What sciences did Leonardo da Vinci study? Leonardo da Vinci - scientist and inventor

No one knows what the birth of a genius depends on. Scientists have been struggling with the mystery of genius for centuries, looking for the reasons and conditions in which talented children could be born, but so far to no avail.

The man, who is known throughout the world, died long ago, but his name remains widely known and there is no doubt about his genius: greatest inventor, engineer and scientist who was ahead of own time Leonardo da Vinci left his descendants with riddles and ideas that will puzzle more than one generation.

The uniqueness of da Vinci also lies in his amazing versatility - he was interested in and capable of everything - from painting to mechanics, he was interested in the structure of the human body no less than in artificial structures. Spiteful critics can talk as much as they like about the fact that Leonardo’s drawings and sketches are not finished, that it is very difficult to build the planned machines and mechanisms based on them. However, the fact remains: not a single person in the entire history of mankind has given so many inventions that were ahead of their time, not a single name has acquired the same mystical and mysterious aura as the name of Leonardo da Vinci.

Painting and medicine, history and biology, mechanics and poetry - all this was combined in one person. Leonardo da Vinci wrote with both hands and in both directions, danced, fenced, and was a sculptor. Unique talent is revealed in different areas!

Military-technical ideas and inventions of da Vinci

Military-technical ideas were very close to him. The first tanks were born in the imagination of a scientist, and he strongly promoted the idea of ​​​​creating a chariot covered with sheets of armor on top. The semicircular shape would make it possible to withstand the onslaught of the enemy, and the cannon with which the “tank” should be equipped could adjust the firing angle using a reinforced lifting block.

Initially, the chariot was supposed to be driven by horses. However, being shy animals, they could ruin the whole thing. Therefore, having improved his idea, Leonardo replaced horses with people. The crew of the “combat vehicle” would consist of eight people pulling this colossus. Needless to say, the combat effectiveness of such chariots would be very low; tanks would have to wait for their turn to be implemented for several more centuries.

Underwater exploration

Da Vinci loved water very much, and it is not surprising that for the study underwater world he needed a device that would allow him to breathe underwater. An inquisitive mind coped with this task, and the first scuba gear was invented by the famous Italian. Leather was used to make the “diver’s” suit, glass lenses made it possible to look around, and for excessive admiration for the beauty of the underwater world, a bag was provided to relieve natural needs. The air was supplied through specially fixed reed tubes for this purpose. At the point of their articulation with the skin, Leonardo provided springs that prevent the skin from collapsing under water pressure. The scuba diver took with him bags of sand - ballast, an air tank (in case of an emergency ascent), a knife and rope, as well as a horn for signaling the ascent to the top.

Leonardo da Vinci's inventions in the field of aeronautics

All his life Leonardo dreamed of heaven. He considered the impossibility of flying in the clouds to be a terrible injustice and worked in every possible way to eliminate it. Among the drawings and sketches that have survived to this day, there is a model of a flight device, which is considered to be a prototype of a helicopter. Absence modern materials, used in aircraft construction and in the military industry, significantly complicated the scientist’s work, but he looked for options among what was available to him.

For example, in the case of a “helicopter,” the propeller of the device had to be made of starched flax. And it was supposed to be set in motion to start it manually. The idea remained unfulfilled. Leonardo lost interest in it, switching to a natural wing created by nature.

• Long and unsuccessful, but certainly interesting from the point of view of modern researchers, there were attempts to create a device that flies like a bird and has the ability to lift a person into the air. Having rejected this idea, Leonardo da Vinci became interested in gliding flight. The structure was attached to a person’s back, allowing it to be controlled and changed the direction of flight. The part that was directly attached to the body was the widest and most motionless, but the tips could be bent using thin cables, thus changing the flight vector.
• As surprising as it sounds, the parachute was also invented by Da Vinci. He described it as a fabric dome, with a height of approximately 7.2 m. The scientist argued that with such a device you can jump from any height without fear for your health. The technical implementation of this invaluable idea was achieved only at the beginning of the twentieth century - a backpack rescue parachute, which was attached to the back and opened in the air, was created by the Russian inventor Gleb Kotelnikov.

Leonardo da Vinci also developed self-propelled cars

But the great Italian looked not only in the sky and under water for inspiration for his discoveries and ideas. Fortunately, he was no less interested in earthly affairs. After all, it was Leonardo who invented the first...car! A spring mechanism drove a cart with three wheels, and an additional fourth wheel was located in front on a wooden lever and served to turn the car. The rear wheels were driven by a gear system. Such a miracle of technology, for the movement of which two people applied force, was brought to life only a hundred years later. extra years, and real cars appeared even later.

Finally, it is worth mentioning a large number of “everyday” inventions that are successfully used to this day (somewhat modified and modernized, but this fact does not detract from the merits of Leonardo da Vinci). He invented a device that made it possible to drill wood and earth, a wheeled pistol lock, recognized during the inventor’s lifetime, a telescope with two lenses, a bicycle, a catapult, a searchlight - this list can be continued for a very long time.

Leonardo left behind about thirteen thousand pages of manuscripts, and not all of them have been fully deciphered to date. And found in 2005 secret archive Leonardo allows us to hope that there are still secrets and mysteries that the inquisitive, brilliant inventor left behind.

What contribution Leonardo da Vinci made to science and art, you will learn from this article.

Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to science

The future Italian scientist and artist, inventor and scientist, musician and writer, as well as a representative of Renaissance art, was born in the village of Anchiato near the town of Vinci on April 15, 1452. During his life, he managed to draw many paintings and drawings, create designs for inventions that shocked the world. But let's talk about everything one by one.

Leonardo da Vinci's contributions to biology

He was interested in issues of pathology, or rather the progressive changes that occur under the influence of the disease. The scientist was the first to describe atherosclerosis after autopsying the body of an old man and carefully studying it.

Da Vinci was also interested in such an area of ​​biology as physiology. He studied the principles and causes of coughing, breathing, yawning, heartbeat, vomiting, sneezing, the urinary system and sensory irritations. Leonardo saw the principles of mechanics in the work of muscles; he tried to explain blood circulation through the rules of hydrodynamics. After carefully studying the work of the eye, he created the “Camera Obscura” model, which he never parted with.

Da Vinci also showed particular interest in hemodynamic problems of cardiac physiology. He attempted to create the first prosthetic aortic valve. In addition, he described and sketched the appendix, vascular system inside the liver and human speech apparatus, or rather its anomalies.

Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to medicine

Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to anatomy is especially noteworthy. Deep knowledge in this area allowed him to study the human body as much as possible and study it plausibly. His anatomical manuscripts and drawings were discovered in 1778 and became available to the public.

The artist depicted the skeleton to perfection, linking muscles and nerves attached to the bones in the drawing. Leonardo was the first person to accurately and correctly draw the proportions and shapes of parts human skeleton. The scientist was the first to suggest that the sacrum of the ridge consists of 5 vertebrae, and not 3, as previously thought. He also described kyphosis and lordosis of the spinal column, articular surfaces of bones.

Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to culture

Among early works The artist’s paintings were “Baptism” and Madonna with a Flower.” These are deep works with careful detail and generalized forms. But his strong passion for science once distracted him from drawing. And such works as “The Adoration of the Magi” and “Saint Jerome” remained unfinished.

Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to art was especially fruitful during the Milanese period of creativity from 1482 to 1499. He created the sculptural monument of the equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza and a large number of architectural projects. Unfortunately, they did not reach us: they were either destroyed by enemies or by time. Among paintings, the most popular paintings from the Milanese period are " last supper" and "Madonna in the Grotto." Another peak of da Vinci’s work was the famous “La Gioconda” or “Mona Lisa”.

Thus, Leonardo da Vinci's contribution to the history of science and culture is so enormous that his research was far ahead of its time. He was an innovator and experimenter, a genius and a fanatic of his craft. His sketches, drawings, and sketches were so accurate and confirmed by modern scientists using the miracle of technology of the 21st century.

We hope that from this article you learned what contributions Leonardo da Vinci made to science and art.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Tver State Technical University"

(GOU VPO "TSTU")

in the discipline "History of Science"

on the topic: "Leonardo da Vinci - a great scientist and engineer"

Performed: 1st year student

FAS AU ATP 1001

Ivanova Tatyana Lyubomirovna

Tver, 2010

I. Introduction

II. Main part

1. Artist and scientist

2. Leonardo da Vinci - a brilliant inventor

. "It is better to be deprived of movement than to be tired of being useful"

3.1 Aircraft

3.2 Hydraulics

3 Car

4 Leonardo da Vinci as a pioneer of nanotechnology

5 Other inventions of Leonardo

Conclusion

Bibliography

Application

I. INTRODUCTION

Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento) is an era of great economic and social transformations in the life of many European countries, an era of radical changes in ideology and culture, an era of humanism and enlightenment.

In that historical period in various areas of life human society favorable conditions arise for an unprecedented rise in culture. Development of science and technology, great geographical discoveries, moving trade routes and the emergence of new trade and industrial centers, the inclusion of new sources of raw materials and new markets in the sphere of production significantly expanded and changed man’s understanding of the world around him. Science, literature, and art are flourishing.

The Renaissance gave humanity whole line outstanding scientists, thinkers, inventors, travelers, artists, poets, whose activities made a colossal contribution to the development of universal human culture.

In the history of mankind it is not easy to find another person as brilliant as the founder of High Renaissance art, Leonardo da Vinci. The phenomenal research power of Leonardo da Vinci penetrated into all areas of science and art. Even centuries later, researchers of his work are amazed at the genius of the insights of the greatest thinker. Leonardo da Vinci was an artist, sculptor, architect, philosopher, historian, mathematician, physicist, mechanic, astronomer, and anatomist.

II. MAIN PART

1. Artist and scientist

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is one of the mysteries in human history. His versatile genius of an unsurpassed artist, a great scientist and a tireless researcher has plunged the human mind into confusion in all centuries.

“Leonardo da Vinci is a titan, an almost supernatural being, the owner of such versatile talent and such a wide range of knowledge that there is simply no one to compare him with in the history of art.”

For Leonardo da Vinci himself, science and art were fused together. Giving the palm to painting in the “dispute of arts”, he considered it universal language, a science that, like mathematics in formulas, displays in proportions and perspective all the diversity and rational principles of nature. The approximately 7,000 sheets of scientific notes and explanatory drawings left by Leonardo da Vinci are an unattainable example of synthesis and art.

Long before Bacon, he expressed the great truth that the basis of science is, first of all, experience and observation. A specialist in mathematics and mechanics, he was the first to expound the theory of forces acting on a lever in an indirect direction. Studies in astronomy and the great discoveries of Columbus led Leonardo to the idea of ​​​​rotation globe. Specifically studying anatomy for the sake of painting, he understood the purpose and functions of the iris of the eye. Leonardo da Vinci invented the camera obscura, conducted hydraulic experiments, deduced the laws of falling bodies and motion on an inclined plane, had a clear understanding of respiration and combustion, and put forward a geological hypothesis about the movement of continents. These merits alone would be enough to consider Leonardo da Vinci an outstanding person. But if we consider that he did not take everything except sculpture and painting seriously, and in these arts he showed himself to be a real genius, then it will become clear why he made such a stunning impression on subsequent generations. His name is inscribed on the pages of art history next to Michelangelo and Raphael, but an impartial historian will give him an equally significant place in the history of mechanics and fortification.

With all his extensive scientific and artistic pursuits, Leonardo da Vinci also had time to invent various “frivolous” devices with which he entertained the Italian aristocracy: flying birds, inflating bubbles and intestines, fireworks. He also supervised the construction of canals from the Arno River; construction of churches and fortresses; artillery pieces during the siege of Milan by the French king; Seriously engaged in the art of fortification, he nevertheless managed to simultaneously construct an unusually harmonious silver 24-string lyre.

"Leonardo da Vinci is the only artist about whom it can be said that everything that his hand touched became eternal beauty. The structure of the skull, the texture of the fabric, a tense muscle... - all this is done with an amazing flair for line, color and lighting are turned into true values" (Bernard Berenson, 1896).

In his works, issues of art and science are practically inseparable. In his “Treatise on Painting,” for example, he conscientiously began to outline advice to young artists on how to correctly recreate the material world on canvas, then imperceptibly moved on to discussions about perspective, proportions, geometry and optics, then about anatomy and mechanics (and to mechanics as animate , and inanimate objects) and, ultimately, to thoughts about the mechanics of the Universe as a whole. It seems obvious that the scientist is striving to create a kind of reference book - an abbreviated summary of all technical knowledge, and even distribute it according to its importance, as he imagined it. His scientific method boiled down to the following: 1) careful observation; 2) numerous verifications of observation results from different points of view; 3) a sketch of an object and phenomenon, as skillfully as possible, so that they can be seen by everyone and understood with the help of short accompanying explanations.

For Leonardo da Vinci, art has always been science. To engage in art meant for him to make scientific calculations, observations and experiments. The connection of painting with optics and physics, with anatomy and mathematics forced Leonardo to become a scientist.

2. Leonardo da Vinci - a brilliant inventor

Leonardo da Vinci enriched the Renaissance worldview with the idea of ​​the value of science: mathematics and natural science. Next to aesthetic interests - and above them - he placed scientific ones.

At the center of his scientific constructions is mathematics. "No human research can claim to be a true science unless it makes use of mathematical proof." “There is no certainty where one of the mathematical sciences does not find application, or where sciences not related to mathematics are applied.” It was no coincidence that he filled his notebooks with mathematical formulas and calculations. It is no coincidence that he sang hymns to mathematics and mechanics. No one sensed more keenly than Leonardo the role that mathematics had to play in Italy in the decades that elapsed between his death and the final triumph mathematical methods in the works of Galileo.

His materials were collected and largely scientifically processed in a wide variety of disciplines: mechanics, astronomy, cosmography, geology, paleontology, oceanography, hydraulics, hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, various branches of physics (optics, acoustics, theriology, magnetism), botany, zoology, anatomy, perspective, painting, grammar, languages.

In his notes there are such amazing provisions that, in all their conclusions, were revealed only by mature science of the second half of the 19th century and later. Leonardo knew that “motion is the cause of every manifestation of life” (il moto e causa d "ogni vita), the scientist discovered the theory of speed and the law of inertia - the basic principles of mechanics. He studied the fall of bodies along a vertical and inclined line. He analyzed the laws of gravity. He established the properties of the lever as a simple machine, the most universal.

If not before Copernicus, then simultaneously with him and independently of him, he understood the basic laws of the structure of the universe. He knew that space is limitless, that the worlds are countless, that the Earth is the same luminary as the others and moves like them, that it “is neither in the center of the circle of the Sun, nor in the center of the universe.” He established that “the sun does not move”; this position is recorded by him as especially important, in large letters. He had a correct understanding of the history of the Earth and its geological structure.

Leonardo da Vinci had a very solid scientific background. He was, without a doubt, an excellent mathematician, and, what is very curious, he was the first in Italy, and perhaps in Europe, to introduce the signs + (plus) and - (minus). He was looking for the squaring of a circle and became convinced of the impossibility of solving this problem, that is, to be more precise, of the incommensurability of the circumference of a circle with its diameter. Leonardo invented a special tool for drawing ovals and for the first time determined the center of gravity of the pyramid. The study of geometry allowed him to create for the first time a scientific theory of perspective, and he was one of the first artists to paint landscapes that were somewhat consistent with reality.

Leonardo da Vinci was more interested in various branches of mechanics than other areas of science. The scientist is also known as a brilliant improver and inventor, equally strong in theory and practice. Leonardo da Vinci's theoretical conclusions in the field of mechanics are striking in their clarity and provide him with an honorable place in the history of this science, in which he is the link connecting Archimedes with Galileo and Pascal.

With remarkable clarity, the scientist-artist sets out in general, large terms, the theory of leverage, explaining it with drawings; Without stopping there, he gives drawings related to the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, although, unfortunately, he does not explain them in text. From the drawings, however, it is clear that Leonardo da Vinci was 80 years ahead of the Dutchman Stevin and that he already knew the relationship between the weights of two weights located on two adjacent faces of a triangular prism and connected to each other by means of a thread thrown over a block. Leonardo also studied long before Galileo the length of time required for the fall of a body descending an inclined plane and along various curved surfaces or cuts of these surfaces, that is, lines.

Even more curious are the general principles, or axioms, of mechanics that Leonardo is trying to establish. Much here is unclear and directly incorrect, but there are thoughts that are positively amazing from a writer of the late 15th century. “No sensible body,” says Leonardo, “can move by itself. It is set in motion by some external cause, force. Force is an invisible and incorporeal cause in the sense that it cannot change either in form or in tension. If a body is moved by a force given time and passes a given space, then the same force can move it in half the time to half the space. Every body exerts resistance in the direction of its movement. (Newton’s law of action equal to reaction is almost guessed here). A freely falling body at each moment of its movement receives a certain increase in speed. The impact of bodies is a force acting for a very short time."

Leonardo da Vinci's views on wave-like motion are even more distinct and remarkable. To explain the movement of water particles, Leonardo da Vinci begins with the classic experiment of modern physicists, that is, throwing a stone, producing circles on the surface of the water. He gives a drawing of such concentric circles, then throws two stones, gets two systems of circles and wonders what will happen when both systems meet? "Will the waves be reflected under equal angles? - asks Leonardo and adds. “This is a most magnificent (bellissimo) question.” Then he says: “The movement of sound waves can be explained in the same way. Waves of air move away in a circular pattern from their place of origin, one circle meets another and passes on, but the center always remains in the same place."

These extracts are enough to convince oneself of the genius of the man who, at the end of the 15th century, laid the foundation for the wave-like theory of motion, which received full recognition only in the 19th century.

3. "It is better to be deprived of movement than to be tired of being useful."

Leonardo da Vinci is a genius whose inventions belong entirely to both the past, present and future of humanity. He lived ahead of his time, and if even a small part of what he invented had been brought to life, then the history of Europe, and perhaps the world, would have been different: already in the 15th century we would have driven cars and crossed the seas by submarines.

Historians of technology count hundreds of Leonardo's inventions, scattered throughout his notebooks in the form of drawings, sometimes with short expressive remarks, but often without a single word of explanation, as if the inventor's rapid flight of imagination did not allow him to stop at verbal explanations.

Let's look at some of Leonardo's most famous inventions.

3.1 Aircraft

"The great bird begins its first flight from the back of a gigantic swan, filling the universe with amazement, filling all the scriptures with rumors about itself, eternal glory the nest where she was born."

The most daring dream of Leonardo the inventor, without a doubt, was human flight.

One of the very first (and most famous) sketches on this topic is a diagram of a device that in our time is considered to be a prototype of a helicopter. Leonardo proposed making a propeller with a diameter of 5 meters from thin flax soaked in starch. It had to be driven by four people turning levers in a circle. Modern experts argue that the muscular strength of four people would not be enough to lift this device into the air (especially since even if lifted, this structure would begin to rotate around its axis), but if, for example, a powerful spring were used as an “engine” , such a “helicopter” would be capable of flight - albeit short-term.

Leonardo soon lost interest in propeller-driven aircraft and turned his attention to the flight mechanism that had been working successfully for millions of years - the bird's wing. Leonardo da Vinci was convinced that “a person who overcomes air resistance with the help of large artificial wings can rise into the air. If only its members were of greater stamina, able to withstand the swiftness and impulse of descent with ligaments made of strong tanned leather and tendons made of raw silk. And let no one fiddle with iron material, because the latter quickly breaks at bends or wears out.”

Leonardo thought about flight with the help of the wind, that is, about soaring flight, rightly noting that in this case less effort is required to maintain and move in the air. He developed a design for a glider that was attached to a person's back so that the latter could balance in flight. The drawing of the device, which Leonardo himself described as follows, turned out to be prophetic: “If you have enough linen fabric sewn into a pyramid with a base of 12 yards (about 7 m 20 cm), then you can jump from any height without any harm to your body.” .

The master made this recording between 1483 and 1486. Several centuries later, such a device was called a “parachute” (from the Greek para - “against” and the French “chute” - fall). Leonardo’s idea was brought to its logical conclusion only by the Russian inventor Kotelnikov, who in 1911 created the first backpack rescue parachute attached to the pilot’s back.

3.2 Hydraulics

Leonardo da Vinci began to become interested in hydraulics while working in Verrocchio's workshop in Florence, working on fountains. As the Duke's chief engineer, Leonardo da Vinci developed hydraulics for use in agriculture and providing energy for machines and mills. “Water moving in a river is either called, or driven, or moves itself. If it is driven, who is the one who drives it? If it is called or demanded, who is the demander.”

Leonardo often used wooden or glass models of canals, in which he painted the created flows of water and marked them with small buoys to make it easier to follow the flow. The results of these experiments have found their practical use in solving sewerage problems. His drawings include ports, closures, and sluices with sliding doors. Leonardo da Vinci even planned to dig a shipping canal diverting the river. Arno to connect Florence with the sea through Prato, Pistoia and Serraval. Another hydraulic project was conceived for Lombardy and Venice. He assumed the flooding of the Isonzo Valley in the event of a Turkish invasion. There was also a plan for draining the Pontine swamps (which Medici Pope Leo X consulted with Leonardo da Vinci about).

Leonardo da Vinci created lifebuoys and gas masks for both military and practical needs. Imitating the outlines of a fish, he improved the shape of the ship's hull to increase its speed; for the same purpose, he used a device on it that controlled the oars. For military needs, Leonardo da Vinci invented a double hull for the ship that could withstand shelling, as well as a secret device for anchoring the ship. This problem was solved with the help of divers who went underwater in special suits or in simple submarines.

To speed up swimming, the scientist developed a design of webbed gloves, which over time turned into the well-known flippers.

One of the most necessary things for teaching a person to swim is a lifebuoy. This invention of Leonardo remained virtually unchanged.

3.3 Car

It was in the head of Leonardo da Vinci that the idea of ​​a car was born. Unfortunately, the body drawings were not fully drawn out, because during the development of his project the master was very interested in the engine and chassis.

This famous drawing shows a prototype of a modern car. The self-propelled three-wheeled cart is propelled by a complex crossbow mechanism that transmits power to actuators connected to the steering wheel. The rear wheels have differentiated drives and can move independently. In addition to the large front wheel, there was another small one, rotating, which was placed on a wooden lever. This vehicle was originally intended for the entertainment of the royal court and belonged to the range of self-propelled vehicles that were created by other engineers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Today, the word “excavator” will not surprise anyone. But hardly anyone thought about the history of the creation of this universal machine. Leonardo excavators were designed more for lifting and transporting excavated material. This made the workers' work easier. The excavator was mounted on rails and, as work progressed, moved forward using a screw mechanism on the central rail.

3.4 Leonardo da Vinci as a pioneer of nanotechnology

artist screw hydraulic saw

A group of researchers from the laboratory of the Center for Research and Restoration of Museums in France, under the leadership of Philippe Walter, once visited the Louvre and, pushing aside museum workers aside, conducted an X-ray fluorescence analysis of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. Seven portraits by the great master, including the Mona Lisa, were exposed to the rays of a portable X-ray machine.

The analysis made it possible to determine the thickness of individual layers of paint and varnish in the paintings and to clarify some features of the sfumato painting technique (sfumato - “vague, blurred”), which made it possible to soften the transition between light and dark areas in the picture and create believable shadows. Actually, sfumato is da Vinci’s invention, and it was he who achieved the greatest heights in this technique.

As it turned out, Leonardo used varnish and paint with unique additives. But most importantly, da Vinci was able to apply glaze (glaze) in a layer 1-2 microns thick. The total thickness of all layers of varnish and paint in portraits by Leonardo does not exceed 30-40 microns; however, the refraction of light rays in various transparent and translucent layers creates a powerful effect of volume and depth. It is curious that modern screen coatings that create a stereoscopic effect are designed according to the same principle (see Appendix).

The study left open the question of how Leonardo managed to apply paint and varnish in such a thin layer (up to 1/1000 of a millimeter!). An additional intriguing fact is that no traces of brush strokes, much less fingerprints, were found in any layer of the paintings.

3.5 Other inventions of Leonardo

Leonardo's theoretical contributions to science are contained in his studies of "gravity, force, pressure and impact... the children of motion...". His drawings remain components mechanisms and devices for transmitting motion. Five main types of mechanisms have been known since ancient times: winch, lever, block (gate), wedge and screw. Leonardo used them in complex devices that automate various operations. Special attention he devoted to screws: “On the nature of the screw and its use, how many eternal screws can be made and how to supplement them with gears”

The problem of motion transmission is closely related to friction research, which led to the appearance of bearings that are still used today. Leonardo tested bearings made of antifriction material (an alloy of copper and tin), and ultimately settled on a variety of ball bearings - the prototypes of modern ones.

Let us also mention Leonardo's most famous inventions: devices for converting and transmitting motion (for example, steel chain drives, still used in bicycles); simple and interlaced belt drives; various types clutches (conical, spiral, stepped); roller bearings to reduce friction; double connection, now called "universal joint" and used in cars; various machines (for example, a precision machine for automatic notching or a hammering machine for forming gold bars); a device (attributed to Cellini) to improve the legibility of coinage; bench for experiments on friction; suspension of axles on movable wheels located around it to reduce friction during rotation (this is a device reinvented by Atwood in late XVIII century, led to modern ball and roller bearings); a device for experimentally testing the tensile strength of metal threads; numerous weaving machines (for example, shearing, twisting, carding); power loom and spinning machine for wool; combat vehicles for waging war (“the most severe insanity,” as he called it); various intricate musical instruments.

Oddly enough, only one invention of da Vinci received recognition during his lifetime - a wheel lock for a pistol that was wound with a key. At first, this mechanism was not very widespread, but by the middle of the 16th century it had gained popularity among nobles, especially in the cavalry, which was even reflected in the design of the armor: for the sake of firing pistols, armor began to be made with gloves instead of mittens. The wheel lock for a pistol, invented by Leonardo da Vinci, was so perfect that it continued to be found in the 19th century.

But, as often happens, recognition of geniuses comes centuries later: many of his inventions were expanded and modernized, and are now used in everyday life.

Archimedean screws and water wheels

Hydraulic saw

CONCLUSION

In the history of science, which is the history of human knowledge, people who make revolutionary discoveries are important. Without this factor, the history of science turns into a catalog or inventory of discoveries. The most a shining example This is what Leonardo da Vinci is.

Leonardo da Vinci - Italian artist, sculptor, architect, scientist, engineer, naturalist. His extraordinary and versatile talent aroused amazement and admiration of his contemporaries, who saw in him the living embodiment of the ideal of a harmoniously developed, perfect person. In all his endeavors he was an explorer and pioneer, and this had a direct impact on his art. He left behind few works, but each of them was a stage in the history of culture. The scientist is also known as a versatile scientist. The scale and uniqueness of Leonardo da Vinci’s talent can be judged by his drawings, which occupy one of the honorable places in the history of art. Not only manuscripts dedicated to the exact sciences are inextricably linked with Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings, sketches, outlines, and diagrams. Leonardo da Vinci owns numerous discoveries, projects and experimental studies in mathematics, mechanics, and other natural sciences.

The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have passed through the entire history of world culture and science and had a huge influence on it.

The legendary glory of Leonardo has lived for centuries and still not only has not faded, but is burning brighter: discoveries modern science again and again fuel interest in his engineering and science fiction drawings, in his encrypted notes. Particularly hotheads even find in Leonardo’s sketches almost a prediction of atomic explosions.

Leonardo believed in the idea of ​​homo faber, man - the creator of new tools, new things that did not exist in nature. This is not a person’s resistance to nature and its laws, but creative activity on the basis of the same laws, for man is the “greatest instrument” of the same nature. River floods can be counteracted by dams, artificial wings are destined to lift a person into the air. In this case, it can no longer be said that human strength is wasted and drowns without a trace in the stream of time, the “destroyer of things.” Then, on the contrary, it will be necessary to say: “People unfairly complain about the passage of time, blaming it for being too fast, not noticing that it is passing quite slowly.” And then the words of Leonardo, which he wrote on the 34th sheet of the Codex Trivulzio, will be justified:

A life well lived is a long life.

La vita bene spesa longa`e.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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2. Voloshinov, A.V. Mathematics and art. - M., 1992, 335 p.

Gasteev A.A. Leonardo da Vinci. Life wonderful people. - M.: Young Guard, 1984, 400 p.

Gnedich P.I. History of art. High Renaissance. - M.: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005, 144 p.

Zubov V.P. Leonardo da Vinci. - L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1962, 372 p.

Cuming R. Artists: life and work 50 famous painters. - M., 1999, 112 p.

7. COMPULENT. Science and Technology / Applied Research / <#"526349.files/image003.gif">

For Leonardo, art has always been science. To engage in art meant for him to make scientific calculations, observations and experiments. The connection of painting with optics and physics, with anatomy and mathematics forced Leonardo to become a scientist. And often the scientist pushed aside the artist.

As a scientist and engineer, L. da Vinci enriched almost all areas of science of that time with insightful observations, considering his notes and drawings as preparatory sketches for a giant encyclopedia human knowledge. Skeptical of the ideal of an erudite scientist, popular in his era, L. da Vinci was the most prominent representative of the new natural science based on experiment.

Mathematics

Leonardo especially highly valued mathematics. He believed that “there is no certainty in the sciences where none of the mathematical disciplines can be applied, and in that which has no connection with mathematics.” Mathematical sciences have, in his words, “the highest certainty and impose silence on the language of disputants.” Mathematics was an experienced discipline for Leonardo. It is no coincidence that Leonardo da Vinci was the inventor of numerous instruments designed for solving mathematical problems (a proportional compass, a device for drawing a parabola, a device for constructing a parabolic mirror, etc.) He was the first in Italy, and perhaps in Europe, to introduce the + signs (plus and minus).

Leonardo preferred geometry over other branches of mathematics. He admitted important role numbers and was very interested in numerical relationships in music. But number meant less to him than geometry, since arithmetic relies on “finite quantities,” while geometry deals with “infinite quantities.” A number is made up of individual units and is something monotonous, devoid of the magic of geometric proportions that deal with surfaces, figures, and space. Leonardo tried to achieve the squaring of the circle, that is, to create a square equal in size to the circle. He worked hard on this problem, as well as on other puzzling problems, including those involving curved and rectilinear surfaces, using a range of in various ways. Leonardo invented a special tool for drawing ovals and for the first time determined the center of gravity of the pyramid. The highest expression of the greatness of geometry were the five regular bodies, revered in classical philosophy and mathematics. These are the only ones solids, which consist of equal polygons and are symmetrical with respect to all their vertices. These are tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron. They can be truncated - that is, with vertices cut off symmetrically, thus transformed into semi-regular bodies. The peak of Leonardo's passion for mathematics came during his collaboration with the mathematician Luca Pacioli, who appeared in 1496 at the Sforza court. Leonardo created a series of illustrations for Pacioli's treatise “On Divine Proportion”.

The study of geometry allowed him to create for the first time a scientific theory of perspective, and he was one of the first artists to paint landscapes that were somewhat consistent with reality. True, Leonardo’s landscape is still not independent; it is a decoration for a historical or portrait painting, but what a huge step compared to the previous era and how much the correct theory helped him here!

Mechanics

Leonardo da Vinci paid special attention to mechanics, calling it “the paradise of mathematical sciences” and seeing in it the main key to the secrets of the universe. Leonardo's theoretical conclusions in the field of mechanics are striking in their clarity and provide him with an honorable place in the history of this science, in which he is the link connecting Archimedes with Galileo and Pascal.

Leonardo's works in the field of mechanics can be grouped into the following sections: laws of falling bodies; laws of motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon; laws of body motion on an inclined plane; the influence of friction on the movement of bodies; theory of simple machines (lever, inclined plane, block); issues of balance of forces; determining the center of gravity of bodies; issues related to the strength of materials. The list of these questions becomes especially significant if we consider that many of them were dealt with for the first time. The rest, if they were considered before him, were based mainly on the conclusions of Aristotle, which in most cases were very far from true position of things. According to Aristotle, for example, a body thrown at an angle to the horizon should first fly in a straight line, and at the end of the rise, having described an arc of a circle, fall vertically down. Leonardo da Vinci dispelled this misconception and found that the trajectory of motion in this case would be a parabola.

He expresses many valuable thoughts regarding the conservation of motion, coming close to the law of inertia. “No sensible body,” says Leonardo, “can move by itself. It is set in motion by some external cause, force. Force is an invisible and incorporeal cause in the sense that it cannot change either in form or in tension. If a body is moved by a force at a given time and traverses a given space, then the same force can move it into half the space. Every body exerts resistance in the direction of its movement. (Newton’s law of action equal to reaction is almost guessed here). A freely falling body at each moment of its movement receives a certain increase in speed. The impact of bodies is a force acting for a very short time.” From these conclusions, Leonardo became convinced that the Aristotelian assumption that a body moved by twice the force would travel twice the distance, or that a body weighing half as much and moved by the same force would also travel twice the distance, in practice not feasible. Leonardo resolutely denies the possibility of a mechanism moving forever without external force. It is based on theoretical and experimental data. According to his theory, any reflected movement weaker than that which produced it. Experience showed him that a ball thrown on the ground never (due to air resistance and imperfect elasticity) rises to the height from which it is thrown. This simple experience convinced Leonardo of the impossibility of creating force from nothing and expending work without any loss to friction. About the impossibility of perpetual motion, he writes: “The initial impulse must sooner or later be used up, and therefore in the end the movement of the mechanism will stop.”

Leonardo knew and used the method of decomposition of forces in his works. For the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, he introduced the concept of friction force, connecting it with the force of pressure of a body on the plane and correctly indicating the direction of these forces.

Leonardo also worked on specific engineering projects for his patrons - both as a consultant and as a creator of simple utilitarian objects like pliers, locks or jacks, made in his workshop. Lifting mechanisms were of great importance when lifting heavy loads from the ground, such as stone blocks, - especially when loading onto vehicles. Leonardo was the first to formulate the idea that in these simplest machines the gain in strength occurs at the expense of a loss in time.

Hydraulics

Hydraulics occupied a large place in the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He began studying hydraulics as a student and returned to it throughout his life. As in other areas of his activity, Leonardo combined the development of theoretical principles in hydraulics with the solution of specific applied problems. The theory of communicating vessels and hydraulic pumps, the relationship between the speed of water flow and cross-sectional area - all these questions were mainly born from applied engineering problems, which he dealt with so much (construction of locks, canals, land reclamation). Leonardo designed and partially carried out the construction of a number of canals (the Pisa - Florence canal, irrigation canals on the Po and Arno rivers). He came almost close to the formulation of Pascal's law, and in the theory of communicating vessels he practically anticipated the ideas of the 17th century.

Leonardo was also interested in the theory of the whirlpool. Having a fairly clear concept of centrifugal force, he noticed that “water moving in a whirlpool moves in such a way that those of the particles that are closer to the center have a greater rotational speed. This is an amazing phenomenon, because, for example, the particles of a wheel rotating around an axis have a lower speed the closer they are to the center: in a whirlpool we see just the opposite.” Leonardo tried to classify and describe the complex configurations of water in turbulent motion.

Leonardo, who was called the "master of water", advised the rulers of Venice and Florence; combining theory and practice, he sought to show why tornadoes engulf the shores, to prove that in order to achieve the desired results, the inexhaustible force of moving water should be used and resisted.

Leonardo’s views on wave-like motion are even more distinct and remarkable. “The wave,” he says, “is a consequence of the impact reflected by the water.” “Waves often move faster than the wind. This is because the impulse was received when the wind was stronger than at the current time. The speed of a wave cannot change instantly.” To explain the movement of water particles, Leonardo begins with the classical experience of the latest physicists, i.e. throws a stone, making circles on the surface of the water. He gives a drawing of such concentric circles, then throws two stones, gets two systems of circles and asks the question: “Will the waves be reflected under equal circles?” then he says, “The movement of sound waves can be explained in the same way. Waves of air move away in a circle from their place of origin, one circle meets another and passes on, but the center always remains in the same place.”

These extracts are enough to convince oneself of the genius of the man who, at the end of the 15th century, laid the foundation for the wave theory of motion, which received full recognition only in the 19th century.

Physics

In the field of practical physics, Leonardo also showed remarkable ingenuity. So, long before Saussure, he built a very ingenious hygrometer. On the vertical dial there is a kind of needle or scale with two balls of equal weight, one of which is made of wax, the other of cotton wool. In damp weather, cotton wool attracts water, becomes heavier and pulls the wax, as a result of which the lever moves, and by the number of divisions it passes, one can judge the degree of air humidity. In addition, Leonardo invented various pumps, glass to enhance the light of lamps, and diving helmets.

Venturi also claimed that Leonardo invented the camera obscura before Cardano and Porta. This has now been fully proven thanks to the research of Grote, who found corresponding drawings and descriptions from da Vinci.

In the field of applied physics, the steam gun invented by Leonardo is very interesting. Its action consisted in the fact that warm water was introduced into a very heated chamber, which instantly turned into vapor, which, with its pressure, displaced the core. In addition, he invented a spit that rotated using currents of warm air.

Warfare

Leonardo's various military inventions cannot be ignored. A remarkable example of his approach to military mechanisms is his design for a giant crossbow. Disgusted by war, which he called “disgusting madness,” Leonardo was at the same time passionate about creating the most destructive weapons of that time, which he took up not only at the request of his patrons, but also, being himself captivated by the opportunity to create systems capable of increase human power. In addition, he thought about creating explosive shells so that the throwing weapon would have even greater penetrating power.

The digging machines invented by Leonardo are ingenious, consisting of a complex system of levers that simultaneously move dozens of shovels. As a curiosity, one can also point out the chariots he invented with rotating sickles, which, crashing into the enemy infantry, were supposed to mow down the soldiers.

Much more important are Da Vinci's drawings and explanations relating to the drilling of cannon muzzles and casting various parts guns. He was especially interested in various bronze alloys. Leonardo studied in great detail the circumstances of the flight of projectiles, being interested in this subject not only as an artilleryman, but also as a physicist. He examined questions such as, for example, what shape and size should the grains of gunpowder have for faster combustion or for a more powerful effect? What shape should buckshot have to fly faster? The researcher answers many of these questions quite satisfactorily.

The big dream of Leonardo, an engineer, was flight; he attached great importance to the creation of the Uccello (“big bird”). He who could conquer the sky truly had the right to claim that he had created a “second nature.”

As with all of Leonardo's studies, the foundations were laid in nature. Birds and the bats told him how to achieve this. But Leonardo had no intention of following the example of the legendary hero Daedalus by tying feathered bird wings to his hands so that he could fly by flapping them. He saw from the beginning that the problem was the strength to weight ratio. Leonardo knew enough anatomy to know that the human arm was not designed to swing with the force equivalent to a bird's wing. It should be noted that he began to study the flight of birds because he needed to understand the principles on which he could rely in order to achieve positive results using only human power. Before 1490, he came up with the frame design of wings, the model for which was the structure of the wings of flying creatures, but he also took into account the structure of human muscles, especially the muscles of the legs. Perhaps the pedals could complement the muscles of the arms and chest enough to achieve the desired result. The wings use "bones" from wood, "tendons" from rope and "ligaments" from leather to replicate the complex movements of a bird's wing. It was a great idea, but he came to the conclusion that none of the designs dear to his heart were capable of performing as required.

When, after returning to Florence, Leonardo turned to this problem a second time, he took a different path. The small Turin Codex on the flight of birds, dated 1505, shows that he returned to the study of the flight of birds that soared in the updrafts of warm air over the Tuscan hills - especially the huge birds of prey that glide without flapping their wings, looking for prey below . He sketched air vortices under the concave part of a bird's wing, found out what changes in the bird's center of gravity lead to and what imperceptible movements of the tail can do. He adhered to an active planning strategy, in which any movements of the wings and tail were aimed not at a controlled lift off the ground, but at controlling altitude, flight path and turns. The wing design was still based on natural observations, but these were general principles and trends, not mere imitation. The aviator, who would probably have to control the flight and maintain balance with the help of his tail, would hang under the wings, adjusting the center of gravity for the most precise control of flight.

Although Leonardo knew nothing about the aerodynamic surface, and he only intuitively assumed the existence of pressure produced by compressed or rarefied air, the study of nature helped him find a fairly correct path.

Anatomy

He spoke of Leonardo as an artist who performed dissections and explored, as legend has it, the forbidden secrets of decomposing bodies, despite the fact that he himself recognized the repulsive aspects of practicing “anatomy.” It was probably a forbidden and sacrilegious activity that placed him outside the laws of the church. A fully proven dissection of an entire human corpse, perhaps the only one performed by him, was the autopsy of a “hundred-year-old” old man, witnessed by “ quiet death"Which Leonardo was in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in the winter of 1507-08. More often he worked with animals, which were believed to be not very different from people, except in body configuration and size.

Considering that Leonardo was engaged in autopsies and never tired of repeating the advantage of “experience” over bookish knowledge, it may seem surprising that his anatomical studies were based on traditional knowledge. For example, he for a long time adhered to the doctrine of a two-chambered heart. Moreover, for Leonardo, anatomy was not “descriptive” in the modern sense, but “functional”; in other words, he always considered form in terms of function. Leonardo did not introduce any radical changes to the physiology that existed before him, but created the whole picture dynamics of a living body in three dimensions; his drawing serves both as a method of representation and as a form of research.

Praise to the eye

Despite the fact that Leonardo's views on the internal structure of the eye changed, Leonardo worked on the principle that it is an instrument built with geometric precision in accordance with the laws of optics. His original idea of ​​the structure of the eye was that the spherical, transparent and vitreous body of the eye (which represents the lens) is surrounded by moisture and the membranes of the eye. The pupil regulates the angle of vision, thus creating a “visual pyramid” - that is, a beam of rays from an object or surface - with its apex in the eye. The eye extracts a pyramid from a chaotic mass of rays that spread from the object in all directions. The further the same object is from the eye, the narrower the angle, and the smaller it appears. If you imagine light coming from an object in a series of concentric waves, the pyramid will gradually narrow with each successive wave moving away from the object. Dimensions, as taught by the theory of perspective used by artists, are proportional to the distance from the object to the eye. He explained that the strength of radiation from an object, which he called “images” in accordance with the traditions of medieval optics, decreases in proportion to the distance from the object. This optical theory explains not only the gradual shrinking of things according to the rules of linear perspective, but also the diminishing distinctness and brightness of color at greater distances. This loss of clarity and intensity of color, along with the specific properties of moist air, which envelops objects like a veil, explains the magical effects of the “aerial perspective” of his landscapes - both in drawing and in painting.

This view of the eye, which Leonardo held in the 1490s, he moved around 1508 to a more complex interpretation of the form and function of the eye. It is also important that he was convinced that the pyramid cannot end at one point of the eye, since the point is not measurable - this would mean the inseparability of “images” in the optical field. Leonardo believed that the eye and its pupil acted like a camera obscura. He knew that the image captured by the camera was upside down, and he theoretically developed a number of ways to reverse the image, returning it to its normal position.

As Leonardo became more familiar with the works of major medieval scientists dedicated to optics, he began to understand more and more the phenomenon of “optical deception.” This branch of optics studied such phenomena as our inability to see very fast moving objects and clearly distinguish something too bright or, on the contrary, dark, “inertia of vision” observed when we look at something that moves quickly.

No matter how changeable and complex his later theories of perception were, what remained constant was that the eye worked according to the laws of geometry.

Prospect theory

Leonardo systematically studied the effects of illumination of one and many objects from one or more sources different sizes, outline and distance. It was on this basis that he reformed light and color in painting, developing a “tonal” system in which light and shadow had an advantage over color in conveying relief. He observed how the intensity of shadows decreased with distance from the opaque object casting them, in accordance with the laws of proportional diminution, which apply universally to light and other dynamic systems. He calculated the relative intensity of light on surfaces depending on the angle of incidence and plotted patterns of secondary reflection of light from illuminated surfaces in shadowed areas. He used the latter phenomenon to explain grey colour the shadow side of the moon, which he proved to be the result of the reflection of light from the surface of the earth. His studies of light falling on the face from one point and emphasizing the contours show us that he tried to model forms according to a certain system, reminiscent of that followed by a ray in computer graphics. The more direct the angle of the “percussion”, the greater the intensity of the illumination, although in fact it is, as we now know, the law of cosine established by Lambert in the 18th century that is in effect here, and not Leonardo’s simple rule of proportions. For da Vinci, the result is always proportional to the angle of incidence of the beam. Thus, the grazing light will not illuminate the surface as strongly as the one that falls on it perpendicularly.

According to Leonardo, the perfection of God's plan for all forms and forces of nature was expressed in proportions. The beauty of the proportions was the most important task for Florentine architects, sculptors and artists. Leonardo was the first to incorporate the artist's idea of ​​the beauty of proportions into the overall picture of the proportional structure of nature. The most authoritative work on architectural proportions was the treatise on architecture by the ancient Roman author Vitruvius. As the ideal of beauty in architecture, Vitruvius chose the human body, with legs and arms outstretched to the sides, inscribed in a circle and a square - the two most perfect geometric figures. Within this scheme, body parts can be defined according to a system of relative sizes in which each part, such as the face, stands in simple proportional relation to another part. The Vitruvian diagram of the human body reproduced by Leonardo received its complete visual embodiment and became widespread as a symbol of the “cosmic” design of the human structure. As Leonardo said, proportional structure human body- this is an analogue musical harmonies, which were based on cosmic relationships built by the Greek mathematician Pythagoras. It was precisely the mathematical basis of music that allowed it, with greater reason than other arts, to compete with painting, although he tried in every possible way to emphasize that musical harmonies it is necessary to listen sequentially, whereas the picture can be taken in at one glance.

Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in the village of Anchiato near the city of Vinci (hence the prefix to his surname). The boy's father and mother were not married, so Leonardo spent his first years with his mother. Soon his father, who served as a notary, took him into his family.

In 1466, da Vinci entered as an apprentice in the studio of the artist Verrocchio in Florence, where Perugino, Agnolo di Polo, Lorenzo di Credi also studied, Botticelli worked, Ghirlandaio and others visited. At this time, Leonardo became interested in drawing, sculpture and modeling, studied metallurgy, chemistry , drawing, mastered working with plaster, leather, and metal. In 1473, da Vinci qualified as a master at the Guild of St. Luke.

Early creativity and scientific activity

At first creative path Leonardo devoted almost all his time to working on paintings. In 1472 - 1477 the artist created the paintings “The Baptism of Christ”, “The Annunciation”, “Madonna with a Vase”. At the end of the 70s he finished “Madonna of the Flower” (“ Madonna Benoit"). In 1481 the first big job in the works of Leonardo da Vinci - “The Adoration of the Magi.”

In 1482 Leonardo moved to Milan. Since 1487, da Vinci has been developing a flying machine that was based on bird flight. Leonardo first created a simple apparatus based on wings, and then developed an airplane mechanism with full control. However, it was not possible to bring the idea to life, since the researcher did not have a motor. In addition, Leonardo studied anatomy and architecture, and discovered botany as an independent discipline.

Mature period of creativity

In 1490, da Vinci created the painting “Lady with an Ermine”, as well as famous drawing"Vitruvian Man", sometimes called " canonical proportions" In 1495 - 1498 Leonardo worked on one of his most important works - the fresco "The Last Supper" in Milan in the monastery of Santa Maria del Grazie.

In 1502, da Vinci entered the service of Cesare Borgia as a military engineer and architect. In 1503, the artist created the painting “Mona Lisa” (“La Gioconda”). Since 1506, Leonardo has served under King Louis XII of France.

Last years

In 1512, the artist, under the patronage of Pope Leo X, moved to Rome.

From 1513 to 1516 Leonardo da Vinci lived in the Belvedere, working on the painting “John the Baptist”. In 1516, Leonardo, at the invitation of the French king, settled in the castle of Clos Lucé. Two years before his death, the artist became numb right hand, it was difficult for him to move independently. Last years his short biography Leonardo da Vinci spent in bed.

Died great artist And scientist Leonardo da Vinci on May 2, 1519 at the castle of Clos Luce near the city of Amboise in France.

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