only have to fight a “sick man,” as he called the Ottoman Empire. With England Russian Emperor hoped to reach an agreement, and also counted on Austrian support. These calculations of the “shepherd” Nicholas I turned out to be erroneous, and “ crusade“turned out to be a real disaster for Russia.

Crimean War 1853-1856 Causes of the war, causes of defeat, terms of the Paris Peace Treaty

Russia's participation in the Crimean War was determined by Russia's geopolitical interests.

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia was squeezed out of the Middle East markets ka England and France, who subjugated Turkey to their influence. The Russian monarchy did not want to lose its advantages acquired in the victorious wars with Turkey of 1735-1739, 1768-1774, 1787-1791, 1806-1812, 1828-1829. In these wars, Russia secured Southern Ukraine, Crimea, Bessarabia, and the Caucasus. Russia has developed the Black Sea lands. As a result of the successes of Russian weapons, the autonomy of Serbia was ensured in 1829, the power of the Sultan over Moldavia and Wallachia was limited, and the independence of Greece was proclaimed in 1830.

In the first half of the 19th century there was weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Russia sought

To the division of the Ottoman Empire,

Creation of independent states in South-Eastern Europe

Achieve a protectorate over the Danube principalities

Establish control over the Black Sea straits

Strengthen the country's influence in Europe

Secure the Russian Black Sea coast

Do not allow foreign fleets into the Black Sea.

In the middle of the 19th century. intensified struggle for spheres of influence in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East.

Britain - n Russia's most powerful rival. Britannia

Fear of Russia's strengthening

Sought to limit Russia's influence in Europe,

She sought to oust Russia from the Balkans.

England was not interested in the division of the Ottoman Empire, because she hoped to put it under her financial, political, and economic control

England hatched plans for the military defeat of Russia in order to achieve its own goals of conquest in the Middle East.

London became increasingly closer to Paris, and subsequently these powers acted together on the eastern question.

France announced the Russian threat in the Middle East. Palmerston, the Prime Minister of England, stated that the purpose of England's policy in the Middle East was to counteract the despotic governments of the East.

Austria. Took a hostile position towards the eastern claims of Nicholas I Austria

She could not come to terms with the transition of the Balkan Peninsula to the economic and political control of Russia. Austria sought to bring the Balkan peoples under its own control.

There was deep antagonism between Russia and Austria on the Eastern Question

Nicholas I, after the suppression of the Hungarian revolution by Russian troops in 1849, believed that the Habsburg monarchy owed its salvation to Russia. He considered Austria his reliable ally in Europe and the Balkans. Nicholas I was mistaken in his assessment of Austria's position.

Prussia was not yet interested in the eastern question and preferred to avoid European disputes over the Ottoman Empire. In the struggle between England and Russia, Prussia could not play the role of a reliable and active ally of Russia.

Nicholas I made a number of serious diplomatic miscalculations, incorrectly defining the interests of England, France, and Austria. He was sure that they would not interfere in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey. In reality, these countries were interested in weakening Russia's influence on solving European problems.

Russia suffered defeat in the Crimean War. Main reasons steel defeats:

Russia's military and economic lag behind England and France;

Excessive centralization of the country's governance; low efficiency of the bureaucracy; Among the ministers at this time, mediocre and irresponsible persons prevailed. Embezzlement reigned at all levels. The army was supplied disgracefully: the soldiers were half-starved, and in Sevastopol the army and population were starving; The quartermasters stole everything that could be appropriated for themselves.

Low level of military art of the Russian command; Among the senior officers, there were predominant persons who held positions by seniority or patronage; they did not have military talents and were poor strategists. This applies to Gorchakov, Menshikov, Paskevich. The command made strategic and tactical mistakes. Minister of War V.A. Dolgorukov (1852-1856), preoccupied with his career, misinformed Nicholas I and falsified data on the situation of the Russian army and its combat readiness.

The officers were afraid to take the initiative and act according to the situation;

The army lacked modern weapons. In the 1840s, new types of artillery pieces were developed, but they were not adopted. The War Ministry slowed down the introduction of new technology. Most of The guns were of an old type. The army was armed with smooth-bore guns, which were inferior in range (120-150 m) to rifled guns (fitting) (800 m), which were in service with the British and French armies. Rifled guns in the Russian army accounted for 4.6% of all guns. The Black Sea Fleet was sailing, while England and France had steam navies. The reasons for military-technical weakness were the economic backwardness of Russia.

Poor communications. The delivery of military supplies along dirt roads was slow. In spring and autumn it was impossible to drive along these roads. England and France, having entered the war in 1854, paved railway from Balaklava, the landing site of their troops, to Sevastopol. In Russia there was not a single railway connecting the central provinces with the Black Sea coast. The Crimean army was left without logistical support. In Crimea and Sevastopol there were not enough hospitals, doctors, and medicines. The mortality rate among the wounded was very high.

Target his goal is to deprive Russia of its exceptional position and predominant influence in the East. To this end

The Ottoman Empire was recognized as equal with other European states in international relations

Russia has lost the right to patronize the Orthodox peoples of the Balkan Peninsula

The Allies returned their conquests in the Crimea, and Russia returned to Turkey its conquests in the Caucasus

Russia ceded the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, which was annexed to the Principality of Moldova

Russia, together with Turkey, was deprived of the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea

Both powers pledged to destroy naval arsenals on the shores of the Black Sea and not to keep other military vessels in this sea, except for six steam and four light ships. The Black Sea was declared neutral. Access to its waters was denied to military vessels of all powers

The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to all military vessels in peacetime. In case of war, Türkiye could send its squadron into the Black Sea. She could be accompanied by warships from Western European countries. Black Sea Straits controlled by Türkiye.

The peace terms were not favorable for Russia. Russia's influence in the Middle East and the Balkans was undermined. Russia's international prestige has declined. The most important consequence of the war were the reforms of the 60-70s.

Russian society was outraged by defeats Russian army. The defeats offended the national feelings of the Russian people. WITH. M. Solovyov wrote: “We accepted information about Russia’s defeats with pain, knowing that news of victories would lead us into the abyss.” The intelligentsia believed that defeats would force the authorities to carry out reforms. Thinking people believed that Russia's victory in the war would strengthen the Nikolaev political system. Russian people were rooting for their homeland, but they understood that defeats would force the authorities to think about their causes and understand that Russia had fallen behind.

from Western European countries. The Crimean War summed up the previous version of development and showed the need for change. The thinking part of society demanded freedom of speech, the abolition of serfdom, the development of education, and judicial reform.

Russia's defeat in the war forced AlexandraII think about reasons for the defeat and conduct reforms. Society demanded expand freedom of speech. Even conservatives understood that changes were needed. Pogodin, who previously supported Uvarov’s ideas, after the death of Nicholas I spoke about freedom of speech. Everyone is tired of administrative and police arbitrariness.

Crimean War: why Russia lost it

Crimean War 1853-1856(otherwise known as the Eastern War) is a war between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and a coalition consisting of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, on the other. Fighting unfolded in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, Azov, White and Barents seas, as well as in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. They reached their greatest tension in Crimea.

The main reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

Overestimation of power

The situation was aggravated by the fact that he was always surrounded by flatterers. The historian Tarle wrote that at the beginning of 1854 in the Baltic states, a poem in German was distributed in numerous copies in noble circles, in the first stanza of which the author addressed the king with the words: “You, from whom not a single mortal disputes the right to be called the greatest man , which the earth has only seen. The vain Frenchman, the proud Briton bow before you, burning with envy - the whole world lies in prostration at your feet.” It is not surprising, therefore, that Nicholas I was burning with ambition and eager to implement his plans, which cost Russia thousands of lives.

Rampant embezzlement

In no other European army was the situation so dire. Nicholas I knew about the scale of this disaster, but could not do anything about the situation. Thus, he was stunned by the case of the director of the office of the disabled fund, Politkovsky, who stole more than a million rubles from the budget. The scale of corruption during the Crimean War was such that Russia was able to restore the treasury deficit only 14 years after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

Backwardness of the army

One of the fatal factors in the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War was the backwardness of the weapons of our army. It manifested itself back on September 8, 1854, during the battle on the Alma River: the Russian infantry was armed with smoothbore rifles with a firing range of 120 meters, while the British and French had rifled rifles with a firing range of up to 400 meters.

In addition, the Russian army was armed with guns of various calibers: 6-12-pound field guns, 12-24-pound and pound siege unicorns, 6, 12, 18, 24- and 36-pound bomb guns. Such a number of calibers significantly complicated the supply of ammunition to the army. Finally, Russia had practically no steam ships, and sailing ships had to be sunk at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, which was obviously a last resort measure to deter the enemy.

Negative image of Russia

During the reign of Nicholas I, the Russian Empire began to claim the title of “gendarme of Europe.” In 1826-1828, the Erivan (Yerevan) and Nakhichevan khanates were annexed to Russia; the next year, after the war with Turkey, the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube were annexed to Russia. Russia's advance in Central Asia also continued. By 1853, the Russians came close to the Syr Darya.

Russia also showed serious ambitions in Europe, which could not but irritate the European powers. In April 1848, Russia and Türkiye abolished the autonomy of the Danube principalities with the Baltiliman Act. In June 1849, with the help of a 150,000-strong Russian expeditionary army, the Hungarian revolution in the Austrian Empire was suppressed. Nicholas I believed in his power. His imperial ambitions turned Russia into a bogeyman for advanced European powers. The image of aggressive Russia became one of the reasons for the unity of Britain and France in the Crimean War. Russia began to lay claim to hegemony in Europe, which could not help but unite the European powers. The Crimean War is considered to be “pre-world war”. Russia defended itself on several fronts - in Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and the Kamchatka front. In fact, Russia fought alone, with insignificant Bulgarian forces (3,000 soldiers) and the Greek legion (800 people) on our side. Having turned everyone against itself, showing insatiable ambitions, in fact Russia did not have the reserve power to resist England and France. During the Crimean War, Russia did not yet have the concept of propaganda, while the British made full use of their propaganda machine to whip up a negative image of the Russian army.

Diplomacy failure

The Crimean War showed not only the weakness of the Russian army, but also the weakness of diplomacy. The peace treaty was signed on March 30, 1856 in Paris at an international congress with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The peace conditions were frankly unfavorable for Russia.

Under the terms of the treaty, Russia returned Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, Balaklava and other cities in Crimea captured by the Allies; ceded to the Moldavian principality the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia. The Black Sea was declared neutral, but Russia and Turkey could not maintain a navy there. Russia and Turkey could only maintain 6 steam ships of 800 tons each and 4 ships of 200 tons each for patrol duty. The autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities was confirmed, but the supreme power of the Turkish Sultan over them was preserved. The previously adopted provisions of the London Convention of 1841 on the closure of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to military vessels of all countries except Turkey were confirmed. Russia pledged not to build military fortifications on the Åland Islands and in the Baltic Sea. The patronage of Turkish Christians was transferred to the hands of the “concern” of all the great powers, that is, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Finally, the treaty deprived our country of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.

Ignorance of Nicholas I

Many historians associate the main reason for the defeat in the Crimean War with the figure of Emperor Nicholas I. Thus, the Russian historian Tarle wrote: “As for his weaknesses as the leader of the foreign policy of the empire, one of the main ones was his deep, truly impenetrable, comprehensive, if possible so to speak, ignorance.” The Russian emperor did not know life in Russia at all, he valued discipline with a stick, and he suppressed any manifestation of independent thinking.

Fyodor Tyutchev wrote about Nicholas I: “In order to create such a hopeless situation, the monstrous stupidity of this unfortunate man was needed, who during his thirty-year reign, constantly in the most favorable conditions, did not take advantage of anything and missed everything, managing to start a fight under the most impossible circumstances." Thus, we can say that the Crimean War, which turned into a disaster for Russia, was caused by the personal ambitions of the emperor, prone to adventure and seeking to maximally expand the boundaries of his power.

Shepherd's Ambition

One of the main reasons for the Crimean War was the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholic churches in resolving the issue of “Palestinian shrines.” Here the interests of Russia and France collided. Nicholas I, who did not recognize Napoleon III as a legitimate emperor, was confident that Russia would only have to fight a “sick man,” as he called the Ottoman Empire. The Russian emperor hoped to reach an agreement with England, and also counted on the support of Austria. These calculations of the “shepherd” Nicholas I turned out to be erroneous, and the “crusade” turned into a real disaster for Russia.