Russian culture in the 18th century summary. Russian culture of the 18th century

The extent to which serfs were de jure protected is evidenced by the Council Code of 1649, in which the murder of a serf was considered serious crime. And Catherine II’s ban on filing peasant complaints in her name, bypassing the authorized bodies, indicates the possibility of sending a petition directly, directly to the empress.

Saltychikha is the exception rather than the rule

The example of the pervert landowner Daria Saltykova, who tortured dozens of her serfs, is not typical for big picture state of affairs with the rights of peasants: on Saltychikha “on the ground” received huge amount complaints, but the officials bribed by the landowner did not allow them to proceed. And when “at the top” they found out what this crazy maniac was doing, she was imprisoned for life.

Without a doubt, serfs had fewer rights than other categories of the population pre-revolutionary Russia, but they always had the right to complain about the landowner, and did so often. The serf had the opportunity to act in court as a plaintiff and witness; once a year, after the end of seasonal work, the “master’s” peasants could move to another landowner (the so-called St. George’s Day).

How they were punished for arbitrariness towards serfs

In many European countries (for example, in Poland) killing a serf did not cost anything. The maximum that was for this was church censure. Whereas in Russia people were imprisoned for such things already from the middle of the 17th century - the murder of a serf, both intentional and unintentional, was regarded as a criminal offense according to Council Code 1649.

If a master, having had a fight with a serf, beat him to death, he was sent to prison and sat there until the king had mercy. For the premeditated murder of peasants, landowners (and any other nobles, regardless of status and position) were immediately hanged (or their heads were cut off, depending on the method of execution). Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who introduced a moratorium on death penalty, noble peasant murderers were branded and sent to hard labor.

Under Catherine the Great, governors-general from 1775 were ordered to very harshly punish tyrant landowners for abuse of serfs. The estate could have been taken away from the bar and then transferred to the management of the guardianship council. In 1817, Alexander I issued a decree to bring to trial the landowners who committed atrocities against the peasants; their estates went under state guardianship.

In the 19th century, according to statistical data, over 600 nobles were convicted in just 10 years (30-40s). Under Nicholas I, every year about 200 landowner estates were under state guardianship, confiscated from nobles who mistreated their serfs.

At the origins of the “city of brides” stood a serf

Behind long years Soviet power The image of a serf in literature and cinema (created, by the way, in many ways by noble writers) is a downtrodden peasant who can barely make ends meet. In fact, serfs had quite a lot of rights to “rise up” and improve the well-being of their family.

For example, few people know that the beginning of the modern “city of brides” Ivanovo, in fact, was laid by the serf of the Sheremetev counts, who founded the first calico printing enterprise in the village of Ivanovo in the 60s of the 18th century. And by the first half of the 19th century there were already about one and a half hundred cotton factories, owned by rich peasants. They themselves acquired land with serfs. The peasant industrialist Garelin, for example, owned the village of Spasskoye with several hundred serfs. The peasants paid interest on their income to the landowners, and in return they gave them freedom in entrepreneurial activity.

The peasants could have bought off the “fortress”. For example, the founder of the famous Morozov dynasty, Russian entrepreneur and philanthropist Savva Morozov was also a serf at one time. He started as a handicraft weaver, over time he opened his own silk weaving workshop and developed his career. The Morozov family, which by 1821 already had five sons, was bought out of serfdom for mind-blowing money at that time - 17 thousand rubles in banknotes.

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"... There is no doubt that serfdom, in our current situation, there is evil, tangible and obvious to everyone, but touching it now would be even more disastrous. The late Emperor Alexander, at the beginning of his reign, had the intention of giving serfs freedom, but then he himself deviated from his idea, as completely premature and impossible to implement. I will also never dare to do this, considering that if the time when it will be possible to begin such a measure is generally still very far away, then in the present era any thought about this would be nothing more than a criminal encroachment on public peace and the good of states. The Pugachev rebellion proved to what extent the riot of the mob can reach. Subsequent events and attempts of this kind have so far always been happily stopped, which, of course, will continue to be the same subject of special and, with God's help, successful care of the government. But one cannot hide from oneself that now thoughts are no longer the same as they were before, and it is clear to any prudent observer that the current situation cannot continue forever. The reasons for this change of thoughts and more often repeated in Lately concerns, I cannot help but attribute most of all to two reasons: firstly, to the own carelessness of the landowners, who give their serfs a higher education unusual for the state of the latter, and through this, developing in them new circle concepts, make their situation even more painful; secondly, to the fact that some landowners - although, thanks to God, the smallest number of them - forgetting their noble duty, use their power for evil, and the noble leaders, as many of them themselves told me, do not find means to suppress such abuses in the law, with almost no restrictions on the power of the landowners. But if the current situation is such that it cannot continue and if, at the same time, methods decisive for ending it are also impossible without a general upheaval, then it is necessary, at least, to prepare the way for a gradual transition to a different order of things and, without fearing Before any change, calmly discuss its benefits and consequences. It should not give liberties, but should pave the way to a transitional state, and with it connect the inviolable Protection of patrimonial ownership of the land. I consider this my sacred duty and the duty of those who will come after me, and the means, in my opinion, are fully presented in the draft decree now proposed to the Council. Firstly, it is not a new law, but only a consequence and, so to speak, a development of the law on free cultivators that has existed for forty years; secondly, it eliminates, however, the harmful beginning of this law - the alienation of land ownership from the landowners, which, on the contrary, it is so desirable to see forever inviolable in the hands of the nobility - a thought from which I will never deviate; thirdly, it directly expresses the will and conviction of the government that land is the property not of the peasants who are settled on it, but of the landowners - an object of the same paramount importance for future peace; finally, in the 4th, without any drastic revolutions, without even any kind of innovation, it gives every well-intentioned owner ways to improve the situation of his peasants and, without at all imposing on anyone a forced obligation, or restricting the right of ownership in any way, he leaves everything to good the will of each and the desire of his own heart. On the other hand, the project leaves the peasants strong in the land on which they are registered, and through this avoids the inconveniences of the provisions that have hitherto been in force in the Baltic provinces - provisions that brought the peasants to the most pitiful state, turned them into farm laborers and prompted the local nobility to ask specifically for the same as what is now offered here. Meanwhile, I repeat that everything must go gradually and cannot and should not be done at once or suddenly. The project contains only the main principles and first instructions. He opens to everyone, as I have already said, a way to follow, under the protection and assistance of the law, his heart’s desire...”

Questions about the presented document

1. About what decree we're talking about?
2. What reasons did the tsar give for the aggravation of the peasant question?
3. In your opinion, are they the main ones? Give your reasons.
4. What did Nicholas I see as the advantages of this decree?

Russian culture of the 18th century was formed during a completely new stage in the history of Russia. The era of transformations of Peter I significantly influenced all aspects of state and public life. The process of Europeanization of Russian culture began.

Reforms of Peter I

Having opened a “window to Europe,” the young and energetic Russian Tsar began to carry out large-scale reforms. Many of the initiatives and innovations of Peter I are called “firsts” in Russia (the first school, the first newspaper, etc.).

Peter I attached great importance to changing the entire lifestyle and way of life of the Russian nobility in the Western spirit.

Many reforms had a progressive significance and introduced Russia to pan-European culture. On the other hand, the forced introduction of a foreign culture often led to ugly manifestations.

In 1706, Peter I’s attempt to create the first public theater in Russia—the “comedy temple”—failed shamefully.

Characteristic features of the culture of the Peter the Great era:

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• Europeanization;
• education;
• secular nature of culture.

Petersburg

Among the great deeds of Peter, a special place is occupied by the founding of St. Petersburg, which became cultural capital Russia.

On May 16, 1703, Peter I founded the “St. Peter-Burkh” fortress at the mouth of the Neva, which became the city’s birthday. Already in the early 20s. In the 18th century, the Imperial Court, central administrative institutions and the diplomatic corps moved to St. Petersburg. In fact, the city becomes the new capital of the empire.

Rice. 1. View Peter and Paul Fortress And Palace Embankment. F. Ya. Alekseev.

The culture of “Enlightened absolutism”

In the “Era” palace coups” development continued cultural traditions laid down by Peter I. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Baroque became the leading style in architecture.

Culture experienced its real flourishing in the era of Catherine II. During these years, classicism became the dominant style, which is closely related to the ideas of the European Enlightenment.

Rice. 2. Peter and Paul Cathedral.

A huge role in the development of Russian culture was played by M. V. Lomonosov, who was simultaneously a chemist, historian, poet and artist.

V. G. Belinsky called Lomonosov “Peter the Great of Russian literature.”

The following table briefly describes Russian culture in the 18th century:

Table “Russian culture of the 18th century”

ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC COURSE

INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY OF ECONOMICS, POLITICS AND CULTURE

TEST

in the discipline "Culturology"

“Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the 18th century”

Executor:

speciality

Record book no.

Teacher:

Plan

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 3

2. Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the 18th century..…… 3

3. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………... 12

4. List of references………………………………………. 13

Introduction

In the 18th century, Russian culture entered a new period of its development. After a long time of forced cultural isolation due to the three-century Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Rus' from everything “heretical” and “Western”, Russian art embarks on the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of a new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role. important role in the civil education system, in the formation of new foundations of the country's social life. And at the same time Russian culture XVIII century has not rejected its past. Joining the rich cultural heritage Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on indigenous Russian traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art.

Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the 18th century.

Petrine reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced a lot, which has had an impact on the further development of culture.

On January 1, 1700, it was introduced new chronology - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia was created - Kunstkamera.

For the first time under Peter 1, education became a state policy, general and special schools were opened, and conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences. Young people began to be sent abroad to study crafts - ship and seamanship, as well as sciences and art.

In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow - Navigation school – the first secular state educational institution. A school for teaching foreign languages ​​was created under the Ambassadorial Prikaz. languages, and later - a school for clerical workers. In Moscow and other cities a number of vocational schools – Artillery, Engineering, Medical, at Ural factories - mining schools. At first, the schools accepted children of nobles and commoners along with children, but gradually the schools began to turn into closed ones educational establishments only for noble children.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, the so-called digital schools - state primary comprehensive schools for boys of all classes, except peasants. Those who did not have a certificate of graduation from a digital school were not even allowed to get married. In 1786 it was published Charter of public schools – the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced

Organization of secondary higher education was closely connected with the creation Academy of Sciences (officially since 1724). At first, there were only foreigners among the academicians. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) became the first Russian academician, a scientist of world significance. He was also the greatest Russian poet, who laid the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of Russian science and the organization of education.

In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, it was created University of Moscow, became large cultural center. It had philosophical, legal, and medical faculties.

IN late XVIII century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. Book publishing has increased significantly. In 1708-1710 a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. Were introduced civil (unlike church) alphabet and civil seal, which contributed to an increase in the publication of secular, civil books, including textbooks.

The first Russian printed newspaper was "Vedomosti" (1702-1727), published by decree of Peter 1. In 1703-1704. 39 issues were published. Since 1710 The newspaper was printed in civilian font.

Widespread book publishing activity greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil font contributed to the strengthening secular language, although Church Slavonic was still widely spoken.

At this time, poetic works were popular - satires, odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemir (1708-1744).

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov(1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg.

The last quarter of the 18th century became the heyday of the work of a major poet of that time Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin(1743-1816). The main genre of his works was Oh yeah. in them he gave big picture contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on nobles. His famous ode "Felitsa" imbued with the idea of ​​strong state power.

He expressed Russian morals and customs in his social comedies “Brigadier” and “Minor” Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744/45-1792), denouncing ignorance and tyranny.

Founder Russian sentimentalism ((from French - feeling), a movement in literature and art at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, proclaiming the cult of feelings and nature) became Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin(1766-1826), author of stories “Poor Liza”, “Village”, “Natalia, the boyar’s daughter”.

In the Peter the Great era, innovations were introduced into both architecture and construction, driven by government requirements to express architectural structures strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire.

The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were Khamovny Dvor, Cloth Dvor, Big Stone Bridge, Arsenal in the Kremlin, as well as a three-story building Main pharmacy, where the first Russian university was initially located.

An outstanding architect of Moscow in the 50s of the 18th century was Dmitry Vasilievich Ukhtomsky(1719-1774). He not only headed the “architectural supervision” of construction in Moscow, but also developed intensive architectural activities. According to his project, the triumphal Red Gates were replaced with stone ones in 1753.

The most interesting and significant work Ukhtomsky became Bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

In 1749, Ukhtomsky organized the first in Russia Architecture school, in which, under his leadership, such outstanding Russian architects as V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov and others.

The Peter the Great era is characterized primarily by the construction new capital – St. Petersburg(since 1703), for which foreign architects were invited Trezzini, Rastrelli.

Among the public buildings of St. Petersburg, the following stood out: Gostiny Dvor, Stock Exchange, Admiralty.

At the same time as St. Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built. Peterhof was intended as country residence Peter I, which he wanted to liken to Versailles.

The activities of father and son Rastrelli were decisive for the dawn of the Russian Baroque style. Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli (1675-1744), Italian sculptor, worked in St. Petersburg from 1716. He took part in the decoration of Peterhof, completed sculptural portraits Peter I and Empress Anna Ioannovna with a little arap.

His son - Bartolomeo Rastrelli(1700-1771) - in Russia his name was Bartholomew Varfolomeevich, he was already a Russian architect. The style of its architecture is Russian Baroque, which incorporates Western and Russian traditions. He is the author Smolny Monastery and Winter Palace In Petersburg, Grand Palace in Peterhof, Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, etc. Rastrelli loved the scope, pomp, bright colors, used rich sculptural decoration and intricate ornamentation.

In the 60s of the 18th century, Russian Baroque in architecture was replaced by Russian classicism, which reached its peak at the beginning of the 19th century. Prominent representatives classicism in Russia began with architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov.

A talented Russian architect was Vasily Petrovich Bazhenov(1737/38-1799), he built: palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, Pashkov House– the most beautiful building XVIII century in Moscow, Mikhailovsky Castle In Petersburg.

The name is also glorified Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov(1738-1812), who developed types of city houses and public buildings in Moscow. Based on his designs, the following were built: Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, Moscow University, Golitsyn Hospital(now First City), Petrovsky Palace, built in pseudo-Gothic style, Assembly of the Nobility with a magnificent Hall of Columns. Kazakov supervised the preparation of the master plan for Moscow and organized the School of Architecture.

Ivan Egorovich Starov(1745-1808) – author of a number of remarkable architectural creations in St. Petersburg: Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and Tauride Palace- a monument to the victory in the Russian-Turkish war.

The surviving buildings of the 18th century today are not only the decoration of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance.

In the 18th century it undergoes changes and art– painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday portrait painting.

The most famous artists of that time - Andrey Matveev(1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin(c. 1690-1742) – the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting abroad. Andrey Matveev owns the first in Russian art "Self-portrait with his wife". In portraits "Floor Hetman" "Peter I on his deathbed" Ivan Nikitin was far ahead of his contemporaries in the depth and form of artistic expression.

By the end of the 20s there was a turning point to the courtier direction in painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, sculptors – F.I. Shubin and M.I. Kozlovsky. It was a time of intense personality development, which was reflected in the artists’ portraiture.

The greatest portrait painter was Dmitry Levitsky(1735-1822). He created a rich series of ceremonial portraits - from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. His works combine solemnity with colorful richness. His female portraits are distinguished by the vitality of his images, especially the “Smolyans”, students of the Smolny Institute.

The classical direction was represented Mikhail Kozlovsky(1753-1802) – sculptor and draftsman. His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially clearly expressed in the statue for the cascade in Peterhof. "Samson tearing the lion's mouth"- an allegorical figure personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. Interesting is his monument to A.V. Suvorov in St. Petersburg.

At the end of the 18th century, one of the richest art collections in the world was formed - Hermitage . The Hermitage (from the French ermitage - a place of solitude) is one of the world's largest art and historical museums. Hermitage buildings - Winter Palace (1754-1762, architect V.V. Rastrelli), Small Hermitage (1764-1767, architect J.B. Valen-Delamot), Old Hermitage(1771-1787, architect Yu.M. Felten), New Hermitage (1839-1852, architect L. Von Klenze), Hermitage Theater (1783-1787, architect G. Quarenghi). It is based on a private collection of paintings by Western European masters (since 1764) of Catherine II. Opened to the public in 1852.

The fine arts of the 18th century made a significant step forward in the development of the secular direction.

In the 18th century, the development of the theater continued. In 1702, at the behest of Peter I, it was created Public open theater, designed for a mass audience. A building was built especially for him on Red Square in Moscow - the “Comedial Temple”. In 1706, the theater ceased to exist because it did not receive subsidies.

IN mid-18th century century, foreign acting groups performed in many cities - French, German and others. But among the public there was growing interest in Russian theater, associated with a general rise in national self-awareness. In 1750, performances of the first public theater with Russian actors, artists, musicians. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fedor Grigorievich Volkov(1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna sent Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to the court, and in 1752 the theater moved to St. Petersburg. Based on this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the empress, a theater was created “for the presentation of tragedies and comedies.” Its director was Sumarokov, and the first court actor was Fyodor Volkov, who became famous for playing the main roles in the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokova. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater was created called Russian Theater (since 1832 - Alexandrinsky).

In 1779, a private theater was created on Tsaritsyn Meadow (Field of Mars), which was directed by a famous Russian actor I.A. Dmitrievsky(1734-1821), who played at the F. Volkov Theater in Yaroslavl. The plays of D.I. were staged for the first time in this theater. Fonvizin, but in 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780 it was opened in Moscow Petrovsky Theater, where dramatic, opera and ballet performances were staged.

Ballet in Russia it originated as separate dance numbers during intermissions of first dramatic and then opera performances. Gradually, ballet troupes began to take shape.

With the accession of the daughter of Peter I Elizabeth to the Russian throne in 1741, a decree was issued on the establishment of Russian ballet troupe.

The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received a court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were: Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers were Balashov and Raikov, who staged comic ballets and divertissements in Moscow. Arina Sobakina became a leading Moscow dancer.

Existed the same serf theater- these were noble theaters with a troupe of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (theatres of the Sheremetyevs, Yusupovs and others). The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors: Praskovya Zhemchugova, Tatyana Shlykova-Granatova.

Serf theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

In the 18th century, secular musical art began to spread widely.

In 1802, it was created in St. Petersburg Philharmonic Society, which performed early and classical music. In the last third of the 18th century, the composer school, the first Russian composers appeared - authors of opera, choral, instrumental, and chamber music. A major achievement of the Russian musical culture the musical melodrama of that time "Orpheus" composer E.I. Fomina (1761-1800). He was also the creator of a song opera based on a national Russian plot "Coachman on a stand" operas "The Americans" and other works. At this time he created operas and D.S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825) – "Falcon", "Rival Son" and others. Bortnyansky is the author of about 200 musical works.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - Russian romance to poems by Russian poets. One of the creators of Russian romance was O.A. Kozlovsky(1754-1831), who wrote "Russian songs" heroic-patriotic polonaises. One of them, based on the words of G.R. Derzhavina "Thunder of victory evolve" has long been the Russian national anthem.

Conclusion .

The results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century are very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all forms of art continued. At the same time, strengthening ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence into Russian culture. Strengthening the power of the Russian state, which became one of the largest states in the world, contributed to the formation of the Russian nation and a single Russian language, which became the greatest cultural wealth of the Russian people. All areas of culture were developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There was secularization, secularization of culture, and the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia. This contributed to the emergence of new types of culture - the first literary magazines, fiction, public theater, secular music. The formation of Russian classicism is underway. The sphere of spiritual activity of Russian people has expanded significantly.

List of used literature:

1. History of world culture: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Culture and Sports, UNITY, 1998. – 600 pp.: ill. color

2. V.V. Mavrodin Birth new Russia- M.: 1998

3. Lecture notes (lecturer - Aisina Faina Osmanovna).