All landowners are from dead souls table. Landowners in the poem Dead Souls by Gogol essay (images of landowners)

IN today's episode We continue to answer questions sent by readers. Here is Lyubov's letter:

“Good evening, Julia!

Maybe for us, trying to learn Serbian, the topic “Features of the vocative case” will be interesting?

I tried to formalize the names of Serbs in addressing them in a vocative form. But some said that their name does not change when addressed to them.

Sincerely - Love"

Does he exist?..

To answer Lyubov’s question, let’s first figure out what the “vocative case” is and why often when learning the Serbian language, familiarity with it is superficial, why it raises so many questions and misunderstandings. The vocative case is usually called the form of nouns (proper nouns or common nouns) that is used when directly addressing a person or thing:

Detso, go away! - children, come here

My God, we will! - My love, I love you

Ladies and gentlemen! - Ladies and Gentlemen!

To begin with, it is necessary to note that the vocative case does not exist at all, i.e. exists special shape a word used to address someone or something, but is not a case.

Here is a quote from Wikipedia, from which this is obvious.

Case is a category of a word (usually a name), showing its syntactic role in a sentence and connecting individual words of a sentence. Cases refer to both the functions of words in a sentence and the forms of words associated with them.

This quote may be difficult to understand, but I will explain: case is a form of a word that serves the syntactic relationship of words in a sentence. For example, we say: “Show your sister’s child.” The noun "child" is in accusative case singular, it is syntactically related to the word “show”, the type of connection is control (as we remember from the 6th grade program high school). The noun “sister” is in the genitive case, depending on the word “child”, the type of connection is also control. By hearing these forms of words, we are able to understand logical chain: someone must show the child (and not vice versa, the child will show someone), the child belongs to the sister (and not vice versa, the sister to the child), and all this becomes clear to us from case endings nouns We can put these words in other cases, and the meaning will change radically: “Show the child’s sister”, “Show the child’s sister”, “Show the child’s sister”. All forms of words connect and condition each other; they are connected syntactically.

Against this background, the vocative “case” does not participate at all in the syntactic structure of the sentence. Let’s take the vocative form of the name “Petar - Petre”. If this name is used in other cases, it has a full syntactic role in the sentence: “Dai kiggu Peter”, “Do you know Peter”, etc. But the vocative form exists, as it were, on its own, separately from all other words, does not change anything and does not add anything to the structure of the sentence: “Peter, where is the environment?”

Vocative forms

If you follow the Serbian grammatical tradition, then the vocative is emphasized as a case. This is traditionally accepted, one might say that this is a controversial issue, but ordinary people This linguistic dispute, in general, does not concern us; it is important for us to know how to speak, and not what it is correctly called.

Owners of the “Knowledge Base”, it is planned to write down about the vocative case in the near future detailed lesson with exercises, but we list the basic rules here.

1. Masculine nouns usually acquire the ending -e in their vocative form:

brother - brother

sin - blue

doctor - doctor

sir - sir

If the word ends with the following sounds, then they move on:

k, ts - h: warrior - warrior, lovats - more agile

g, z - f: friend - friend, knez - knezhe

x - w: siromakh - siromashe

2. Some masculine nouns with soft and sibilant forms (including all male surnames with iћ) and r acquire the ending -у:

priјateљ - priјateљu

driver - driver

gospodar - gospodar

Petrovic - Petrovic!

3. Male names with vowels -о, -е, some foreign names and other common nouns do not acquire a vocative form:

4. Feminine nouns in -itsa have the ending -e:

Oregano - Oregano!

friend - friend!

lady - lady!

5. Proper names and common nouns starting with -a most often do not have a special form:

6. Some proper names and common nouns ending in -a acquire the ending -o:

Nada - We must!

Zora - Zoro!

God - God!

Pera - Pero!

baby - baby!

Mrs. - Mrs.!

7. Neuter nouns, adjectives, plural nouns have a vocative form equal to the nominative case:

my friends!

Vocative case in Russian?

In the Russian grammatical tradition, they do not talk about the vocative case or vocative form; nevertheless, it exists (but no longer corresponds to the old form that was in Church Slavonic).

The vocative form is present in nouns ending in -а, -я:

mom - mom!

aunt - aunt!

Masha - Mash!

These are well-known forms, but no one classifies them as the vocative case. By the way, notice how the tone changes when we say: “Masha, ...!” or “Mash, ...!”

In conclusion, I will say that the vocative form is quite complex and there are many exceptions and nuances in it, which we will explain in detail in the “Knowledge Base” lesson. By the way, there is an electronic vocative form generator here http://vokativ.vokabular.org/primer/ (not correct in 100% of cases). When we're talking about about a person’s name, it’s quite unpleasant to make a mistake, so I recommend that if you are not sure what the name sounds like in the vocative form, ask about it.

Cases in Russian

Nominative (nominative),
Genitive (genitive),
Partial (partitive)
Dative (dative),
Accusative (accusative),
Creative (instrumentalis),
Prepositional (prepositive);
Local (locative, prepositional form in - at);
Vocative form(vocative)

Other cases Cases in other languages

Vocative case, vocative(lat. vocative) - a special form of a name (most often a noun) used to identify the object being addressed. The name of this form “case” is conditional, because in a strictly grammatical sense the vocative form is not a case.

Historically, the vocative form was an element of the Indo-European case system and existed in Latin, Sanskrit, and Ancient Greek. Although it was subsequently lost by many modern Indo-European languages, some languages have preserved it to this day, examples of which are Greek, Gypsy, many Slavic languages (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Serbian, etc.) and some Celtic languages (Scottish and Irish), Baltic languages (for example: Latvian and Lithuanian). Of the Romance vocative forms, only the Romanian language survives. It is also present in some non-Indo-European languages such as Georgian, Arabic and Korean.

Russian language

In modern Russian, it exists in the form of several archaisms, mostly included in phraseological units and other speech formulas ( God, To the Creator, God, Jesus, Christ, lord, metropolitan, to the doctor, older, father, brother, son, friend, prince, humanely and others). In modern literary language it is lost.

At the same time, sometimes "modern vocative case" word forms with zero endings of first declension nouns are understood as Mish, Linen, Tan, Marin, granny, mom, dad etc., that is, coinciding in form with the declination plural genitive case.

In the Old Russian language, nouns had the vocative case only in the singular and only masculine and female, but not the middle one (since the latter was a remnant of the Indo-European “inanimate kind” and by origin meant only inanimate objects). The vocative case was formed as follows:

Ancient base on -a:

O after a hard consonant, -e after a soft consonant: wife! sister! soul! de vice!

Ancient base on -o:

E after a hard consonant, -yu after a soft one: older! father! horse! Igor!

Ancient stem in -u:

U: honey! son!

Ancient stem in -i:

And: nights! lights! God!

In addition, in the process of word change, there was an alternation of consonants according to the first palatalization: k - h (man - man), g - z (god - god, friend - friend), x - c (vlah - vlase).

In other declensions, the vocative case coincided with the nominative case.

The vocative case is sometimes found in literature or for the purpose of archaization ( “What do you want, elder?”- Pushkin), or in quotes from Church Slavonic texts and prayers ( "Heavenly King, save me..."- Lermontov), or for the “Ukrainization” of the speech of Ukrainian heroes ( “Turn around, son!”- Gogol; “Where are you from, man?”; “I, dad, fled from Balta”- Bagritsky).

Latvian

In the Latvian language, the vocative case is important to remember for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th declensions.

For example:

For V, VI classes. The vocative case is formed only when the word has a diminutive suffix; when it is formed, the ending is discarded. For example: Ilze - Ilz It e-Ilz It!, zivs - zivt iņš-zivt iņ!

For the plural, the vocative case is the same as the nominative.

Ukrainian language

In the Ukrainian language, as in its basis - Old Russian, a separate vocative case has been preserved ( personal information or personal form) - for the singular of the first, second and third declension. In the plural, as well as in the fourth declension, it coincides with the nominative case, with the exception of “panove”, the vocative case of the plural of the word “pan” (“lord”), which corresponds to the Russian address “gentlemen”.

In the first declension the endings -о, -е, -є, -у are used: Mother - mom, Earth - earth, Maria - Marie, grandma - grandma.

In the second declension the endings -у, -у, -е are used: dad - dad, Andriy - Andriy, Dmitro - Dmitra.

In the third declension the ending -e is used: nothing - at night. However, third declension nouns are usually inanimate and are not used in the vocative case.

Belarusian language

Usually in the modern Belarusian language (the so-called “Narkomovsky” or official version) there is no separate vocative case.

Supporters of the “classic” version Belarusian language(Tarashkevitsy), on the contrary, usually emphasize the vocative case as distinctive feature Belarusian language from Russian.

Polish language

IN Polish language the vocative case (usually called the "vocal form", wołacz) is retained for all masculine and feminine singular nouns. When applied to neuter nouns (second declension) and plurals of all genders, it completely coincides with the nominative.

First declension singular noun endings ( masculine, in the nominative case end in a consonant) depend on the final sound of the stem. If this sound is hard, then it softens and/or alternates, and the ending will be - "e, for example: chłop - chłopie, naród - narodzie, autor - autorze (Exceptions: dom - domu, syn - synu, dziad - dziadu). A similar ending is observed in words with a stem ending in -ec, for example chłopiec - chłopcze. If the final sound of the stem is soft, back-lingual (-k, -g) or hardened (-rz, -cz, etc.) - the ending is -u: koń - koniu, robotnik - robotniku.

Third declension nouns (masculine -a, -o, feminine -a, -i) in the singular vocative end in -o: żona - żono, poeta - poeto.

Nouns of the fourth declension (feminine, in the nominative case ending in a consonant) in the singular vocative end in -i: powieść - powieści.

Bulgarian language

Latin language

In Latin, the vocative case (Casus Vocativus) of nouns coincides with the nominative in all cases except one: if the noun of the second declension singular in I.p. ends in -us, then in the vocative case it will end in -e: I.p. barbarus (barbarian) - Star.p. barbare. Moreover, if the stem of a noun ends in -i (that is, the noun ends in -ius), then in the vocative case it has a zero ending: I.p. Demetrius, Star.p. Demetri.

From school we clearly know that there are 6 cases in the Russian language. But it turns out that this is not entirely true; there are many more cases in grammar. Many of them have survived in a residual state, having come into the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Old Russian. One of these phenomena is the vocative case in Russian.

Vocative case: acquaintance

In order to indicate an appeal to a person, thing or object, the vocative case is used in Russian. The examples are quite varied:

Mash, come look at the cat!
Vit, bring some firewood!
Van, call dad quickly!
Lord, help me in this difficult situation!
Oh God, give me strength!

The examples showed that the object in the vocative case is expressed by a noun and represents its short form.

From the history of the case

In the Indo-European language - the ancestor of our modern one - this case was equal to other cases. However, when Indo-European split into many language families, Sv. n. in most cases began to coincide with the nominative and ceased to be an independent case. However, in grammars of 1918 this case was still mentioned.

Now it is He who is used to address a person. etc., but the vocative case has been partially preserved in the Russian language. Examples are:

Marin, please bring a book from the library.

Let's compare: the use of Him. n. instead of Sv. p. will in no way affect the meaning of the sentence: Marina, please bring a book from the library.

Look around, old man, everything is destroyed and set on fire.

Here the vocative form “older” is used to give the statement a sublime sound, this is the so-called high syllable. If you replace the form with Im. etc., then the meaning will not change, but the phrase will no longer sound the same.

Lord, help me walk this path.

This word form is used in religious texts and prayers, is heard by native speakers, and is not perceived as something unusual.

Features of the case form

Let's highlight a few key features inherent in this case form:

Coincides in form with Him. P.
It is used for the sole purpose of conversion.
Its functions resemble an interjection.
It is perceived by a native speaker not as a noun, but as an exclamation.

The vocative case could be formed different ways, the main ones are presented in the table.

When forming the new nominative case, the endings in the following words can be shortened:

Names, including the diminutive version (Van, Vanyush).
Terms related to family (mothers, aunts, fathers, grandfathers).
Some words form a vocative form even in the plural (guys, girls).

The ways of forming vocative forms cannot be called diverse, but in oral speech they are used frequently.

Forms of the vocative case

In the table we present the main forms characteristic of words in the vocative case.

In addition to truncating the endings of proper names, it is also possible to use short forms names of relatives. The vocative case is also formed in Russian. Examples are given below:

Mom, where is the tablecloth?
Dad, help me solve this problem!
Aunt, when will you arrive?

The form of the vocative case is also preserved in the words “grandfather”, “daughter”:

Daughter, come visit soon!
Grandfather, come here quickly, help!

Such sentences have a pronounced conversational tone.

Vocative case in Russian: example and interesting facts

The second name of Sound. p - vocative.
There is an old vocative (used as an equivalent case in ancient form language) and a new vocative case (formed in oral speech by native speakers by truncating the endings of nouns).
Originally it was in many languages: Sanskrit, Latin and ancient Greek, but in modern languages didn't pass.
It is preserved in some languages: Romanian, Greek, Ukrainian, Serbian, Polish and others.
The vocative form disappeared from the Russian language quite early, in the 14th-15th centuries, surviving only as a respectful address to boyars and princes.

Only singular masculine and feminine nouns could form the vocative case in Russian. Examples: Friend! God! Prince!

Often vocative forms are used in stable phraseological turns: Lord God Jesus Christ (all four words in the star), our master.

IN literature XIX-XX century, the vocative case was also used for archaization. The examples are now quite diverse:

In Pushkin’s text “What do you want, elder,” the form is used to create the effect of archaization.
“Turn around, son.” This form helps to recreate the peculiarities of the speech of Ukrainian Cossacks.

Vocative case in Russian: rule

Words in the vocative case in a sentence play the role of address, so they are separated in writing by commas.

Here's an example:

Marus, come to the performance today.
Mom, help me wash the dishes!
Vanyush, where is the new book?

From the above examples it is clear that this rule applies to any sentence - narrative, incentive or interrogative.

The vocative case in Russian is often used to give the text an ironic flavor. Example: Man! When will you come to your senses and work properly!

The vocative case in the Russian language, examples of its use were given above, is an amazing grammatical phenomenon, indicating that our language is changing over time. If many centuries ago this form was commonly used in oral speech, now it is often used only in religious texts or to give a sentence a sublime coloring.

We were taught at school that there are 6 cases in the Russian language. The other day I learned that 4 more cases can be distinguished: vocative case (vocative), locative case (locative) and disjunctive case (partitive), egoistic case (egotive)
Here is what the scientific website Gramota.ru writes:

Vocative case (vocative), traditional for Slavic languages, is “the name of the object of thought (person) to which speech is addressed.” Being a case that establishes contact between the speaker and the recipient of speech, it realizes the will of the speaker. Grammatical meaning The vocative case is realized in its inherent special syntactic function - address.

The vocative case is traditionally considered in the system of the case paradigm of a noun, however, on the one hand, the vocative does not signal the presence of subordinating syntactic connections between words, but is used independently, revealing its “self-sufficiency”; on the other hand, it itself, like the nominative case, can denote the logical-grammatical subject of an action.

In modern Polish, not all nouns regularly take the form of the vocative case, but only the singular masculine and feminine, mostly denoting persons and animals: “Co, dziewczyno?” (J. Wittlin); “Dobranoc, mкїczyzno, Zbiegany za groszem jak mrуwka... Dobranoc, mуj chіopie... Dobranoc, niewiasto, Skios gіуwkк na miкkн№ poduszkк” (J. Przybora); “Krowo, krowo, daj mleka!” (B. Janowicz). Inanimate nouns acquire a vocative form only in artistic and poetic speech: “O Polsko moja! Tyњ pierwsza њwiatu Otwarіa duchem tajemnic wrota” (J. Siowacki). For neuter and plural nouns, the vocative case form coincides with the nominative case.

The question of the existence of the vocative case in modern Russian is debatable, in which the original form has not been preserved; we can find its few “shards” only in some words: God, Lord, etc. Traditionally, linguists tend to talk about either the absence of the vocative as a special case in grammatical system modern Russian language, either about its “intonation form”, or about new, specific vocative truncated forms that appeared in Russian colloquial speech.

However, is it enough to qualify the emerging linguistic form, which is so actively involved in the formation of a speech act, only as a “new vocative”, without giving it the necessary grammatical status? After all, “new vocative forms”, currently limited to the colloquial and everyday sphere, have been used for decades with enviable regularity and in similar contexts. They are formed from masculine and feminine nouns of the lexical-semantic group of kinship terms and personal names with -a // -я in them. etc. using zero inflection (mom!, dad!, aunt!, uncle!, Gen!, Tan!): “Anyutk, come here, there’s something to do!” - she shouted loudly. (I. Bunin); Mom, tell me not to wear it (V. Tendryakov); Uncle Vasya, look how it bites! (colloquial), that is, by the way, in the same lexical-semantic group of nouns as the Polish vocative. The regularity of reproduced linguistic forms gives every reason to assert the presence of a new vocative case in the modern Russian language, which linguists have already expressed so unequivocally.

If more simple and in clear language, That.

Vocative case form (from Latin word"vocativus") is used to identify the object to which the address is used. As a rule, this applies to nouns. It should be noted that such a form is called case conventionally, since if we talk about grammatical semantics, then such a form is not a case at all.

This case form has its roots in Indo-European languages. The vocative case was used in languages such as ancient Greek, Latin and even Sanskrit. Later, this case ceased to exist in most Indo-European languages, but some language systems still retain this case form.

These languages today include: Romani, a number of Celtic and Baltic languages, Greek and some Slavic. If we talk about the Romance group, then the modern Romanian language also has this form. Today, the vocative case is also used by people speaking Arabic, Georgian and Korean.

In the Russian language, the beginning of the extinction of this form dates back to approximately the 11th century, when a mixture of the vocative case and the nominative case began to be traced. Later, this form was still encountered, but it was used only when addressing people of high rank with respect. Similar use was recorded in the 14th-15th centuries (in birch bark documents). For example: “Father!”, “Mister!”, “Prince!” etc.

The vocative form disappeared from colloquial speech in the mid-16th century. And only in church language the appeal this kind continued to exist, for example, “Vladyko!”

Until 1918, in Russian grammars this case was seventh in the list of cases. Nowadays, if such an outdated form is preserved, it is used as a form nominative case, for example: “Vladyka Moses read a prayer service.” But some speak out in defense of the pure Russian language and call for a complete abandonment of the archaic form.

But despite everything, the outdated form still continues to exist in some archaisms. Here we are talking about stable phraseological units, which include such archaisms. In literature, the vocative form is used in some cases:

For deliberate archaization of the text;

To give the Ukrainian heroes of the works a certain “Ukrainization”;

When using Church Slavonic quotations in the text.

It is worth noting that the use of such case form in the church language (it should be noted that the Church Slavonic language is the officially recognized language in which services are conducted in Russian Orthodox Churches) on a regular basis has led to the fact that, in addition to the speech of clergy, in the speech of believers and parishioners one can increasingly hear outdated forms of the vocative case. Such forms also often appear in new Russian texts on religious themes.

Many hymnographic texts have been studied, from the analysis of which it follows that the use of the vocative case form is associated with traditional canons while completely ignoring grammatical norms. Moreover, the obsolete vocative form is in some cases used not only for proper names, but also for inanimate names (common nouns). For example: “image”, “warmth”, “bridge”, “protected”, “stone”.

Today, nouns belonging to the first declension and having a zero ending are often classified as the new vocative case. For example: “Kat”, “Mash”, “Sing”, “mom”, “grandfather”, etc. As we see, these forms completely coincide with the forms of the genitive plural. But such a topic is still a subject of debate for linguists, since not everyone wants to classify this form as a separate category of grammar.