Literature of foreign countries 20 30 years. Satirical works B

13.Literary process of the 30s (leading themes, main names).

In 1929, a “great turning point” began not only in the political, but also in the cultural life of the country, which was characterized by a tightening of the party’s policy towards all creative unions. The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 21, 1932 led to the complete defeat of literary groups, which ended with the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers (1934) and the creation of a single Union of Soviet Writers. The congress proclaimed socialist realism as the only method of Soviet literature. After the publication of the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, RAPP and other literary associations announced their dissolution, and there was a sharp reduction in printed publications.

An attempt was made to globally unify creative movements, styles, and personalities. Some writers were proclaimed idols, others were either repressed, or did not have the opportunity to publish, or went into historical and children's literature. But even during the Stalin years, Russian literature did not dry out. New works by N. Zabolotsky and B. Pasternak, V. Veresaev and M. Prishvin, M. Sholokhov and A. Fadeev, L. Leonov and K. Paustovsky were published; A. Akhmatova and M. Bulgakov continued to write, whose manuscripts saw the light only many years later.

Thematically, novels about industrialization and the first five-year plans are becoming the leading ones; large epic canvases are being created. And in general the theme of labor becomes the leading one.

Fiction began to explore the problems associated with the invasion of science and technology into human everyday life. New areas of human life, new conflicts, new characters, modification of the traditional literary material led to the emergence of new heroes, to the emergence of new genres, new methods of versification, to searches in the field of composition and language.

A distinctive feature of the poetry of the 30s is the rapid development of the song genre. During these years, the famous “Katyusha” (M. Isakovsky), “Wide is my native country...” (V. LebedevKumach), “Kakhovka” (M. Svetlov) and many others were written.

At the turn of the 20s and 30s, interesting trends emerged in the literary process. Criticism, which recently welcomed the “cosmic” poems of the Proletcultists, admired “The Fall of Dair” by A. Malyshkin, “The Wind” by B. Lavrenev, changed its orientation. The head of the sociological school, V. Fritzsche, began a campaign against romanticism as an idealistic art. An article by A. Fadeev “Down with Schiller!” appeared, directed against the romantic principle in literature.

Of course, this was the need of the hour. The country was turning into a huge construction site, and the reader expected an immediate response from literature to the events taking place.

But there were also voices in defense of romance. Thus, the Izvestia newspaper publishes Gorky’s article “More on Literacy,” where the writer defends children’s authors from the children’s book commission at the People’s Commissariat for Education, which rejects works, finding in them elements of fantasy and romance. The magazine “Print and Revolution” publishes an article by philosopher V. Asmus “In Defense of Fiction.”

And, nevertheless, the lyric-romantic beginning in the literature of the 30s, in comparison with the previous time, turns out to be relegated to the background. Even in poetry, which is always inclined to lyric-romantic perception and depiction of reality, epic genres triumphed in these years (A. Tvardovsky, D. Kedrin, I. Selvinsky).

The stages of development of Soviet literature, its direction and character were determined by the situation that arose as a result of the victory of the October Revolution.

Maxim Gorky took the side of the victorious proletariat. The head of Russian symbolism, V. Bryusov, dedicated his latest collections of poems to the themes of modernity: “Last Dreams” (1920), “In Days Like This” (1921), “The Moment” (1922), “Dali” (1922). ), “Mea” (“Hurry!”, 1924). The greatest poet of the 20th century. A. Blok in his poem “The Twelve” (1918) captured the “sovereign step” of the revolution. The new system was propagated by one of the founders of Soviet literature, Demyan Bedny, the author of the propaganda poetic story “About the land, about freedom, about the working share.”

A prominent literary group that came from the “old world” and declared through the mouth of its leaders the acceptance of the revolution was futurism (N. Aseev, D. Burlyuk, V. Kamensky, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov), whose tribune in 1918-1919 . became the newspaper of the People's Commissariat of Education "The Art of the Commune". Futurism was characterized by a negative attitude towards the classical heritage of the past, attempts, with the help of formalistic experiments, to convey the “sound” of the revolution, abstract cosmism. In young Soviet literature there were other literary groups that demanded the abandonment of any legacy of the past: each of them had its own, sometimes sharply contradictory to others, program for such an exclusively contemporary art. The Imagists made their presence known noisily, founding their group in 1919 (V. Shershenevich, A. Mariengof, S. Yesenin, R. Ivnev, etc.) and proclaiming the basis of everything to be an end-to-end artistic image.

Numerous literary cafes arose in Moscow and Petrograd, where they read poetry and argued about the future of literature: the cafe “Pegasus Stall”, “Red Rooster”, “Domino”. For some time, the printed word was overshadowed by the spoken word.

Proletkult became a new type of organization. Its first All-Russian Conference (1918) was sent greetings by V. I. Lenin. This organization made the first attempt to involve the broadest masses in cultural construction. The leaders of Proletkult are A. Bogdanov, P. Lebedev-Polyansky, F. Kalinin, A. Gastev. In 1920, in a letter from the Central Committee of the Communist Party “On Proletcults,” their philosophical and aesthetic errors were “revealed.” In the same year, a group of writers emerged from the Moscow Proletkult and founded literary group“Forge” (V. Aleksandrovsky, V. Kazin, M. Gerasimov, S. Rodov, N. Lyashko, F. Gladkov, V. Bakhmetyev, etc.). Their works glorified the world revolution, universal love, mechanized collectivism, the factory, etc.

Many groups, claiming to be the only correct coverage of new social relations, accused each other of backwardness, lack of understanding of “modern problems,” and even of deliberate distortion of the truth of life. Notable was the attitude of “Kuznitsa”, the “October” association and the writers who collaborated in the magazine “On Post” towards the so-called fellow travelers, which included the majority of Soviet writers (including Gorky). The Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP), created in January 1925, began to demand immediate recognition of the “principle of the hegemony of proletarian literature.”

The most important party document of this time was the resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of April 23, 1932. It helped “eliminate groupism, closed writers’ organizations and create a single Union of Soviet Writers instead of RAPP. I All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers (August 1934) proclaimed the ideological and methodological unity of Soviet literature. The congress defined socialist realism as “a truthful, historically specific depiction of reality in its revolutionary development,” which aims to “ideologically transform and educate the working people in the spirit of socialism.”

New themes and genres are gradually appearing in Soviet literature, and the role of journalism and works devoted to the most important events in history is increasing. The attention of writers is increasingly occupied by a person who is passionate about a great goal, working in a team, seeing in the life of this team a part of his entire country and a necessary, main sphere of application of his personal abilities, the sphere of his development as an individual. A detailed study of the connections between the individual and the collective, the new morality penetrating all areas of existence, becomes an essential feature of Soviet literature of these years. The general upsurge that swept the country during the years of industrialization, collectivization and the first five-year plans had a huge impact on Soviet literature.

Poetry of the 20s.

The flourishing of poetic creativity was prepared by the development of the culture of verse, characteristic of the pre-revolutionary years, when such great poets as A. Blok, V. Bryusov, A. Bely and the young V. Mayakovsky appeared. The revolution opened new page Russian poetry.

In January 1918, Alexander Blok responded to the proletarian revolution with the poem “The Twelve.” The imagery of the poem combines sublime symbolism and colorful everyday life. The “sovereign step” of the proletarian detachments merges here with gusts of icy wind and rampant elements. At the same time, A. Blok created another significant work - “Scythians”, depicting the confrontation between two worlds - old Europe and new Russia, followed by the awakening Asia.

The paths of the Acmeist poets diverge sharply. Nikolai Gumilyov moves towards neo-symbolism. Sergei Gorodetsky and Vladimir Narbut, who joined the Communist Party, glorify the heroic everyday life of the revolutionary years. Anna Akhmatova strives to capture the tragic contradictions of the era. In the ephemeral world of aesthetic illusions, Mikhail Kuzmin, close to the Acmeists, remained.

Poets associated with the movement of futurism played a significant role in these years. Velimir Khlebnikov, who sought to penetrate into the origins of the popular language and showed previously unknown possibilities of poetic speech, wrote enthusiastic hymns about the victory of the people (the poem “The Night Before the Soviets”), seeing in it, however, only the spontaneous “Razin” beginning and the future anarchic “Lyudomir” .

In the early 20s. A number of new major names appear in Soviet poetry, almost or completely unknown in the pre-October period. Mayakovsky's comrade Nikolai Aseev, with certain common features with him (close attention to the life of the word, search for new rhythms), had his own special poetic voice, so clearly expressed in the poem “Lyrical Digression” (1925). In the 20s Semyon Kirsanov and Nikolai Tikhonov came to the fore; the ballads and lyrics of the latter (collections “Horde”, 1921; “Braga”, 1923) asserted a masculine-romantic direction. The heroics of the civil war became the leading motive in the works of Mikhail Svetlov and Mikhail Golodny. The romance of labor is the main theme of the lyrics of the poet-worker Vasily Kazin. Excitedly and brightly, bringing together history and modernity, Pavel Antokolsky announced himself. The work of Boris Pasternak occupied a prominent place in Soviet poetry. The romance of revolution and free labor was sung by Eduard Bagritsky (“Duma about Opanas”, 1926; “South-West”, 1928; “Winners”, 1932). At the end of the 20s. Bagritsky was part of a group of constructivists led by Ilya Selvinsky, who created works of great and unique poetic power (the poems “Pushtorg”, 1927; “Ulyalaevshchina”, 1928; a number of poems). Nikolai Ushakov and Vladimir Lugovskoy also joined the constructivists.

At the very end of the 20s. The original poetry of Alexander Prokofiev, which grew on the soil of folklore and the folk language of the Russian North, and the intellectual lyrics of Nikolai Zabolotsky (“Columns”), full of poetic culture, attract attention. After a long silence, Osip Mandelstam is experiencing a new creative upsurge.

Vladimir Mayakovsky gained truly national fame. Having started his path in the mainstream of futurism, V. Mayakovsky, under the influence of the revolution, experienced a profound turning point. Unlike Blok, he was able not only to “listen to the revolution,” but also to “make a revolution.” Starting with “Left March” (1918), he creates a number of major works in which he talks “about time and about himself” with great completeness and power. His works are varied in genres and themes - from the extremely intimate lyrical poems “I Love” (1922), “About This” (1923) and the poem “Letter to Tatyana Yakovleva” (1928) to the epic “150,000,000” (1920) and the groundbreaking "documentary" epic "Good!" (1927); from the sublimely heroic and tragic poems “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin” (1924) and “At the Top of My Voice” to sarcastic satire in a series of “portrait” poems in 1928 - “Pillar”, “Slicker”, “Gossip”, etc. .; from the topical “Windows of GROWTH” (1919-1921) to the utopian picture of the “Fifth International” (1922). The poet always speaks precisely “about time and about himself”; in many of his works, the revolutionary era in its grandeur and complex contradictions and the living personality of the poet are holistically and unimpoverishedly expressed.

All this is embodied by Mayakovsky in the unique imagery of his poetry, which combines documentaryism, symbols and rough objectivity. His poetic speech is amazing, absorbing and merging into a powerful whole the phraseology of rally calls, ancient folklore, newspaper information, and figurative conversation. Finally, the rhythmic and intonation structure of his verse is inimitable, with “emphasized words” giving the feeling of a shout, with marching rhythms or, on the contrary, incredibly long lines, as if designed for the well-chosen breathing of the speaker.

S. Yesenin’s work is a lyrical confession, where tragic contradictions are expressed with naked sincerity, the focus of which is the poet’s soul. Yesenin's poetry is a song about peasant Rus', fused with nature, full of “indescribable animality,” about a man who combined robber prowess with patience and meekness in his character. Village “visions” acquire special brightness and strength because they are melted into verbal gold far from the peasant life of Ryazan, in the midst of a noisy, hostile city, which is repeatedly anathematized by the poet and at the same time attracting him to itself. In pathetic, abstractly romantic poems, Yesenin welcomes October (“Heavenly Drummer”), but he also perceives the revolution as the coming of the peasant Savior, atheistic motives turn into glorification of the village idyll (“Inonia”). The inevitable, according to Yesenin, clash of city and countryside takes on the character of a deeply personal drama. “The iron enemy,” a merciless train on cast-iron paws, defeating the rural “red-maned colt,” appears to him as a new, industrial Russia. Loneliness and discomfort in an alien world are conveyed in “Moscow Tavern”, in the conventionally historical poem “Pugachev” (1921). The poetry of loss permeates the lyrical cycle (“Let you be drunk by others,” “Young years with forgotten glory”), which is adjoined by the melodious and flowery “Persian Motifs” (1925). Yesenin’s greatest achievements were the poems “Return to the Motherland,” “Soviet Rus',” and the poem “Anna Snegina” (1925), which testified to his intense desire to understand the new reality.

Maksim Gorky

The creative experience of Alexei Maksimovich Gorky was of great importance for the development of Soviet literature. In 1922-1923 “My Universities” was written - the third book of the autobiographical trilogy. In 1925, the novel “The Artamonov Case” appeared. Since 1925, Gorky began working on “The Life of Klim Samgin.”

The Artamonov Case tells the story of three generations of a bourgeois family. The eldest of the Artamonovs, Ilya, is a representative of the early formation of Russian capitalist pioneers; His activities are characterized by genuine creative scope. But already the second generation of the Artamonov family shows signs of degradation, an inability to direct the movement of life, powerlessness in the face of its inexorable course, which brings death to the Artamonov class.

Monumentality and breadth distinguish the four-volume epic “The Life of Klim Samgin”, which has the subtitle “Forty Years”. “In Samgin I would like to tell, if possible, about everything that has been experienced in our country over forty years,” Gorky explained his plan. The Nizhny Novgorod fair, the Ordynka disaster in 1896, “Bloody Sunday” on January 9, 1905, Bauman’s funeral, the December uprising in Moscow - all these historical events, recreated in the novel, become its milestones and plot climaxes. “Forty Years” is both forty years of Russian history and the life span of Klim Samgin, on whose birthday the book opens and on whose death it should have ended (the writer did not have time to complete the fourth volume of the novel: the last episodes remained in rough drafts). Klim Samgin, an “intellectual of average value,” as Gorky called him, acts as the bearer of the claims of the bourgeois intelligentsia to a leading place in public life. Gorky debunks these claims by unfolding before the reader Samghin’s stream of consciousness - consciousness, fragmented and amorphous, powerless to cope with the abundance of impressions coming from the outside world, to master, connect and subjugate. Samghin feels chained by a rapidly developing revolutionary reality, organically hostile to him. He is forced to see, hear and think about what he would not want to see, hear or perceive. Constantly defending himself from the onslaught of life, he gravitates towards a soothing illusion and elevates his illusory moods to a principle. But each time reality mercilessly destroys the illusion and Samghin experiences difficult moments of collision with objective truth. Thus, Gorky combined the historical panorama with the hero’s internal self-exposure, given in the tones of “hidden satire.”

The extensive themes of Gorky’s post-October creativity are associated with the genres of autobiography, memoirs, and literary portrait. “My Universities” contains autobiographical stories from 1922-1923. (“The Watchman”, “The Time of Korolenko”, “On the Harm of Philosophy”, “On First Love”). In 1924, a book of short stories, Notes from a Diary, appeared, based on materials of a memoir nature. Later, the articles “On how I learned to write” and “Conversations about the craft” were written, in which the problems of the literary profession are revealed by the writer using examples from his own creative biography. The main theme of his autobiographical works is expressed by the words of V. G. Korolenko, recorded by him: “I sometimes think that nowhere in the world is there such a diverse spiritual life as we have in Rus'.” In autobiographical stories of the 20s. and “My Universities” the main themes are: people and culture, people and intelligentsia. Gorky especially carefully and carefully strives to capture and thereby preserve for future generations the images of representatives of the advanced Russian intelligentsia - the bearers of progressive culture. It was during this period of creativity that Gorky’s literary portrait was born as an independent genre. Possessing a phenomenal artistic memory that stored inexhaustible reserves of observations, Gorky created literary portraits of V.I. Lenin, Leo Tolstoy, Korolenko, Blok, L. Andreev, Karenin, Garin-Mikhailovsky and many others. Gorky's portrait is constructed in fragments, molded like a mosaic, from individual features, touches, details, in its immediate tangibility, giving the impression that the reader knows this person personally. Creating a portrait of Lenin, Gorky reproduces many of his personal characteristics, everyday habits that convey “Lenin’s exceptional humanity, simplicity, and the absence of an insurmountable barrier between him and any other person.” “Your Ilyich is alive,” N. Krupskaya wrote to Gorky. In his essay about Leo Tolstoy, Gorky arranges his observations compositionally in such a way that their contrasting comparison and collision outlines the appearance of “himself.” difficult person among all biggest people XIX century" in various and contradictory aspects and facets, so that the reader faces a "man-orchestra", as Gorky called Tolstoy.

Late Gorky drama is distinguished by its great depth of depiction of human character. Particularly indicative in this sense are the plays “Yegor Bulychev and Others” (1932) and “Vassa Zheleznova” (1935, second version) with unusually complex and multifaceted characters of the main characters that defy single-line definitions. Gorky did not create characters of such range and scale, so voluminous and large, in his previous dramaturgy.

Gorky's activities in Soviet time was extremely diverse. He acted both as an essayist (the cycle “Across the Union of Soviets”, based on impressions from a trip to the USSR in 1928-1929), and as a publicist and pamphleteer-satirist, as literary critic, editor of works by emerging authors, organizer of the country's cultural forces. On Gorky’s initiative, publications such as “ World literature", "Poet's Library", "The History of a Young Man of the 19th Century", "The History of the Civil War in the USSR", "The Life of Remarkable People".

Variety of prose styles of the 20s.

At the very beginning of the 20s, a group of talented prose writers and playwrights appeared in “big” literature - I. Babel, M. Bulgakov, A. Vesely, M. Zoshchenko, Vs. Ivanov, B. Lavrenev, L. Leonov, A. Malyshkin, N. Nikitin, B. Pilnyak, A. Fadeev, K. Fedin, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, I. Erenburg. Old masters are returning to active creativity - A. Bely, V. Veresaev, A. Green, M. Prishvin, A. Serafimovich, S. Sergeev-Tsensky, A. Tolstoy, K. Trenev and others. The prose works of these years are based on the same imprint of revolutionary romanticism, abstraction, as in V. Mayakovsky’s poem “150,000,000.”

A. Malyshkin (“The Fall of Dire”, 1921), A. Vesely (“Rivers of Fire”, 1923) create emotional pictures where an almost impersonal mass is in the foreground. The ideas of the world revolution, finding artistic embodiment, penetrate into all pores of the work. Captivated by the depiction of the masses captured by the whirlwind of revolution, writers at first admire the spontaneity of the great social shift (Vs. Ivanov in “Partisans”, 1921) or, like A. Blok, see in the revolution the victory of the “Scythian” and rebellious peasant principle ( B. Pilnyak in the novel “The Naked Year”, 1921). Only later do works appear that show the revolutionary transformation of the masses led by a leader (“Iron Stream” by A. Serafimovich, 1924), conscious proletarian discipline shaping the heroes of the civil war (“Chapaev” by D. Furmanov, 1923), and psychologically in-depth images of people from the people.

A distinctive feature of A. Neverov’s work was the desire to understand the deep shifts in the characters, inclinations, and the very nature of people who changed and were reborn before his eyes. The main theme of his works is the preservation and growth of the best qualities of the human soul in the cruel trials of devastation, hunger, and war. His story “Tashkent - the city of grain” (1923) is imbued with humanism, which does not sound like simple sympathy or powerless complaints about the cruelty of time, but actively grows, changes, adapts to new conditions and unintentionally, as if by itself, is born again in everyone episode.

Significant literary center, which united talented Soviet writers (regardless of their group affiliation), the literary, artistic and socio-political magazine “Krasnaya Nov”, edited by the critic A. Voronsky, was created in 1921 on the initiative of V.I. Lenin. The magazine widely published the works of M. Gorky, D. Furmanov, as well as other major writers and literary youth.

A prominent role in the literary life of the 20s. played by a group of young writers “Serapion Brothers” (the name was taken from the German writer E. T. A. Hoffmann), which included L. Lunts, K. Fedin, Vs. Ivanov, M. Zoshchenko, N. Nikitin, V. Kaverin, N. Tikhonov, M. Slonimsky and others. Its theorist L. Lunts in his speeches put forward the principle of apolitical art. However, the artistic creativity of the Serapion Brothers testified to their active, affirming attitude towards the revolution. The living, tragic-life content is revealed in “Partisan Tales” by Vs. Ivanov, where entire villages perish, having risen against Kolchak, where iron monsters are moving and a mass of peasant cavalry is moving towards them (“horse snoring for fifteen miles”), and blood flows as generously as water flows, as “nights flow”, “huts flow " The Sun conveys with epic power and symbolic generality. Ivanov, the partisan element, the power of the peasant army.

The stagnant life of the Russian province, the phantasmagoric world of eccentrics and feeble-minded ordinary people are depicted in the first stories of K. Fedin, designed in the manner of a tale, in a sharp intersection of the tragic and funny (collection “Wasteland”, 1923; “Narovchatskaya Chronicle”, 1925).

The complexity of syntax, style, and construction is marked by K. Fedin’s first novel “Cities and Years” (1924), which gives a broad panorama of the revolution and polarizes the weak-willed, restless intellectual Andrei Startsev and the communist Kurt Van. The formal components of the novel (bizarre composition, chronological shifts, diversity, interruption of the calm flow of events with satirical anti-war or pathetic-romantic digressions, a combination of dynamic intrigue with psychological insight into the characters’ characters) are subordinated, according to the author’s plan, to convey the whirlwind flight of the revolution, destroying all obstacles in its path. The problem of art and revolution is at the center of K. Fedin’s second novel, “Brothers” (1928), also distinguished by its formal searches.

In the humorous short stories of M. Zoshchenko, the motley and broken language of the urban philistinism invades literature. Having turned to the psychology of the average person, the writer gradually extends it to his own lyrical digressions, prefaces, autobiographical notes, discussions about literature. All this gives integrity to Zoshchenko’s work, allowing, under the guise of carefree humor, anecdotes, delving into “small things,” to call for a careful and loving attitude towards the “little” person, to sometimes reveal genuine tragedy in the depiction of a seemingly petty, everyday and humorous fate.

L. Leonov appeared as a major master already in his early works (“Buryga”, “Petushikha Breach”, “Tutamur”, 1922; the first part of the novel “Badgers”, 1925). Starting with a description of the thick, motionless peasant life and the urban "Zaryadye", he then moves from verbal script, bright popular print and conventional image of the "peasant" in "Badgers" to a realistic interpretation of the burning problems of the revolution. His novel “The Thief” (1927) is dedicated to the theme of “superfluous people” in the revolution. A deep psychological analysis of the image of Mitka Veshkin, who perceived October as a national all-class revolution, did not find his place in life and finally descended into the “thieves” kingdom, is accompanied by a depiction in dark colors of all kinds of downtroddenness and rejection, blatant poverty, and everyday ugliness. Soon this “all-human” humanism is replaced by Leonov’s unconditional acceptance of Soviet reality. In the novel “Sot” (1930), which opens a new stage in the writer’s work, Leonov turns to the chanting of the harsh heroism of the struggle of the “laborers” of the first five-year plan against the defenders of the centuries-old “silence”.

Soviet literature of the 20s. developed in constant research and experimentation, in the confrontation between realistic and modernist trends. A bias towards modernism was reflected in the work of I. Babel, who depicted episodes from the campaign of the First Cavalry against the White Poles in the collection of short stories “Cavalry” (1924), and in “ Odessa stories" - a motley "kingdom" of raiders. Romanticist, truth-seeker and humanist Babel discovers positive features in the gnarled figure of the cavalryman Afonka Vida and even in the “king” Benny Krik. What attracts me about his characters is their integrity and naturalness. Deviations from the “main line” of the development of Soviet literature were also observed in the works of M. Bulgakov.

Along the path of rapid rapprochement with Soviet reality and acceptance of its ideals, the work of A. Tolstoy developed, creating a series of works dedicated to exposing emigration: “Ibicus or the Adventures of Nevzorov”, “Black Gold”, “Manuscript Found Under the Bed”, etc. Developing the genre of Soviet detective (“Adventures on the Volga Steamship”), combined with science fiction (“Engineer Garin’s Hyperboloid”), he outlines the characters with sharp strokes, uses fast-paced, intense intrigue, and melodramatic effects. Elements of pessimism and a spontaneously romantic perception of the revolution were reflected in the stories “Blue Cities” (1925) and “The Viper” (1927). The flourishing of A. Tolstoy’s creativity is associated with his later works - the historical novel “Peter I” (the first book was written in 1929) and the trilogy “Walking through Torment” (its first part, “Sisters”, was published in 1919).

By the end of the 20s. The masters of the Soviet historical novel are achieving significant success: Y. Tynyanov (“Kyukhlya”, 1925 and “The Death of Wazir-Mukhtar”, 1927), O. Forsh (“Dressed with Stone”, 1925), A. Chapygin ( "Razin Stepan", 1927). Standing apart is A. Bely’s historical novel “Moscow” (1925), written with great brilliance, about the life of the Moscow intelligentsia of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, created in the tradition of symbolic prose.

Among the various styles of Soviet literature of the 20s. The work of the romantic science fiction writer A. Green stands out. In the story " Scarlet Sails"(1921), the novel "Running on the Waves" (1926) and in numerous stories A. Green, a one-of-a-kind writer, poetically transforms reality, unravels "the lace of mysteries in the image of everyday life."

Themes about the civil war are gradually being replaced by stories of labor in the city and countryside. The pioneers of the industrial theme were F. Gladkov (the novel “Cement”, 1925) and N. Lyashko (the story “The Blast Furnace”, 1926). The processes taking place in the new village are reflected in the books of A. Neverov, Virineya by L. Seifullina (1924), the first volume of Bruskov by F. Panferov (1928), Lapti by P. Zamoyski (1929). ).

One of the works of this time - “Envy” by Y. Olesha (1927) poses the problem of a harmonious person, contrasting the “specialist” and “industrial” Babichev, who is building a giant sausage factory, with the weak-willed dreamer Nikolai Kavalerov, gifted with the ability to artistically perceive the world, but powerless change something in it.

Soviet literature of the 20s. sensitively reflected the contradictions of our time. New life At first, it aroused distrust among a number of writers due to the temporary revival of the bourgeois elements of the city and countryside (“Renegade” by V. Lidin, “Transvaal” by K. Fedin). Other writers, attentive to moral problems, spoke out in a sharp polemical form against the extremes and frivolous approach of some young people to love and family. The story “Dog Lane” by L. Gumilevsky (1927), “The Moon on the Right Side” by S. Malashkin (1927), and the story “Without Bird Cherry” by P. Romanov gave rise to heated discussions in Komsomol cells and in the press.

At the end of the 20s. The leading Soviet prose writers became characterized by a transition from “external” figurativeness to detailed psychological analysis, to the development of those classical traditions that had until now been in the background.

An event in Soviet literature was the novel by A. Fadeev “Destruction” (separate publication in 1927). Like many other previously written works by Soviet writers, this novel was dedicated to the civil war. However, Fadeev had a different approach to the topic. The theme of the novel is most deeply expressed in the character of the partisan Morozka, a former miner. In this ordinary person, who at first glance may seem uncomplicated, Fadeev reveals the extraordinary intensity of his inner life. The writer turns to in-depth psychological analysis, using not only Tolstoy's method of analyzing human character, but sometimes also Tolstoy's construction of phrases. In "Destruction" Fadeev's distinctive interest in moral problems And moral character person; The young writer’s novel opposed the schematic-rationalistic portrayal of man, the revolutionary leader in particular, which was quite widespread in the literature of those years.

In the 30s Fadeev came up with a plan for another novel - “The Last of Udege”, on which he did not stop working until the end of his life, considering this novel his main creative work. “The Last of Udege” was supposed to become a broad historical and philosophical synthesis. Outlining the events of the civil war Far East, Fadeev intended, using the example of the Udege tribe, to give a picture of the development of humanity from primitive communism to the future communist society. The novel remained unfinished; The first two parts were written, in which the general plan was not fully realized.

Revolutionary drama

Since the second half of the 20s. Modernity occupies a strong place in the themes of Soviet drama. Significant event there was the appearance of V. Bill-Belotserkovsky’s play “Storm” (1925), in which the author sought to show the ways of forming the character of a new man in the revolution.

Significant contribution to dramaturgy of the 20s. contributed to the work of K. Trenev, who wrote folk tragedies (“Pugachevshchina”), satirical comedies (“Wife”), and heroic-revolutionary dramas (“Lyubov Yarovaya”, 1926). In the images of Lyubov Yarovaya, Koshkin, Shvandi, the affirmation of the revolution and the heroism of the new man, born in the storms of the civil war, are vividly conveyed. Pictures of the revolution, the depiction of its active participants, people from the people, and the division of the old intelligentsia are shown in B. A. Lavrenev’s play “The Fault” (1927).

“Yarovaya Love” by K. Trenev, “Armored Train 14-69” Sun. Ivanov, “Days of the Turbins” by M. Bulgakov, “The Fault” by B. Lavrenev had a landmark significance in the history of Soviet drama. It is widely intruded by the problematics of the struggle for socialism, conveyed through various stylistic means. The same struggle, but waged in peaceful conditions, is reflected in the “satirical melodrama” by B. Romashov “The End of Krivorylsk” (1926), the acutely journalistic play by V. Kirshon “The Rails Are Humming” (1928), the play by A. Faiko “Man with a briefcase" (1928), adapted from the novel "Envy" by Y. Olesha, the lyrical drama by A. Afinogenov "Eccentric" (1929), the drama "Conspiracy of Feelings" (1929), etc. M. Bulgakov, almost entirely switching to dramaturgy, in the form of sharp satire attacks the life of the Nepmen and the decayed “responsible workers” (“Zoyka’s Apartment”), ridicules the straightforward, “departmental” approach to art (“Crimson Island”), based on historical material from different eras the problem of the artist’s position in society (“Cabal of the Saint,” “Last Days”).

Mayakovsky's dramaturgy, bold, innovative, built on the free use of a variety of artistic means - from realistic sketches of everyday life to fantastic symbols and montage - was of particular importance for the development of the Soviet theater at this time. In such works as “Mystery-bouffe”, “Bathhouse”, “Bedbug”, Mayakovsky acted simultaneously as a satirist, lyricist and political propagandist. Here backward representatives of the philistinism, bureaucrats (Prisypkin), people of the communist tomorrow (“phosphorus woman”) act side by side, and the voice of the author himself is heard everywhere. Mayakovsky’s dramatic experiments, close in their innovative structure to the dramas of Bertolt Brecht, influenced the subsequent development of a special multifaceted “drama of the 20th century” in the European theater.

Prose of the 30s

Literature of the 30s widely reflected the restructuring of life caused by the activity of the masses and their conscious work. The subject of the image is industrial giants, a transforming village, and profound changes among the intelligentsia. At the end of the period, the interest of writers in defense and patriotic themes, solved on modern and historical material, also increased.

At the same time, the negative impact of Stalin's personality cult had an impact. A number of talented writers - M. Koltsov, V. Kirshon, I. Babel and others - became victims of unjustified repression. The atmosphere of the cult of personality constrained the creativity of many writers. Nevertheless, Soviet literature has achieved significant success.

A. Tolstoy was finishing at this time the trilogy “Walking through Torment,” which tells about the fate of the intelligentsia in the revolution. Building a multi-faceted narrative, introducing many new characters, and above all V.I. Lenin, A. Tolstoy strives to show the special ways in which his heroes approach the realization of their inner involvement in the events that are taking place. For the Bolshevik Telegin, the whirlwind of revolution is his native element. It is not immediately and not simply that Katya and Dasha find themselves in their new life. Roshchin has the most difficult fate. Expanding the possibilities of the realistic epic both in terms of coverage of life and in terms of psychological disclosure of personality, A. Tolstoy gave “Walking Through Torment” multicolor and thematic richness. In the second and third parts of the trilogy, there are representatives of almost all layers of the Russia of that time - from workers (Bolshevik Ivan Gora) to sophisticated metropolitan decadents.

The profound changes taking place in the village inspired F. Panferov to create the four-volume epic “Bruski” (1928-1937).

In historical themes, moments of violent popular uprisings occupy a large place (the first part of the novel “Emelyan Pugachev” by Vyach. Shishkov, “Walking People” by A. Chapygin), but the problem of the relationship between an outstanding personality and the historical flow is even more prominent. O. Forsh writes the trilogy “Radishchev” (1934 - 1939), Y. Tynyanov - the novel “Pushkin” (1936), V. Yan - the novel “Genghis Khan” (1939). A. Tolstoy has been working on the novel “Peter I” for the entire decade. He explains the historical correctness of Peter by the fact that the direction of his activities coincided with the objective course of development of history and was supported by the best representatives of the people.

Outstanding works of the epic genre include “The Gloomy River” by Vyach. Shishkova, depicting the revolutionary development of Siberia at the beginning of the 20th century.

Prose of the 30s (mainly the first half) experienced the strongest influence of the essay. The rapid development of the essay genre itself runs parallel to the development of the epic. “A wide stream of essays,” Gorky wrote in 1931, “is a phenomenon that has never happened before in our literature.” The theme of the essays was the industrial restructuring of the country, the power and beauty of five-year plans, sometimes almost humanized by the pen of writers. B. Agapov, B. Galin, B. Gorbatov, V. Stavsky, M. Ilyin impressively reflected the era of the first five-year plans in their essays. Mikhail Koltsov in “The Spanish Diary” (1937), a series of essays dedicated to the revolutionary war in Spain, gave an example of a new journalism that combined the accuracy of realistic drawing with wealth expressive means. His feuilletons are also magnificent, in which caustic humor is combined with the energy and sharpness of the pamphlet.

Many significant works of prose of the 30s. were written as a result of writers' trips to new buildings. Marietta Shaginyan in “Hydrocentral” (1931), F. Gladkov in “Energy” (1938) depict the construction of powerful hydroelectric power stations. V. Kataev in the novel “Time, Forward!” (1932) dynamically tells the story of the competition between the builders of Magnitogorsk and the workers of Kharkov. I. Ehrenburg, for whom acquaintance with the new buildings of the five-year plans was decisive creative meaning, published the novels “The Second Day” and “Without Taking a Breath” (1934 and 1935), dedicated to how people selflessly build a construction site in difficult conditions. K. Paustovsky's story “Kara-Bugaz” (1932) tells about the development of the riches of the Kara-Bugaz Bay. Pathos, dynamism and intensity of action, brightness and elation of style, coming from the desire to reflect one’s perception of heroic reality, are the characteristic features of these works, which seem to have grown out of an essay.

However, while widely and vividly showing the changes taking place in life, the clash between the builders of the new and the adherents of the old, the writers still do not make the new person the main character of the work of art. The main “hero” of V. Kataev’s novel “Time, Forward!” is the temp. The promotion of a person to the center of a writer’s attention does not happen immediately.

The search for a new hero and a new personality psychology was determined in the 30s. further development of the work of L. Leonov, who in the novel “Skutarevsky” (1932) gave a deep analysis of the conviction that drives Soviet people. The evolution of the physicist Skutarevsky, overcoming individualism and realizing the great meaning of his participation in the Five-Year Plan, forms the plot of the novel. The brilliance and wit of thought, combined with the unique poetry of the style, create a new type of unobtrusive, organic and active participation of the author in action in realism. Skutarevsky, in some ways merging with the author’s “I” of the writer, is a powerful figure of an intellectual with an original and deep sense of the world. In “The Road to the Ocean” (1936), Leonov made an attempt to show a new hero against the backdrop of global social upheaval.

I. Ilf and E. Petrov published “The Golden Calf” in 1931, the second novel about Ostap Bender (the first novel “The Twelve Chairs” was published in 1928). Having portrayed the “great schemer” who suffered a fiasco for the second time under Soviet conditions, Ilf and Petrov completed the creation of a new satirical style, witty and meaningful, full of optimism and subtle humor.

Exposing the “philosophy of loneliness” is the meaning of N. Virta’s story “Loneliness” (1935), showing the death of a kulak, a rebel, a lonely enemy Soviet power. Boris Levitin in his novel “Young Man” convincingly depicted the collapse of careerist aspirations | a young intellectual who tried to oppose himself to the socialist world and influence it using the methods of Balzac’s “conqueror of life.”

An in-depth study of human psychology in the socialist era has greatly enriched realism. Along with vivid epic depictions, in many ways close to journalism, there appear excellent examples of conveying the subtlest aspects of the soul (R. Fraerman - “Distance Voyage”) and the psychological richness of human nature (“natural history” stories by M. Prishvin, Ural tales imbued with folk poetics by P. Bazhov).

The discovery of the psychological traits of a new positive hero and his typification culminated in the creation in the mid-30s. novels and stories in which the image of the builder of a new society received a strong artistic expression and deep interpretation.

N. Ostrovsky’s novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1935) tells the story of the life of Pavel Korchagin, who cannot imagine himself outside of the people’s struggle for universal happiness. The difficult trials through which Korchagin victoriously went through from entering the revolutionary struggle until the moment when, sentenced to death by doctors, he abandoned suicide and found his way in life, form the content of this unique textbook of new morality. Constructed one-dimensionally, like a “third-person monologue,” this novel gained worldwide fame, and Pavel Korchagin became a model of behavior for many generations of youth.

Simultaneously with N. Ostrovsky, he completed his main work - “Pedagogical Poem” by A. Makarenko. The theme of the “Pedagogical Poem,” structured as a kind of diary of a teacher, is the “straightening” of people distorted by homelessness. This talented picture"reforging" street children into labor colonies 20's and 30's clearly embodies the moral strength of an ordinary person who feels himself the master of a common cause and a subject of history.

Also noteworthy is Yu. Krymov’s novel “Tanker Derbent” (1938), in which the creative possibilities the collective and every person who felt their value in the nationwide struggle for socialism.

30s - This is also the heyday of children's literature. Brilliant contributions to it were made by K. Chukovsky, S. Marshak, A. Tolstoy, B. Zhitkov and others. During these years, V. Kataev wrote the story “The Lonely Sail Whitens” (1935), dedicated to the formation of the character of a young hero in the context of the revolution 1905 and distinguished by great skill in conveying child psychology. Two classic works for children (“School”, 1930 and “Timur and His Team”, 1940) outline the decade of Arkady Gaidar’s greatest creative activity.

M. Sholokhov

In a relatively short period, young Soviet literature was able to promote new artists of world significance. First of all, Mikhail Sholokhov belongs to them. By the end of the 30s. the nature of the work of this outstanding master was determined Soviet prose. At this time, the epic “Quiet Don” was basically completed - a grandiose picture of life, where each face is felt and measured by the scale of an entire era and acts as the focus of the struggle of the new world with the old. Here the typical Sholokhov ability to think of the revolution as the “fate of man” was fully revealed, the deeply artistic ability to follow the fate of his heroes so that every turn, hesitation, feeling was simultaneously the development of a complex idea that cannot be expressed in any other way than this interweaving of life relationships. Thanks to this ability, the content of the era being experienced is revealed as a new stage in the change and breakdown of human consciousness. Continuing the traditions of L. Tolstoy, especially his latest works (“Hadji Murat”), M. A. Sholokhov chooses as the center of attention the image of a simple, strong man, passionately seeking the truth and defending his right to life. However, the colossal complication of life that the revolution brought with it puts forward new criteria and puts this private right in a necessary connection with the supreme right of the people who have risen to fight against the exploiters. The fate of Grigory Melekhov and Aksinya, the main characters of the work, thus falls into the center of struggling contradictions, the outcome of which cannot be peaceful and which an individual, isolated person, no matter how rich and valuable he may be, cannot cope with. Sholokhov depicts the inevitable death of these people just at the moment when they, it would seem, have achieved the highest development of their spiritual powers and deep life wisdom.

Another major work written by M. A. Sholokhov during these years, the first part of the novel “Virgin Soil Upturned,” is dedicated to the most important event in the life of the peasant masses - the collectivization of the village. Sholokhov, too, is not betrayed by his usual stern truthfulness, which allows, with the clarity and firmness of the writer’s view of life, to see all its contradictory sides. Sholokhov's idea appears inextricably linked with the complex and difficult fate of the founders of the collective farm movement - the St. Petersburg worker Davydov, a stern ascetic and dreamer; supporter of immediate revolution, touching dreamer and pure, principled worker Makar Nagulnov; calm, careful, infinitely devoted to the cause of collective farm construction Andrei Razmetnov.

Poetry of the 30s.

Poetry of the 30s. actively continued the heroic-romantic line of the previous decade. Lyrical hero- he is a revolutionary, a rebel, a dreamer, intoxicated by the scope of the era, looking towards tomorrow, carried away by the idea and work. The romanticism of this poetry also includes a clear attachment to fact. “Mayakovsky Begins” (1939) by N. Aseev, “Poems about Kakheti” (1935) by N. Tikhonov, “To the Bolsheviks of the Desert and Spring” (1930-1933) and “Life” (1934) Lugovsky, “The Death of a Pioneer” (1933) by E. Bagritsky, “Your Poem” (1938) by S. Kirsanov - these are intonations that are not similar in individuality, but united by revolutionary pathos, examples of Soviet poetry of these years.

Peasant themes are increasingly heard in poetry, carrying their own rhythms and moods. The works of Pavel Vasiliev, with his “tenfold” perception of life, extraordinary richness and plasticity, paint a picture of a fierce struggle in the village. A. Tvardovsky’s poem “The Country of Ant” (1936), reflecting the turn of the multi-million peasant masses towards collective farms, epically tells the story of Nikita Morgunka, unsuccessfully searching for the happy country of Ant and finding happiness in collective farm work. Tvardovsky's poetic form and poetic principles became landmarks in the history of Soviet poems. Close to folk, Tvardovsky’s verse marked a partial return to the classical Russian tradition and at the same time made a significant contribution to it. A. Tvardovsky combines the folk style with a free composition, the action is intertwined with reflection, and a direct appeal to the reader. This one looks simple form turned out to be very capacious in terms of meaning.

These years also included the flourishing of song lyrics (M. Isakovsky, V. Lebedev-Kumach), closely associated with folklore. Deeply sincere lyrical poems were written by M. Tsvetaeva, who realized the impossibility of living and creating in a foreign land and returned in the 30s. to my homeland. At the end of the period, moral issues occupied a prominent place in Soviet poetry (St. Shchipachev).

Poetry of the 30s. did not create its own special systems, but it very sensitively reflected the psychological life of society, embodying both the powerful spiritual uplift and creative inspiration of the people.

Drama of the 30s.

The pathos of the people's struggle for the triumph of revolutionary truth - this was the theme of most plays in the 30s. Playwrights continue to search for more expressive forms that more fully convey new content. V. Vishnevsky builds his “Optimistic Tragedy” (1933) as a heroic cantata about the revolutionary fleet, as a mass action that should show “the gigantic flow of life itself.” Accuracy social characteristics characters (sailors, female commissar) only reinforces the author’s power over the action; the author's monologue is presented in a sincere and passionately journalistic style.

N. Pogodin in “The Aristocrats” (1934) showed the re-education of former criminals working on the construction of the White Sea Canal. In 1937, his play “The Man with a Gun” appeared - the first in the epic trilogy about V.I. Lenin.

A. Afinogenov, as a result of creative searches (“Far”, 1934; “Salute, Spain!”, 1936), came to the conviction of the inviolability of the traditional stage interior. Within this tradition, he writes plays imbued with precision of psychological analysis, lyricism, subtlety of intonation and purity of moral criteria. A. Arbuzov walked in the same direction, embodying the spiritual beauty of the new person in the image of Tanya Ryabinina (“Tanya”, 1939).

The multinational character of Soviet literature The emerging multinational complex of Soviet literature reflected the features historical development peoples of the USSR. Next to the literatures that had rich history written literature (Georgian, Armenian, Ukrainian, Tatar literature), there were young literatures that had only ancient folklore (Kalmyk, Karelian, Abkhazian, Komi, peoples of Siberia), and written literature was absent or taking the first steps.

Ukrainian poetry puts forward writers whose work combines revolutionary pathos with the national song poetic tradition (V. Sosyura, P. Tychyna, M. Rylsky, M. Bazhan). Characteristic features of Ukrainian prose (A. Golovko, Y. Smolich) are romantic tension of action and pathos of intonation. Yu. Yanovsky creates the novel “Riders” (1935) about the heroic time of the civil war. A. Korneychuk’s plays “The Death of the Squadron” (1933) and “Platon the Krechet” (1934) are dedicated to the revolutionary Soviet reality.

Belarusian Soviet poetry arises in close connection with folk art; it is distinguished by attention to the simple working person and to the socialist transformation of the world. The genre of the poem is developing (P. Brovka). In prose, the leading place is occupied by the epic form (the 1st and 2nd books of Y. Kolas’s epic “On Rostanakh”, 1921-1927), which paints a broad picture of the struggle of the Belarusian people for social liberation.

In Transcaucasian literature in the 30s. there is a rapid development of poetry. The theme of the work of the leading poets of Georgian (T. Tabidze, S. Chikovani), Armenian (E. Charents, N. Zaryan) and Azerbaijani (S. Vurgun) poetry is the socialist transformation of life. The poets of Transcaucasia introduced into Soviet literature an element of intense romantic experience, journalistic pathos combined with lyrical intonation, and the brightness of associations coming from the Eastern classics. The novel is also developing (L. Kiacheli, K. Lordkipanidze, S. Zorin, M. Gusein, S. Rustam).

Poets of the republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan used the old oral tradition to create revolutionary poetry, but the prose in these literatures, as well as in the literatures of the peoples of the Volga region (Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Udmurt, Mordovian, Mari, Komi) developed under the decisive influence of Russian classical and Soviet literature. M. Auezov, S. Aini, B. Kerbabaev, A. Tokombaev, T. Sydykbekov established the genre of a multifaceted epic novel in Kazakh and Central Asian literature.

It was “collectivist” themes that became a priority in the verbal art of the 30s: collectivization, industrialization, the struggle of a revolutionary hero against class enemies, socialist construction, the leading role of the Communist Party in society, etc.

However, this does not mean at all that in the works that were “party” in spirit, there were no notes of writerly anxiety about the moral health of society, and the traditional questions of Russian literature about the fate of the “little man” were not heard. Let's give just one example.

In 1932, V. Kataev created a typically “collectivist” industrial novel “Time, Forward!” about how the world record for mixing concrete was broken during the construction of the Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works. In one of the episodes a woman is described carrying boards.

“For example, here’s one.

In a pink woolen scarf, in a gathered country skirt. She can barely walk, stepping heavily on her heels, staggering under the weight of the boards bending like springs on her shoulder. She tries to keep up with others, but constantly loses step; she stumbles, she is afraid to fall behind, she quickly wipes her face with the end of her handkerchief as she walks.

Her belly is especially high and ugly. It is clear that she is in her last days. Maybe she has hours left.

Why is she here? What is she thinking? What does it have to do with everything around it?

Unknown."

Not a word is said about this woman in the novel. But the image has been created, the questions have been posed. And the reader knows how to think... Why does this woman work together with everyone else? For what reasons did people accept her into the team?

The example given is no exception. In most significant works of “official” Soviet literature of the 30s, one can find equally stunningly true episodes. Such examples convince us that today’s attempts to present the pre-war period in literature as an “era of silent books” are not entirely valid.

In the literature of the 30s there was a variety of artistic systems. Along with the development of socialist realism, the development of traditional realism was obvious. It manifested itself in the works of emigrant writers, in the works of writers M. Bulgakov, M. Zoshchenko, and others who lived in the country. Obvious features of romanticism are noticeable in the work of A. Green. A. Fadeev and A. Platonov were no strangers to romanticism. In the literature of the early 30s, the OBERIU direction appeared (D. Kharms, A. Vvedensky, K. Vaginov, N. Zabolotsky, etc.), close to Dadaism, surrealism, theater of the absurd, stream of consciousness literature.

The literature of the 30s is characterized by active interaction between different types of literature. For example, the biblical epic manifested itself in the lyrics of A. Akhmatova; M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” has many of its features in common with dramatic works - primarily with I. V. Goethe’s tragedy “Faust”.

During this period of literary development, the traditional system of genres was transformed. New types of novels are emerging (primarily the so-called “industrial novel”). The plot outline of a novel often consists of a series of essays.

Writers of the 30s were very diverse in the compositional solutions they used. “Production” novels most often depict a panorama of the labor process, linking the development of the plot with the stages of construction. The composition of a philosophical novel (in this genre variety spoke by V. Nabokov) is connected, rather, not with external action, but with the struggle in the soul of the character. In “The Master and Margarita” M. Bulgakov presents a “novel within a novel”, and neither of the two plots can be considered leading.

Writers A. Tolstoy and M. Sholokhov

Lit.-soc. situation.

Literature from the end of 1917 to the beginning of the 20s. represents a small but very important transition period. In the beginning. 20s origin split into three branches of literature: emigrant literature, Soviet literature and “detained” literature.

The attitudes in different branches of literature were opposite. Sov. writers dreamed of remaking the whole world, exiles dreamed of preserving and restoring former cultural values. As for the “delayed” literature, there was no consistent pattern. Totalit. The government rejected both artists who were truly alien to it, and its faithful adherents, who sometimes committed very minor offenses, and sometimes were not guilty at all. Among the prose writers and poets destroyed by totalitarianism, whose works were immediately erased from the literature along with their names, there were not only O. Mandelstam, Boris Pilnyak, I. Babel, the cross. poets N. Klyuev, S. Klychkov, but also most of its founders - fly by. poets, many “fierce zealots” from RAPP and a huge number of people no less devoted to the revolution. At the same time, life (but not creative freedom) was preserved for A. Akhmatova, M. Bulgakov, A. Platonov, M. Zoshchenko, Yu. Tynyanov, etc. Often the work was not allowed to be published at all or was subjected to devastating criticism immediately or some time after its release, after which “it seemed to disappear, but the author remained free, periodically cursed by official criticism without relying on the text or distorting its meaning. “Detained” works partially returned to the Soviet reader during the years of Khrushchev’s criticism of the cult of personality,” partially in mid. 60s - early 70s, like many poems by Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva, Mandelstam, “The Master and Margarita” and “Theatrical Novel” by M. Bulgakov, but a complete “return” took place only at the turn of the 80-90s, when the Russian the reader also gained access to the works of emigrants. liters. Practical reunification of 3 branches of Russian. literature by the end of the century took place and demonstrated its unity in the main thing: the highest art. values ​​were in all 3 branches, incl. and in the Sov. lit-re.

Soviet literature. Lit. life. Trends in development genres. Names.

1 of the characters special lit. development of the 20s - abundance of lit. groups. It is necessary to separate lit-ru and lit. life. Lit. life is everything around literature. In the 20s “besides existing. before revolution futurists, symbolists, acmeists, constructivists, proletkultists, expressionists, neoclassicists, prezantists, and novokrest appeared on the scene. poets. And there behind them, like tribes from the jungle, rushed, stunning the reader, Nichevoks, Biocosmists, even Koekaks and Oberiuts appeared...” (N. Tikhonov). Vozn-e lit. groups of the 20s. was not always caused by the growth of literature itself, but for a number of reasons it was inevitable, just as their gradual progress was inevitable later. fading. Many people write. and the critics had no connections in those years either. not with any group (Gorky, A.N. Tolstoy, L. Leonov, K. Trenev, I. Babel, etc.). I write a lot. moved from one group to another, the ideas of the group outgrew. A mass of frivolous people appeared. groups, strange: nothing (manifesto: don’t write anything! don’t read anything! don’t say anything! don’t print anything!); fuists (there must be cerebral liquefaction in art); biocosmists (The Earth is a large spaceship that must be controlled by biocosmists, because they understand everything about everything ).

Proletarsk The movement in culture and literature was a serious phenomenon in the post-revolutionary period. period. This movement arose. even before the revolution and not only in Russia: also in Germany, Belgium, Hungary, the Czech Republic. In Russia, even before the revolution. – 34 magazines span. direction The main task is to create a new culture, suitable. to new times, the culture of the proletariat. 1st post-revolution years were characterized by romanticism. trends in literature (especially in the work of proletarian writers) => the desire to see the heroic in life, interest in drama. events will exclude. har-ram and situations, pathetic expression. Wed. The other side fired. rom-ma there was a kind of pathos of namelessness, socialization: “We” comes to the fore, “I”, if there is one, merges with “we” (“We are blacksmiths, and our spirit is young”, “We are countless, formidable legions of labor” etc.) Actually, shortly before the revolution. arose. Proletkult.

Proletkult (proletarian cultural-enlightenment organizations) is the largest organization. 1917-1920. 1st conference Proletkultovsk organizational took place in Petrograd. 10/16/1917. Proletkult had it at its disposal. a number of magazines and publications (“Proletarsk Culture”, “The Coming”, “Gorn”, “Beeps”, etc.), created associations and groups in the capitals and provinces. In most cases, the poets of Proletkult came from slave backgrounds. class. P.'s theorist was Alexander Bogdanov. He made a suggestion. build new cult. in complete isolation from the cult. of the past. “Let’s discard the bourgeois entirely. culture like old trash.” The largest representatives: Alexey Gastev, V. Aleksandrovsky, V. Kirillov, N. Poletaev and others. For the TV-va poets of Proletkult the character. proletarsk maximalism in relation to to the surrounding world. For example. in Gastev’s “Industrial World” (this is a poem, one must assume) the proletariat is an unprecedented social. apparatus, globe - gigantic. factory, etc. In proletarsk. poetry there is an abundance of class hatred, the desire to destroy. enemy, destroying the old world. 1918 – poem by V. Knyazev “The Red Gospel”. Knyazev name. himself as a “frenzied new prophet,” calling. drink his blood; the poet is the red Christ, the lamb of revolution, transforming. Christ's “love” into “hate.” "The Red Gospel" - endless. variations on the theme of merciless. worlds. revolution. Large place in poetry span. busy poets the theme of labor. Labor is classified either as a weapon of the proletariat or as a front. Connected with the theme of labor. technical topic equipped labor, technicalisms penetrate into poetry. Particular attention should be paid to the development of the image of Russia. Leaving Rus' is drunk, dreary, sleepy, shackled. the new Russia is strong, active, working and finally. The proletariat has the future, the revolution has been acquired. space scale. Cosmogonic appeared in poetry. e-t: Martian. proletarians. exploration of the Moon, man will become the master of matter, subjugate nature and its laws. Idealistic I imagined something new, bright, fantastic. a future when man will control the universe like a mechanism. TV flight. found poets. even the features are peculiar. folklore: repeating images, symbols, epithets, antitheses. Epithets: iron, steel, fire, rebellious. Conditional symbolic images: blacksmiths, singers, locomotive, whirlwind, fire, lighthouse. Hyperbolic gigantism manifested itself in use. large numbers, heavenly images. bodies and mountains, complex formations: millions, mont blancs, maps of suns, sun-jet, thousand-tongued, billion-mouthed. Christ was also used. symbolism. A new mythology of modern times has been created. Young span. writers are just getting started. to create, therefore needs praise => necessary. praise young people in critical articles. Evg sounded the alarm about this. Zamyatin (article “I’m afraid”). Gradually it happened. Proletkult bundle. The Kuznitsa group emerged from Proletkult in 1920.

"Forge". The largest representatives: Vas.Vas. Kazin, V. Aleksandrovsky, Sannikov. Bryusov wrote about K.’s writers that they take everything into the universe. scale (world machine, universal worker, etc.), real. life passes them by. Nevertheless, it was “Kuznitsa” that initiated the preparation of the 1st All-Russian. meetings fly by. writers (May 1920), at which, like the 1st Congress, the passage. writers (October 1920), it was considered possible to admit to the All-Russian. professional. union span. writers are also peasant writers, not hostile. according to ideology (Proletkult demanded that the artist be isolated from outside influences. “Kuznitsa” also takes a different position in relation to the classical inheritance: they no longer demand a complete separation from the classics.

The remains of K. and other units made up the VOAP (later RAPP).

Serapion's brothers. Lit. The food arose in St. Petersburg in the beginning. 1921. Main. the ideologist was Lev Lunts. Declaration “Why are we S.br.?” - they proclaimed non-imposition of anything on each other, non-interference in creativity. each other's affairs, the separation of literature from ideology: “We are with the hermit Serapion. We are not writing for propaganda.” Included in S.br. included: Nick. Nikitin, M. Zoshchenko, Vsevolod Ivanov, Nik. Tikhonov, V. Kaverin, Mikh. Slonimsky, K. Fedin and others. In short, because they did not interfere. into each other’s creativity, then they united in S.br. writers of different directions. In 1922, the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) decided to recognize the need. support for the S.Br. publishing house, but with a caveat: no participation in reactionary publications.

RAPP. The remains of “Kuznitsa”, the group “October and other associations” were transformed into VAPP, which was then called RAPP. Theor. the organ is the magazine “On Post”, which is why they are called Rappovites. still napostovtsy. Claimants. on leading role in the Soviet lit-re. Everyone who was not with them was called “fellow travelers.” In relation fellow travelers in 1931 Leopold Overbach introduced the thesis “Not an ally, but an enemy.” Gorky was also considered a fellow traveler. and A.N. Tolstoy, and others. Mayakovsky moved from LEF to RAPP, but they did not consider him one of their own there. The Rappovites considered themselves entitled to a special position. The ideology of citizenship was embodied in the activities of RAPP. wars and military communism: implemented harshly. They loved discipline and slogans very much (to catch up and overtake the classics of bourgeois literature! For the demonization of poetry!) They introduced the concept of the method of socialism into literature. realism. Those. attention is focused on the role of literature as ideological. factor a

LEF(left front of the lawsuit). The largest representatives: Mayakovsky, Pasternak, Aseev. However, they are sufficient. Soon we left the food. The group participants emphasized that cont. line of futurists and declarators. next things: 1) refusal to be realistic. material development; 2) exposure of reception; 3) the language of literature must be made into the language of logic; 4) the idea of ​​displaying the world in art comes down to the idea of ​​illustration; 5) denial of fiction, i.e. negation of tradition. claim as illusory, leading away. into the world of fantasy. The Lefovites saw at close range. lawsuits with politics, the participation of art in the affairs of the state is most important. feature of the new art and defined their task as “deepening the class trench on the field of military action of the art.” A standardized activist has grown up in their literary swarm. Moreover, some representatives of LEF (O. Brik, N. Chuzhak) considered its utilitarianism to be the pinnacle of art. the form and place of the Wartin were called upon to paint chintz: “chintz and work on chintz are the pinnacles of art. labor" (O. Brik). Because the principle of mapping was declared to be reactionary, and the principle of typification was also rejected. Instead of being reflected in the literature, it is typical. Har-row art was proposed to create “processors”, “standards” of people taken in one or another production installation. The novel, poem, and playwright were rejected as outdated. genres. Two slogans were proclaimed: “social. order" and "liter of fact". But despite the fact that these slogans were also accepted by other writers, the Lefists understood them literally: social. order means establishing a standard for a person, literature means establishing a fact - means replacing literature with a newspaper. In short, all these strange positions lead to the 2nd sex. 20s to the split of the group and the departure of Mayakovsky from it in 1930, after which the group ceased. its being.

LCC Group(left-center constructivists). Representatives: K. Zelinsky, I. Servinsky, Vera Inber, Boris Agapov, Vladimir Lugovskoy, Ed. Bagritsky. The "Declaration of Comrade" was printed. in No. 3 of the magazine “Lef” for 1925, after which criticism of the 20s. Not without reason, I considered constructivism to be an offshoot of Lef. There is no denying that his program is related to Lef’s. and the constructivists themselves. Theoretical postulate formulated in 2 collections: “Gosplan literature” (1925), “Business” (1929); it consists in the following: constructivists strive to master the political. a section of the cultural front, a mass obsessed with creation; architect revol. must look for a new way of creation, economical, fast, capacious. And now, in a simple way: you were looking for your place in the construction of social media. It seemed to them that this place was at the junction of technical technology. revol. and social. The style of the era is the style of technology (just when industrialization began). In search of lit. As an analogue to the general “style of the era”, you put forward the principle of “cargoification” - increasing the meaning. load on unit lit. material. For this purpose use. such combinations as “jellyfish wave” (a hint that jellyfish live in the sea) and “calloused rope” (a reference to the calluses on the hands of sailors).

Group Pass and the Perevalians are opponents of Lef’s approach. The pass has arisen. in 1924 around the magazine “Krasnaya Nov” (edited by A. Voronsky). Representatives: Prishvin, Malyshkin, M. Svetlov, L. Seifullina and others. They preached Mozartianism, intuitiveness of art, suppression of consciousness in creativity. General principle: not partisanship, but sincerity, the theory of a new humanism instead of classes. struggle. “We must be consistent: if you are against sincerity, then you are for opportunism” (collection “Perevaltsy”, 1925). Excellent from Lefovites and constructivists who put forward. to the 1st plane rational. beginning in creativity process, Voronsky considered only the one who “creates with his gut” to be a true artist. Ultimately, this is what led to the fact that the Pereval residents began to be accused of not understanding. socialist tasks writers, break away from ideology, etc.

Imagism. 02/10/1919 in the newspaper “Sovetsk. country” a declaration appeared, signed by Yesenin, Shershenevich, Ivlev and others. Imagism is the first worldwide boom. spiritual revolution. The main thing is vacuity, the image as an end in itself, the negation of grammar. Printing organ – “Sheets of Imagists”. As Yesenin later wrote: “I did not join the Imagists, they grew on my poems.” This school died on its own. She announced herself noisily, loudly, but also prudently: they organized the publishing houses “Chikhi-Pikhi”, “Sandro”, theoretical. publication "Ordnas"; magazine "Hotel for Travelers in Beauty". They arranged a circus. scandals: they renamed streets in honor of themselves, held meetings in the Pegasus Stable cafe. Articles were published about the Imagists: “Cultural savagery.” In fact. the goal was good: to revive dead words through images (see Yesenin “The Keys of Mary”). Thus, Mariengof, in his article “The Cow and the Greenhouse,” opposed the art of technicalism (Meyerhold, Mayakovsky). But the collapse of Imagism was predetermined by Yesenin’s article “Life and Art” (1920), directed against the Imagists. which are being considered. claim only as claim, etc. Published on 08/31/1924. Yesenin's letter about the dissolution of the Imagist group.

OBERIU. Arose. in the fall of 1927. D. Kharms (Yuvachev), Alexander Vvedensky, N. Zabolotsky, Igor Bakhtyrev create the “Association of Real Art” (“u” in the abbreviation is for beauty). OBERIU should have been composed. of 5 sections: literature, art, theater, cinema, music. In fact, most number of OBERIU participants – in lit. sections: all listed. above + K. Vaginov; cinema – Razumovsky, Mints; iso – Malevich wanted to go there, but it didn’t work out; music - no one. 1928 – published in the magazine “Print House Poster” No. 2. OBERIU declaration. There were actually two declarations: 1) ?; 2) Zabolotsky “Poetry of the Oberiuts”. Passage in the same year. lit. evening at the Three Left Hours printing house: poetry reading, Kharms’ play “Elizabeth Bam”, Razumovsky and Mintz’s “The Meat Grinder”. There was a stir, but the press criticized it (article “YTUEROBO”). There were no more open evenings, only small performances (in student dormitories, etc.) In 1930, it was published in the newspaper Smena. an article about the Oberiuts, calling their creativity “a protest against dictatorships.” of the proletariat, the poetry of the class enemy." After this article, OBERIU ceased. your being: someone is the way out. from the group, some were exiled, some died.

LOKAF(Lit. unification of the Red Army and Navy). Created in July 1930 for the purpose of creativity. mastering the life and history of the army and navy. 3 magazines: “LOKAF” (currently “Znamya”), in Leningrad - “Zalp”, in Ukraine “Chervony Boets”, there were branches in the Far East, the Black Sea. in the Volga region. LOKAF included: Pyotr Pavlenko (script for the films “Alexander Nevsky”, “The Fall of Berlin”, novels “Happiness”, “In the East”, “Desert”), Vissarion Sayanov, Boris Lavrenev, Alexander Surkov.

In 1934, the 1st Congress of the Soviet Union took place. writers. All groups and meals have stopped. At this time, a single Union of Writers began to exist.

Poetry of the 20s - 30s.

Cont. write such already recognized poets as Akhmatova, Yesenin, Mayakovsky, Severyanin, Pasternak, Mandelstam, etc., new authors appeared, like truly Soviet poets (proletarian - Gastev, etc., see lit. groups; in the 30s 1980s - Tvardovsky, Pavel Vasiliev - new peasant poets, already of Soviet bottling), and “fellow travelers” and “enemies” of the new government (Zabolotsky, Kharms, ... Many emigration poets and continued or are starting to create in emigration. (Vyach Ivanov, Severyanin, Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky)

Mass song. Soviet mass song is a special, unique genre that arose in the 30s. This did not happen anymore (i.e., mass song existed, but not on such a scale, except perhaps for another surge of mass song during the war years). It’s clear that the genre did not arise out of nowhere. Its origins can be called artel songs, proletarian songs of the beginning of the century, civil songs. war. But there is one thing. the difference is a mass song of the 30s. also a song of enthusiasm, a new romantic. lifting, communication with the rise of societies. consciousness: well, there are shocking construction projects and all that. The struggle remains, but now it is a struggle for a bright future and prosperity for the country of the Soviets. During this period, there was a revival of choral culture on a new basis that arose. many powerful choral groups, for example, the choir named after. Pyatnitsky (director Zakharov). Means. role in development masses The songs were played by Soviet development. cinema. I love these songs. They're cool. 2 directions: lyrical. song (“And who knows why he blinks”) and a marching song (“My native country is wide”, etc.) Among the authors of music we can name Dunaevsky, he is the most powerful, Blantera yet, and the authors of the words - Mich. Isakovsky(book of poetry “Wires in Straw”, collections “Province” (1930), “Masters of the Earth” (1931), poem “Four Desires” (1936); songs - “Farewell”, “Seeing off”, “And who knows him”, “Katyusha”, “On the mountain - white and white”; poems and songs about the Second World War - poems “To a Russian Woman”, “A Word about Russia”, songs “Goodbye, cities and huts”, “In the forest near the front” , “Spark”, “It’s better than this flower”; post-war songs: “Everything froze again...”, “Migratory birds are flying”), Alexey Surkov(collection “Peers”, etc.; songs - “Konarmeyskaya”, “Fire is beating in a cramped stove”, “Song of the Brave”, etc.; during the Second World War, military correspondent for the newspapers “Krasnoarmeyskaya Pravda” and “Krasnaya” Zvezda"; published 10 collections of poems, including "Roads Lead to the West" (1942), "A Soldier's Heart" and "Poems about Hatred" (1943), "Songs of an Angry Heart" and "Punishing Russia" ( 1944)), Vasily Lebedev-Kumach(collections “Divorce”, “Tea leaves in a saucer”, both 1925, “From all the volosts”, 1926, “People and affairs”, “Sad smiles”, both 1927; plays; in 1934 in collaboration with composer I. O. Dunaevsky composed “March of the Cheerful Children” for the film “Jolly Fellows”, which brought L-K wide recognition and his further creativity. the path of a songwriter; lyrics by L-K - “Sports March” (“Come on, sun, brighter than the spray, / Burn with golden rays!”), “Song about the Motherland” (“Wide is my native country...”), “How many girls good ones”, “Song of the water carrier”, “Once upon a time there lived a brave captain...”, “Moscow in May” (“The morning paints with a delicate color / The walls of the ancient Kremlin...”), “Holy War” (“Get up, huge country, / Get up for mortal combat..."; the text was published in the newspaper "Izvestia" 2 days after the start of the war, June 24, 1941), "Molodezhnaya" ("The golden haze curls, roadside..."); many of the poet’s songs were first performed on the silver screen - the comedies “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus”, 1936, “Children of Captain Grant”, 1936, “Volga-Volga”, 1937, music. I.O. Dunaevsky; wrote a lot during the Second World War).

Poem. 20s The time of change and upheaval requires an epic scale => “comes to life” and is again in demand. poem. And in the most diverse. forms, and it is not necessarily dedicated. historical events of this time, it is not necessarily plot-driven. The first truly significant poem of the new era can be considered "Twelve" by Blok (1918). The storm that revolutionized produced in the “sea of ​​art”, was reflected in both the style and rhythms of the poem. In the poem one can clearly hear the polyphony that arose. on historical fracture. Highly pathetic the word faced with the lower. speech, lit. and political vocabulary - with vernacular, vulgarisms. Intonation oratory, sloganeering of neighborhoods. with lyrical, ditty with march, bourgeois. urban romance, adv. and revol. song, dolnik and dimensionless. verse - with iambic and trochee. All this is so organically eaten. into a single alloy. On the day the poem was completed (01/29/1918), Blok wrote down. book: “Today I am a genius.”

It cannot be said that all the poems created at that time were masterpieces (see about literary groups). The topics are very diverse: anti-religion. poems, heroic poems, production poems, plot and non-plot poems, dedication. external and internal. the world of the hero. As an example of such poems we can cite Mayakovsky's poems “I Love” (1921-1922) and “About This” (1923).

After graduation citizen Wars of poets are concerned not only with the present, but also with the past, ancient and recent. As an example of the 1st - poem Pasternak “1905” (1925 - 1926). Excellent from plot poem, predominant in the 20s, Pasternak's poem was presented. a “summary picture” of time. Poem ed. several chapters: introduction (the artist runs away from everything insignificant, from triumphs. reflects on the revolution, which the poet depicts in the image of “Joan of Arc from the Siberian wells”; like “where did the Russian revolution come from”), “Fathers” (there are in mind - the fathers of the revolution: the Narodnaya Volya, Perovskaya and March 1 - the leader of Alexander II, the nihilists, Stepan Khalturin; the poet reasoned that if he and his peers had been born 30 years earlier, they would have been among the “fathers”), “Childhood "(the poet-lyrical hero is 14 years old, Moscow, “Port Arthur has already been commissioned,” i.e., early 1905, Christmas holidays - a picture of a serene and happy existence; but it was destroyed by the next section of the chapter : in St. Petersburg at this time a crowd gathers led by Gapon - 5 thousand people - “Bloody Sunday”, and after some time unrest begins in Moscow: “I fell in love with the thunderstorm // In these first days of February”) , “Men and Factory Workers” (pictures of strikes. performances on the barricades and reprisals against them, and retaliatory actions, when retreating from the barricades, they climbed onto the roofs and fired and threw stones from them), “Sea Mutiny” (picture of the uprising on “ Potemkin"), "Students" (student. speeches and reprisals against them), “Moscow in December” (uprising at Krasnaya Presnya). An epic has been created. battle paintings, as a counterbalance to them - carefree scenes. childhood, ordinary urban. a life that was indifferent for the time being, and later turned over by the uprising. A plot that unites. The poem is served by history itself, and not the history of the individual, each chapter corresponds. to one stage or another 1st Russian. revolution.

Plot poem, dedicated. recent past - Bagritsky, “Duma about Opanas” (1926). Then it was reworked. in the libretto of the opera. The idea is the fate of a peasant (Opanas - a collected image), who went against the revolution, on the wrong road (the constant motif of the broken road, in general there are echoes of Sholokhov’s “Quiet Don”).

In the 20s, “Village” (1926) and “Pogorelshchina” (1928) Nick appeared. Klyueva, crying about leaving. Rus', about the loss. with her spiritual death. values ​​of the people.

30s For the beginning 30s characterized by the decline of romance. the pathos of the revolution. But tech. progress and the beginning of industrialization. give impetus to a new round of romanticism. impulses (community construction, virgin lands, irrigation of arid regions), which could not but be reflected in the epic. poetry, i.e. in the poem. Many writers go to construction sites as journalists => The essay is developing, the essay style has penetrated. to other genres of literature. So, V. Lugovskoy, entering to the writing team, sent. to Turkmenistan, based on his own essays and articles, created. epic poem cycle “To the Bolsheviks of the Desert and Spring”.N. Tikhonov creates collection of poems "Yurga", united not only thematically, but even compositionally: in almost every poem. 2 rows of images - heroes and those “hellishly” difficult deeds and feats that they perform (irrigation of the desert, night plowing, delivery of goods along a stormy mountain river, etc.). The brightest representatives follow. A. Tvardovsky."Ant Country" (1936). T. himself believed that it was with this poem that he began as a poet. The basis is plot, taking beginning in vernacular fairy tales, in Nekrasov’s poem “To whom in Rus'...” - a journey in search of happiness. The hero of the poem, Nikita Morgunok, left home and went to look for a country of peasants. happiness - Ant. T. wrote: “The word “Ant”, generally speaking, is not made up. It is taken from the cross. mythology and meaning, most likely, some concretization of the eternal. peasant dreams and legendary rumors about “free lands”, about blessed. and far away. the edges where milk flows. rivers in Kiseln. shores." But the image of Nikita Morgunk, for all its generality, contains reality. features of the 30s Nikita is a kr-nin-individual, defeating him. doubts about the need for collective farms, Muravia seemed to him like a land that “in length and breadth - // Its own all around. // You sow one bobblehead, // And that one is yours.” The plot of the poem is structured in such a way as to convince Nikita of the triumph of the collective farm ideal, revealing itself in the picture of collective sowing (chapter 4). T. in “The Country of Ant” showed life rather as it should be and should be. will be, and not as it actually was. But this does not negate T.’s poem. The poet defended it. the ideal of a hard worker, masterfully draws poetic. pictures of his native land, knows how to hear and convey folklore. dialect (“to steal is like smoking a chimney”), based on oral vernacular. TV creates its own style. The All-Union began with the poem “The Country of Ant”. fame T. After writing “The Countries of Ant”, received. Stalin Prize and Order of Lenin (1936). I entered the 3rd year of IFLI (institutional philosophy, literature and art). Leonov told the story as in a modern exam. Literary T. pulled out a ticket: “Tvardovsky. "The Country of Ant". P. Vasiliev. “Hristolyubov’s calicoes” (1935-1936). In terms of genre production rep. is a combination of a poem and a play (i.e., in addition to poetic narratives, there are also poetic and prose replicas of characters, dialogues, monologues). Kr. content. This is the story of the artist Khristolubov. He was born into a family of offspring. icon painters, but extremely talented, so his icons reflect reality. folk life: “In the eyes of the apostles there are fogs, // And the holy most pure virgins have // ​​Mighty breasts, // Drunk nostrils // And even chanting lips!” A visitor to the village. European hood Fogg. Having seen Khristolubov’s paintings, Fogg takes him with him, supposedly to study. But the teaching dries up the living principle in the creativity of Chr. The action is transferred to Soviet. time. In the mountains A textile factory was built in Pavlodar. plant There is an artist's work on it. Hristolyubov. But his designs for chintz are gloomy and old-fashioned. For this he is kicked out of the factory. Chr. tries to write as the time demands, he can’t do it, he’s just starting. drink. One day he met his childhood friend, and now the secretary of the party committee, Smolyaninov. He is judgmental. way of life of Christ., restored. him at work and advises him to write brightly, lightly, festively, as the people want. in order for Chr. imbued with the spirit of new life, he was invited. to the collective farm, collective farmer Fedoseev showing. household and says: “Draw all our lives, loving.” Having come to the name day of the best milkmaid of the collective farm, Elena Goreva, and seeing the joy in the eyes of people, Chr. reborn, he is ready to paint such chintz, “so that the chintz would be from life…”, from the joyful Soviet life.

For these two poems the characteristics are: 1) a doubting hero in search of happiness, an ideal, a better life; 2) the contrast between the dark past and the bright present; 3) the hero is convinced that life for the good of the country is the ideal that he is looking for; 4) everything will end with the hero’s turn towards a bright future.

Prose of the 20s - 30s.

Traditional realism survived at the turn of the century. a crisis. But by the 20s. gained realism. new life in the new literature. Character motivation changes, understanding of the environment expands. As a typical the circumstances are already history, global. historical processes. A person (lit. hero) finds himself face to face with history, and his private, individual existence is under threat. Man is drawn into the cycle of history. events, often against their will. And these new conditions renew realism. Now not only the character is influenced by the environment and circumstances, but also vice versa. A new concept of personality is being formed: a person does not reflect, but creates, realizes himself not in private intrigue, but in the public field. The prospect of re-creating the world has opened before the hero and the artist => the literary swarm is affirmed, including the right to violence. This is connected with the revolution. transforming the world: justifying the revolution. violence was necessary. not only in relation to to a person, but also in relation to to history. 20s - post-war years, people came to literature who, in one way or another, accepted. participation in hostilities => a large number of novels about civilians appeared. war ( Pilnyak “The Naked Year”, Blyakhin “Red Little Devils”, Zazubrin “Two Worlds”,Serafimovich "Iron Stream" etc.). It is characteristic that these novels are diverse; they cover events in different ways. points of view. These are attempts to understand war as a phenomenon, presenting. characteristics of people who got into trouble. into the wheel of history. The first 2 novels about gr. war appeared in 1921 - this is Zazubrin’s novel “Two Worlds” and Pilnyak’s novel “The Naked Year”. In Pilnyak's novel the revolution. - this is the time of returning to the original, the original. from time to time, first nature triumphs in this novel, woven from various stories, like patchwork. blanket. Zazubrina will read the first part of the novel. Lunacharsky and very praised him. Pilnyak, on the contrary, called the novel a slaughterhouse. However, this is not a slaughterhouse, but a personal experience. Pilnyak not participating. in the military own, and Zazubrin was mobilized. first to Kolchakovsk. army, but fled from there to the Reds, seeing the abuse of the Reds by the Kolchakites. About Kolchak. Z.'s army and story. in the novel (he described the Red Army later in the story “Sliver”).

In the 20s Liter-ra survived. active update period. And it’s not just that realism has gained. a new life as an image of a person in the flow of history. Vocabulary lit. heroes are enriched with dialects and dialects, clerical writings, slogan cliches - stylization in colloquial style. speech of people, perceiving. features of the language of revolution, prone to ornamentation, i.e. “decorating” speech with “smart” phrases, words, etc. Requires internal penetration. the world of the hero, and not just his description, otherwise the hero will be far from the reader and uninteresting. => Purchase. Great value fantastic style, allowing. create a vivid image of a narrator from a particular environment ( Babel "Cavalry", works by Platonov).

On Wednesday 20s Sholokhov begins work on “Quiet Don” (1926 – 1940), at the same time Gorky is working on the 4-volume epic “The Life of Klim Samgin” (1925 – 1936),Platonov - on "The Pit" (story, 1930) and "Chevengur" (novel, 1929), here - "We" by Zamyatin (published in 1929 with an abbreviation in the magazine "The Will of Russia"). Writers are no longer trying to reflect the recent past, but to comprehend it and the possible future in their works.

Educational novel. The emergence of such a phenomenon as the Soviet. will educate the novel is determined by the demands of the time. The new society required new literature, but not only that. It also required a new person, who had to be raised from those who were born under the old regime, but for whom adult life began either during the gr. war or immediately after it. In short, the future builders of socialism were needed and lit. heroes are role models. As a lyrical As a aside, I suggest we remember what was happening with prose at that time. Traditional realism survived at the turn of the century. a crisis. But by the 20s. gained realism. new life in new literature. Character motivation changes, understanding of the environment expands. As a typical the circumstances are already history, global. historical processes. A person (lit. hero) finds himself face to face with history, and his private, individual existence is under threat. Man is drawn into the cycle of history. events, often against their will. And these new conditions renew realism. Now not only the character is influenced by the environment and circumstances, but also vice versa. A new concept of personality is being formed: a person does not reflect, but creates, realizes himself not in private intrigue, but in the public field. The prospect of re-creating the world has opened before the hero and the artist => the literary swarm is affirmed, including the right to violence. This is connected with the revolution. transforming the world: justifying the revolution. violence was necessary. not only in relation to to a person, but also in relation to to history. These features of the new realism were reflected in education. novel. But in addition, he will educate special people. the novel was something that would educate. A novel is a kind of autobiographical. literature, which was supposed to educate by personal example not only abstractly. lit. a hero, but a real person. (Makarenko “Pedagogical Poem”, Ostrovsky “How the Steel Was Tempered”, Gaidar “School”).

Industrial novel of the 30s. Sorry for repeating myself, but for starters. 30s characterized by the decline of romance. the pathos of the revolution. But tech. progress and the beginning of industrialization. give impetus to a new round of romanticism. impulses (community construction, virgin lands, irrigation of arid regions) => many writers go to construction sites, epic events arise. production at production Topics. In prose and poetry, there is a development of the essay style (Nik. Pogodin wrote plays based on essays). The theme is socialist. construction has become the main theme of modernity, has arisen. such a genre as industrial novel. The main task of novels about social build-ve - creation of heroic. image of a working person. In solving this problem, 2 directions stand out: 1) revealing the topic through the history of the creation (development) of a certain enterprise (mine, power plant, collective farm); in novels of this type of fate there is more. numbers of people are associated with the construction site and are equally attracted. author's Please note that the production itself is at the center of the stories. process => creation of a full-fledged character is difficult; 2) the theme is revealed through the depiction of the process of forming a new person from a craft. urban environment, art. The development of the problem is solved using the example of an individual. the destinies of people by depicting their feelings, thoughts, contradictions and crises in consciousness. Novel Malyshkina “People from the Outback”– 2nd type.

The background is overwhelming. predominance in prose of the 30s. “second nature”, i.e. all sorts of things kind of mechanisms, construction sites, industrial landscape, singer of “first nature” ledge. Prishvin ( M. Prishvin “Ginseng”, 1932), a book of fairy tales appeared P. Bazhov “Malachite Box” (1938) and etc.

Historical novel. In the row of leaders. owl genres literature in the 30s. occupation historical novel. Interest of owls literature on history was initially expressed in poetry and drama. 1st Soviet historical novels appeared in the middle. 20s The pioneers of the genre in the Soviet Union. Literary writers include A. Chapygin, Yu. Tynyanov, and Olga Forsh. The milestone production of this period was “Stepan Razin” by Alexey Chapygin(1925-1926). Not only chronologically, but also essentially, it has the right to be called initial. a milestone in the development of the Soviet historical novel: for the first time in the Soviet Union. The litera-re in the form is unfolded. prosaic narration revealed 1 of the memorable episodes of the Fatherland. stories. It is interesting that Chapygin, trying to elevate the image of Razin, idealizes the hero, partly attributing. his way of thinking, properties. subsequent generations (extraordinary political insight, convinced atheism). Gorky admired Roman. 1 more work, dedicated. antifeud. performance of the 17th century. - cross. Bolotnikov's rebellion is “The Tale of Bolotnikov” by G. Storm(1929).

In 1925 novel "Kyukhlya" lit.-art begins activities Yuri Tynyanova, the writer who contributed means. contribution to Soviet development. historical prose. A panorama of societies unfolds around the hero. life of the Decembrist era. Individual biographer. facts merge in the plot with historical pictures. plan.

In the 20s owls historical the novel takes another 1st step, number of productions. on historical The topics are still small. The pathos of denial of the old world, which permeated not only the historical. the novel, but also many other literary genres, determined the predominance of criticism. tendencies in relation to the past. 30s - turning points not only in the socialist sense. is building. In 1933, history returned as a teaching. discipline in school establishments, categorical criticism in relation to the past ledge. place objective assessment of events, the ability to hear the past and reproduce. era with all its contradictions. Historical the novel becomes one of the most important. owl genres liters. In the 30s such works as “Peter the Great” by A.N. Tolstoy (1st and 2nd books – 1929-1934, 3rd – 1934-1945), “Tsushima” by A. Novikov-Priboy, “Pushkin” by Yu. Tynyanov were created (two first books - in 1937, the third - "Youth" - in 1943), "Sevastopol Strada" by S. Sergeev-Tsensky (1940), "Dmitry Donskoy" by S. Borodin (finished in 1940), Chapygin's novels ("Walking people”, 1934-1937), Shishkov (“Emelyan Pugachev”, started in the 30s, finished during the Second World War), Storm (“Works and days of Mikhail Lomonosov”, 1932), V. Yan (“Chingis- Khan"), Kostylev ("Kozma Minin") and other writers. The attention of writers is now attracted not so much by the episodes of the fatherland. history, communications with people uprisings, how many episodes, connections. with the formation of Ross. state, military victories, the lives of outstanding people - scientists, artists, etc. A significant obstacle to the development of the genre in the 1st sex. 30s remained the so-called vulgar-sociological approach to the problem historical. development This approach is characterized, for example, by a simplified understanding of the state before the revolution; the state was seen as the embodiment of class violence and oppression, but they did not notice the progressive significance of the state as a unifying, reforming force. peaks of history novel of the 30s appeared “Peter the Great” by Tolstoy and “Pushkin” by Tynyanov. Development of military history. The topic became especially relevant in 1937-1939, when the threat of a new war became more and more clear. It is no coincidence that in the 2nd sexes. 30s so many novels have appeared dedicated to. defense of Russia from an external enemy (“Tsushima”, “Sevastopol Strada”, “Dmitry Donskoy”, etc.) 30s. - this means time has failed. historical results in our prose. It is no coincidence that everything is the largest. epics, taking beginning in the 20s (“Quiet Don”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, “Walking through Torment”) received. will be completed during this period. Life changed, and writers could look at the revolution. and citizen the war not so much through the eyes of eyewitnesses and participants, but through the eyes of historians. Important changes have taken place. in the language of history. novel. The pursuit of creating a language. coloring when depicting historical the past in the literature of the 20s, the fight against smooth writing, inattention to historical. features of the language when reproducing. era, the fascination with antiquity and ornamentalism led to increased archaization of the production language, and this is necessary. was to be overcome. The problem was solved in Tolstoy's novel Peter the Great. He's paying attention. studied and knew the language perfectly. era. thick, on 1 side, permissible. the reader “hears” the era: introduces excerpts from letters, speeches. characteristics of characters used archaisms, but on the other hand, never crosses the line, deliberately not stylized. nothing, not a blockage. the language of the novel is filled with vulgarisms and archaisms. This experience of creating history. language was subsequently. perceived Soviet historical fiction.

Satirical prose. Mikhail Zoshchenko. In stories of the 20s. mainly in the form of a tale, he created a comic image of a hero-everyman with poor morals and a primitive view of the environment. "Blue Book" (1934-35) - a series of satirical short stories about the vices and passions of historical characters and the modern tradesman. The stories “Michelle Sinyagin” (1930), “Youth Returned” (1933), the story-essay “Before Sunrise” (part 1, 1943; part 2, entitled “The Tale of Reason”, published in 1972). Interest in a new linguistic consciousness, widespread use of skaz forms, construction of the image of the “author” (the bearer of “naive philosophy”). Member of the group “Serapion Brothers” (L. Lunts, Vs. Ivanov, V. Kaverin, K. Fedin, Mich. Slonimsky, E. Polonskaya, Nick. Tikhonov, Nick. Nikitin, V. Posner).

Until his last days, critics accused Zoshchenko of philistinism, vulgarity, everydayism, and apoliticality.

Romanov Panteleimon(1884-1938). Lyrical, psychological and satirical stories and stories about Soviet life in the 20s. In the novel “Rus” (parts 1-5, 1922-36) - estate Russia during the 1st World War and the February Revolution of 1917.

Averchenko Arkady(1881-1925). In stories, plays and feuilletons (collections “Merry Oysters”, 1910, “About Essentially Good People”, 1914; the story “Pokhodtsev and Two Others”, 1917) - a caricature depiction of Russian life and customs. After 1917 in exile. The book of pamphlets “A Dozen Knives in the Back of the Revolution” (1921) satirically glorified the new system in Russia and its leaders. Humorous novel “The Patron's Joke” (1925).

Michael Bulgakov- stories “Heart of a Dog”, “Fatal Eggs”, etc.

Dramaturgy. Time to advance its own requirements both for prose and poetry, and for drama. In the 20s it was required to give monumental. reproducing the struggle of the people, etc. New features of the Soviet dramaturgy with the most distinctly incarnate. in the genre heroic folk drama(although there were also melodramas with revolutionary content: A. Fayko “Lake Lyul”, D. Smolin “Ivan Kozyr and Tatyana Russkikh”). For heroic folk drama of the 20s. character two trends: a gravitation towards romanticism and allegorical. conventions. Well, the definition of “heroic.” folk drama" speaks for itself. Essentially, a drama about heroes from the people. Heroes sacrifice love, life and all that stuff to the people. people are brought onto the stage in large numbers, sometimes even too large (the conflict is most often based on classes. Contradictions of the era, characters are mostly generalized, in allegorical dramas tending to symbols or allegorical figures, heroics intertwined -sya with satire (“Let Dunka into Europe” - a phrase from Trenev’s play “Lyubov Yarovaya”), the folk language (however, it is deliberately coarsened, just like the language of enemies - deliberately emasculated). “Lyubov Yarovaya” by K. Treneva (1926), Vs. Ivanov, “Armored Train 14-62” (1927) – romantic tendencies, “Optimistic Tragedy” by Vishnevsky (1932) – allegorical tendencies.

However, we must not forget about satirical works, for example, Bulgakov “Zoyka’s Apartment” (1926), Erdman “Mandate” (?), showing bourgeois morals, NEP “from the inside out”.

Historical the situation in the 30s: industrialization, collectivism, five-year plans... All personal interests must be sacrificed on the altar of the common cause - to build socialism in a short time, otherwise we will all be strangled and killed.

In dramaturgy, there is a dispute between supporters of “new forms” and supporters of “old forms” (which in the heat of the moment were often declared “bourgeois”). The main question was this: is it possible to convey new content using dram. forms of the past, or necessary. urgently break the tradition and create. something new. Supporters of the “new forms” were Vs. Vishnevsky and N. Pogodin, their opponents were Afinogenov, Kirshon and others. the first opposed the drama of personal destinies. against psychologism, for the portrayal of the masses. For the second group of playwrights, the need to search for new forms was also clear, but the path to their search should not go through the destruction of the old, but through renewal. they are a ledge. for mastering the art of psychologism. showing the life of a new society by creating types of new people in their individuality. appearance

The works of playwrights of the 1st group are characterized by scale, versatility, and epicness. scope, destruction of the stage. boxes,” attempts to transfer the action to the “wide open spaces of life.” Hence the desire for dynamism, refusal to divide into acts, splitting the action into laconic episodes and, as a result, a certain cinematography. Examples: Vs. Vishnevsky “Optimistic.” tragedy" (see above), N. Pogodin "Temp".

It is typical for the production of playwrights of the 2nd group to appeal not to the masses, but to the individual. history, psychological developer character of a hero, given not only in society... but also in person. life, gravitate towards a laconic, not scattered composition, tradition. organizational actions and plot organization. Examples: Afinogenov “Fear”, Kirshon “Bread”.

From 2nd floors. 30s – a turn to new topics, characters, conflicts. The simple Soviet man, living, has come to the fore. Next door. The conflict is transferred from the sphere of struggle against class hostile forces and their re-education; it is transferred to the moral sphere. and ideological collisions: the fight against the remnants of capitalism, against the philistinism, the gray inhabitants. Examples: Afinogenov “Distant”, Leonov “Ordinary Man”.

During the same period, widespread development was achieved. plays, dedicated personal life, family, love, everyday life, and => deepening the psychologism of owls. dramaturgy. Here we can talk about lyrically colored psychologism. Examples: Arbuzov “Tanya”, Afinogenov “Mashenka”.

Literature of emigration (first wave). Names.

The concept of "Russian" zarub." arose and took shape after Oct. rev., when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. Emigration creatures and to Tsarskoye Russia (Andrei Kurbsky is considered the first Russian emigre writer), but did not have such a scale. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. The centers of dispersion are Berlin, Paris, Harbin, etc. The Russian color left Russia. intelligent. More than half of the philosophers, writers, artists. were expelled from the country or emigrants. for life: N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin, F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Writers: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny;M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov,V. Khodasevich. They left on their own, fled, retreated with troops, many were expelled (philosophical ships: in 1922, on Lenin’s instructions, about 300 representatives of Russian intellectuals were deported to Germany; some of them were sent on trains, some on ships; subsequently, this kind of expulsion was practiced constantly), some went “for treatment” and did not return. The 1st wave covers the period from the 20s to the 40s. First we went to Berlin (the main city of Russian emigration, since printing was cheap), Prague. From Wednesday 20s (after 1924) Russian center. emigrant move in Paris.

Periodic emigration publications. For the first period (Germanic) there was a character. publishing boom and carries. freedom of cultural exchange: emigrants were read in the USSR, and Soviet writers were read in emigration. Then the Soviet reads gradual loses the opportunity to communicate with Russian writers. abroad. In Russian foreignness of creatures. series of periodic emigration publications. And in Germany there is inflation, publishing houses are going bankrupt. Let life be concentrated in periodic periods. ed.

1st lit. magazine in Abroad - “The Coming Russia”, 2 issues were published in Paris in 1920 (M. Aldanov, A. Tolstoy, N. Tchaikovsky, V. Henri). One of the most influential. social-political or T. Russian magazines emigrant were “Contemporary. notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920 - 1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). Excellent magazine breadth of aesthetics views and politics. tolerance. In total, 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the publication was published. max. famous writers rus. abroad. In “Let's modernize. Notes" were released: "Luzhin's Defense", "Invitation to Execution", "The Gift" by V. Nabokov, "Mitya's Love" and "The Life of Arsenyev" by Iv. Bunin, poetry by G. Ivanov, “Sivtsev the Enemy” by M. Osorgin, “Walking through Torment” by A. Tolstoy, “The Key” by M. Aldanov, autobiography. Chaliapin's prose. The magazine gave reviews of many practical books published in Russia and abroad. in all branches of knowledge.

The magazine “Will of Russia” was the basis. Socialist Revolutionaries (V. Zenzinov, V. Lebedev, O. Minor) in Prague in 1920. Planned. as daily newspaper, but from January 1922 - a weekly, and from September - a biweekly. “magazine of politics and culture” (approx. 25 pages). The publication was the organ of the Socialist Revolutionaries. There is often printing here. articles by V. Chernov and other prominent figures. this party. But still it cannot be considered only watered. ed. In the editor's office The board included M. Slonim, who largely determined the face of the publication (he published some of the materials under the pseudonym B. Aratov). Problematic articles and monographs were published. essays, incl. and about the writers who remained in Russia, polemical. notes, responses, reviews, chronicles, extensive reviews of emigrants. and owls periodicals, prose and poetry. Excellent from the majority of emigrants. edition of the 1920–1930s, “The Will of Russia” was published only in the new spelling.

A special place is the magazine “New Ship” (Paris, 1927 – 1928, 4 issues). Organ food - I say. writers “Green Lamp”, which arose. around the Merezhkovskys. “Green Lamp” is, as it were, an offshoot of lit.-polit. zhurfixes at the Merezhkovskys’ home, where old tradition, on Sundays there was the color of Parisian Russian. intelligent. Initially, the circle included V. Khodasevich, G. Adamovich, L. Engelhard and others. Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky played a role in the activities of this circle. Among the materials, as a rule, are detailed reports about the Green Lamp’s collections. In the editor's office Article No. 1 of the magazine stated that the magazine did not belong. to no lit. schools and no emigrants. group, but that he has his own lineage. in Russian history spirit and thought. G. Struve also names other magazines of young writers - “New House”, “Numbers”, “Meetings” in Paris, “Nove” in Tallinn, a number of publications in Harbin and Shanghai and even in San Francisco. Of these, the magazine “Numbers” (1930 – 1934, ed. N. Otsup) was the most well published. From 1930 to 1934 – 10 issues. He became the main print. writing organ "unnoticed generation" for a long time who did not have their own publication. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas “unnoticed. generation", opposition. traditional “We’ll be modern. notes." "Numbers" of cultivar. "Paris. note" and print. G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky defines it this way. meaning new magazine: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high, at the pre-revolutionary level. publishing house, printing quality. executor

Among the most famous Russian newspapers emigrant - organ of the republic-democratic association “Latest News” (Paris, 1920 – 1940, ed. P. Milyukov), monarchist. “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925 – 1940, ed. P. Struve), newspapers “Zveno” (Paris, 1923 – 1928, ed. P. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925 – 1932, ed. A. Kerensky ), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928 – 1934, ed. B. Zaitsev), etc.

The older generation of the “first wave” of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is the basis of the TV of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter the literary world and make a name for themselves even in pre-revolutionary times. Russia. This is Yves. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgina. The literature of the “seniors” is represented predominantly. prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: “The Life of Arsenyev” (Nob. Prize 1933), “Dark Alleys” by Bunin; “Sun of the Dead”, “Summer of the Lord”, “Pilgrim” by Shmelev; “Sivtsev Vrazhek” by Osorgin; “The Journey of Gleb”, “Reverend Sergius of Radonezh” by Zaitsev; “Jesus the Unknown” by Merezhkovsky. A. Kuprin - 2 novels “The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia” and “Junker”, the story “The Wheel of Time”. Means. lit. The appearance of the book of memoirs “Living Faces” by Gippius became our own.

Poets of the older generation: I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burliuk, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov. Ch. The motive of the older generation of writers is a nostalgic motive. memory of the loss. homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of the Russians. cultures, mythologized and poeticized past. Themes are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia”, events of the revolution, etc. wars, historical the past, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (“The Liberation of Tolstoy”), B. Zaitsev – about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biography of the same name), etc. An autobiography is being created. books in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic, enlightened: Iv poetizes the past. Shmelev (“Pilgrim,” “Summer of the Lord”), the events of his youth are reconstructed by A. Kuprin (“Junkers”), the last autobiography. Russian book writer-nobleman writes Yves. Bunin (“The Life of Arsenyev”), the journey to the “origins of days” are captured by B. Zaitsev (“The Journey of Gleb”) and A. Tolstoy (“Nikita’s Childhood”). Special layer Russian. emigrant Literatures are works in which an assessment of the tragic is given. events of the revolution and gr. war. Events gr. wars and revolutions are interspersed with dreams and visions that lead into the depths of the people's consciousness, Russian. spirit in A. Remizov’s books “Swirled Rus'”, “Music Teacher”, “Through the Fire of Sorrows”. Eve’s diaries are filled with mournful denunciations. Bunin "Cursed days". M. Osorgin’s novel “Sivtsev Vrazhek” reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Iv. Shmelev creates a tragic the story of the Red Terror in Crimea - the epic “Sun of the Dead,” which T. Mann called “nightmarish, shrouded in poetic. shine as a document of the era." “The Ice March” by R. Gul, “The Beast from the Abyss” by E. Chirikov, historical literature are devoted to understanding the causes of the revolution. novels by M. Aldanov, who joined the older generation of writers ("The Key", "Escape", "Cave"), the three-volume "Rasputin" by V. Nazhivin. Comparing “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of losses. cult. the world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetics. conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

Middle generation of the first wave of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.

In an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” were the poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia: V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, M. Tsvetaeva, G. Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. M. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, she wrote: “The Maiden Tsar”, “Poem of the Mountain”, “Poem of the End”, “Poem of the Air”, “Pied Piper”, “Staircase”, “New Year’s”, “Attempt of the Room”. V. Khodasevich published his top collections in exile, “Heavy Lyre”, “European Night”, and became a mentor to young poets united in the “Crossroads” group. G. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, receives the status of the first poet of emigration, publishes poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: “Poems”, “Portrait without a resemblance”, “Posthumous Diary”. A special place in the literary heritage of emigration is occupied by G. Ivanov’s quasi-memoirs “Petersburg Winters”, “Chinese Shadows”, and his infamous prose poem “The Decay of the Atom”. G. Adamovich publishes the program collection “Unity”, the famous book of essays “Comments”.

"The Unsung Generation"(the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky, refusal to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. Young writers who did not manage to create a strong literary reputation in Russia belonged to the “unnoticed generation”: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev , B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knuth, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano etc. Their fates were different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. M. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders” The most dramatic are the fates of B. Poplavsky, who died under mysterious circumstances, and A. Steiger and I. Knorring, who died early.Almost none of the younger generation of writers could earn money through literary work: G. Gazdanov became a taxi driver, D. Knut delivered goods, Y. Terapiano served in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.”

Parisian note, a movement in Russian emigrant poetry of the late 1920s, the leader of which was considered G. Adamovich, and the most prominent representatives were B. Poplavsky, L. Chervinskaya (1906–1988), A. Steiger (1907–1944); The prose writer Yu. Felsen (1894–1943) was also close to him. Adamovich was the first to speak about a special, Parisian current in the poetry of the Russian Abroad in 1927, although the name “Parisian note” apparently belongs to Poplavsky, who wrote in 1930: “There is only one Parisian school, one metaphysical note, ever growing - solemn, bright and hopeless."

The movement, which recognized this “note” as dominant, considered G. Ivanov to be the poet who most fully expressed the experience of exile, and contrasted its program (the movement did not publish special manifestos) with the principles of the poetic group “Crossroads,” which followed the aesthetic principles of V. Khodasevich. In his responses to the speeches of the “Paris Note,” Khodasevich emphasized the inadmissibility of turning poetry into a “human document,” pointing out that real creative achievements are possible only as a result of mastering the artistic tradition, which ultimately leads to Pushkin. This program, which inspired the poets of the Crossroads, was opposed by the adherents of the Parisian Note, following Adamovich, by viewing poetry as direct evidence of experience, reducing “literariness” to a minimum, since it prevents the expression of the genuineness of feelings inspired by metaphysical melancholy. Poetry, according to the program outlined by Adamovich, was to be “made from elementary material, from “yes” and “no” ... without any decoration.”

V. Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classical rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Crossroads” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky.

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