Different definitions of the concept of culture. Types of culture

The prerequisites on which the first theoretical ideas about culture emerged arose as early as early stages existence of civilization and became entrenched in the mythological picture of the world. Already in antiquity, people realized that they were somehow different from animals, that there was a clear line separating the natural world from human world. Homer and Hesiod - famous historians and systematizers of ancient myths - saw this line in morality. It was morality that was initially understood as the main human quality that distinguishes people from animals. This difference would later be called “culture.”

The word “culture” itself is of Latin origin; it appeared in the era of Roman antiquity. This word comes from the verb “colere”, which meant “cultivation”, “processing”, “care”. In this meaning it was used by the Roman politician Marcus Porcius Cato (234-149 BC), who wrote the treatise “De agri cultura”. And these days we talk about cultivating plant varieties, for example, we use the term “potato culture,” and among the farmer’s assistants there are machines called “cultivators.”

However, the starting point in the formation scientific ideas The treatise of the Roman orator and philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) “Tusculan Conversations” is considered to be about culture. In this work, written in 45 BC. e., Cicero used the agronomic term “culture” metaphorically, i.e. in another, figuratively. Highlighting the difference human life from biological forms of life, he proposed to denote with this word everything created by man, in contrast to the world created by nature. Thus, the concept of “culture” began to be contrasted with another Latin concept - “nature” (nature). They began to name all objects human activity and the qualities of a person capable of creating them. Since then, the world of culture has been perceived not as a consequence of the action of natural forces, but as a result of the activities of people themselves, aimed at processing and transforming what was created directly by nature.

The concept of “culture” is interpreted in domestic and foreign scientific literature ambiguous. Knowledge of the possible uses of this concept in history will help us understand its many shades of meaning and definitions, as well as understand what culture really is.

• 1. More than 2 thousand years have passed since the Latin word “colere” was used to denote cultivation of the soil. But the memory of this is still preserved in the language in numerous agricultural terms - agriculture, potato culture, cultivated pastures, etc.
• 2. Already in the 1st century. BC e. Cicero applied this concept to man, after which culture began to be understood as the upbringing and education of a person, an ideal citizen. It was believed that the signs cultured person- this is a voluntary limitation of one’s desires, spontaneous actions and bad inclinations. Therefore, the term “culture” then meant the intellectual, spiritual, aesthetic development man and society, emphasizing its specificity, highlighting the world created by man from the natural world.
• 3. B Everyday life We usually put approval into the word “culture”, understanding this word as a certain ideal or ideal state with which we compare the facts or phenomena being evaluated. That's why we often talk about professional culture, about the culture of performing a certain thing. From the same positions we evaluate people's behavior. Therefore, it has become customary to hear about a cultured or uncultured person, although in fact most often we mean well-educated or poorly educated, from our point of view, people. Entire societies are sometimes assessed in the same way if they are based on law, order, and gentleness of morals, as opposed to a state of barbarism.
• 4. Do not forget also that in ordinary consciousness the concept of “culture” is mainly associated with works of literature and art. Therefore, this term denotes the forms and products of intellectual and, above all, artistic activity.
• 5. Finally, we use the word "culture" when we talk about different peoples in certain historical eras, we point out the specifics of the mode of existence or way of life of a society, group of people or a certain historical period. Therefore, very often you can find the phrase - culture Ancient Egypt, Renaissance culture, Russian culture, etc.

The ambiguity of the concept of “culture”, as well as its various interpretations in various cultural theories and concepts, greatly limit the ability to give its only and clear definition. This has led to the multiplicity of definitions of culture, the number of which continues to grow steadily. Thus, in 1952, American cultural scientists A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhohn first systematized the definitions of culture known to them, counting 164 of them. In the 1970s. the number of definitions reached 300, in the 1990s - more than 500. Currently, the number of definitions of culture has probably exceeded 1000. And this is not surprising, because culture is called everything created by man, the entire human world.

Of course, list everything known definitions cultures is impossible, and not necessary, but they can be classified by highlighting several important groups.

In modern domestic cultural studies, it is customary to distinguish three approaches to defining culture - anthropological, sociological and philosophical.

The essence of the anthropological approach is the recognition of the intrinsic value of the culture of each people, which underlies the way of life as individual person, and entire societies. This means that culture is the way of existence of humanity in the form of numerous local cultures. This approach equates the culture and history of the entire society.

The sociological approach considers culture as a factor in the formation and organization of social life. The organizing principle is the value system of each society. Cultural values ​​are created by society itself, but then they also determine the development of this society. What begins to dominate a person is what he himself created.

The philosophical approach seeks to identify patterns in the life of society, to establish the causes of the origin and features of the development of culture. In line with this approach, not just a description or enumeration of cultural phenomena is given, but an attempt is made to penetrate into their essence. As a rule, the essence of culture is seen in the conscious activity of transforming the surrounding world to satisfy human needs.

However, it is clear that each of these approaches in turn offers the most different variants definitions of the concept “culture”. Therefore, a more detailed classification was developed, which is based on the very first analysis of definitions of culture carried out by A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhohn. They divided all definitions of culture into six main types, some of which were in turn divided into subgroups.

In the first group they included descriptive definitions that focused on listing everything that the concept of culture covers. The founder of this type of definition, E. Tylor, argues that culture is a set of knowledge, beliefs, art, morality, laws, customs and some other abilities and habits acquired by a person as a member of society.

The second group consisted of historical definitions, emphasizing processes of social inheritance and tradition. They emphasize that culture is a product of the history of society and develops through the transfer of acquired experience from generation to generation. These definitions are based on ideas about the stability and immutability of social experience, losing sight of the constant emergence of innovations. An example of such definitions is the definition given by the linguist E. Sapir, for whom culture is a socially inherited complex of modes of activity and beliefs that make up the fabric of our life.

The third group combines normative definitions that assert that the content of culture consists of norms and rules governing the life of society. These definitions can be divided into two subgroups. In the first subgroup, definitions focus on the idea of ​​lifestyle. A similar definition was given by the anthropologist K. Whisler, who viewed culture as a way of life followed by a community or tribe. Definitions of the second subgroup pay attention to the ideals and values ​​of society; these are value definitions. An example is the definition of sociologist W. Thomas, for whom culture is material and social values any group of people (institutions, customs, attitudes, behavioral reactions).

The fourth group includes psychological definitions that emphasize the connection of culture with the psychology of human behavior and see in it the socially determined features of the human psyche. The emphasis is on the process of human adaptation to the environment, to his living conditions. This definition was given by sociologists W. Sumner and A. Keller, for whom culture is a set of ways of adapting a person to living conditions, which is achieved through a combination of techniques such as variation, selection and inheritance.

Attention is drawn to the process of human learning, i.e. receipt by a person necessary knowledge and skills that he acquires in the process of life, and is not inherited genetically. As an example, we can cite the definition of the anthropologist R. Benedict. For her, culture is a sociological designation for learned behavior, i.e. behavior that is not given to a person from birth, is not predetermined in his embryonic cells, like in wasps or social ants, but must be acquired anew by each new generation through learning.

A number of researchers talk about the formation of habits in humans. Thus, for sociologist K. Young, culture is forms of habitual behavior common to a group, community or society and consisting of material and intangible elements.

The fifth group consisted of structural definitions of culture, placing emphasis on the structural organization of culture. This is the definition of anthropologist R. Linton: culture is the organized repeated reactions of members of society; a combination of learned behavior and behavioral outcomes, the components of which are shared and inherited by members of a given society.

The last, sixth, group includes genetic definitions that consider culture from the point of view of its origin. These definitions can also be divided into four subgroups.

The first subgroup of definitions proceeds from the fact that culture is the products of human activity, the world of artificial things and phenomena, opposed to the natural world of nature. Such definitions can be called anthropological. An example is the definition of P. Sorokin: culture is the totality of everything that is created or modified by the conscious or unconscious activity of two or more individuals interacting with each other or influencing each other’s behavior.

The definitions of the second subgroup reduce culture to the totality and production of ideas and other products of the spiritual life of society, which accumulate in social memory. They can be called ideational definitions. As an example, we can cite the definition of the sociologist G. Becker, for whom culture is a relatively permanent intangible content transmitted in society through the processes of socialization.

The third subset of genetic definitions places emphasis on symbolic human activity. In this case, culture is considered either a system of signs used by society (semiotic definitions), or a collection of symbols (symbolic definitions), or a set of texts that are interpreted and made sense of by people (hermeneutic definitions). Thus, culturologist L. White called culture a name for a special class of phenomena, namely: such things and phenomena that depend on the implementation of a mental ability specific to the human race, which we call symbolization.

The last, fourth, subgroup consists of a kind of negative definitions that represent culture as something originating from non-culture. An example is the definition of the philosopher and scientist W. Ostwald, for whom culture is what distinguishes humans from animals.

Almost half a century has passed since the work of Kroeber and Kluckhohn. Since then, cultural studies has come a long way. But the work done by these scientists has still not lost its significance. Therefore, modern authors who classify definitions of culture, as a rule, only expand the given list. Considering modern research, you can add two more groups of definitions to it.

Sociological definitions understand culture as a factor in the organization of social life, as a set of ideas, principles and social institutions, ensuring the collective activity of people. This type of definition focuses not on the results of culture, but on the process during which a person and society satisfy their needs. Such definitions are very popular in our country. They are given in line with the activity approach. These definitions can be divided into two groups: the first focuses on the social activities of people, and the second on the development and self-improvement of a person.

An example of the first approach is the definitions of E.S. Markaryan, M.S. Kagan, V.E. Davidovich, Yu.A. Zhdanova: culture is a system of extra-biologically developed (i.e., not inherited and not embedded in the genetic mechanism of heredity) means of carrying out human activity, thanks to which the functioning and development of people’s social life occurs. This definition captures the need for a person’s upbringing and education, as well as his life in a society within which he can only exist and satisfy his needs as part of social needs.

The second approach is related to VM names. Mezhueva and N.S. Zlobina. They define culture as historically active creative activity man, the development of man himself as a subject of activity, the transformation of wealth human history into the inner wealth of man, the production of man himself in all the diversity and versatility of his social connections.

Thus, in all the considered definitions there is a rational grain, each pointing to some more or less significant features of culture. At the same time, one can point out the shortcomings of each definition, its fundamental incompleteness. As a rule, these definitions cannot be called mutually exclusive, but simply summing them up will not give any positive result.

Nevertheless, it is possible to highlight a number the most important characteristics cultures with which all authors would obviously agree. Without a doubt,

culture is an essential characteristic of a person, something that distinguishes him from animals that adapt to the environment, and do not purposefully change it, like humans.

There is also no doubt that as a result of this transformation an artificial world is formed, an essential part of which are ideas, values ​​and symbols. He is opposed to the natural world.

And finally, culture is not inherited biologically, but is acquired only as a result of upbringing and education taking place in society, among other people.

These are the most general ideas about culture, although any of the listed definitions can be used to answer certain questions that arise when studying some aspect or sphere of culture.

The subject of cultural studies is the study of the essence, structure in the main functions of culture, and the historical patterns of its development. In other words, cultural studies studies the most general patterns of cultural development, its basic characteristics, monuments, phenomena and events in the material and spiritual life of people.

2. The concept of culture, types of definitions.

Culture (lat. cultura, from colo, colere- cultivation, later - upbringing, education, development, veneration) is a concept that has a huge number of meanings in various areas of human life. Culture is the subject of study of philosophy, cultural studies, history, art history, linguistics (ethnolinguistics), political science, ethnology, psychology, economics, pedagogy, etc.

Basically, culture is understood as human activity in its most diverse manifestations, including all forms and methods of human self-expression and self-knowledge, the accumulation of skills and abilities by man and society as a whole. Culture also appears as a manifestation of human subjectivity and objectivity

(character, competencies, skills, abilities and knowledge).

Different definitions of culture

The variety of philosophical and scientific definitions of culture existing in the world does not allow us to refer to this concept as the most obvious designation of an object and subject of culture and requires a clearer and narrower specification: Culture is understood as...

"There is a culture practical implementation universal human and spiritual values"

“a historically determined level of development of society and man, expressed in types and forms of organization of life and human activities, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​they create” (TSB);

“the total volume of human creativity” (Daniil Andreev);

“the product of a playing person!” (J. Huizinga);

“a set of genetically non-inherited information in the field of human behavior” (Yu. Lotman);

“the entire set of extra-biological manifestations of a person”;

recognized significant level in the fields of fine arts, science, elite culture] knowledge, beliefs and behavior, which is based on symbolic thinking and social learning. As the basis of civilizations, cultures are distinguished in periods of variability of dominant markers: periods and eras, methods of production, commodity-money and production relations, political systems of government, personalities of spheres of influence, etc.

“Culture, including its most brilliant and impressive manifestations in the form of ritual and religious services, can be interpreted as a hierarchical system of devices and devices for monitoring environmental parameters.” (E. O. Wilson);

Functions of culture

1. The main function is the human-creative, or humanistic function. Cicero spoke about it - “cultura animi” - cultivation, cultivation of the spirit. Today, this function of “cultivating” the human spirit has acquired not only the most important, but also largely symbolic meaning.

All other functions are somehow related to this one and even follow from it.

2. The function of broadcasting (transferring) social experience. It is called the function of historical continuity or information. Culture is a complex sign system. It acts as the only mechanism for transmitting social experience from generation to generation, from era to era, from one country to another.

3. Cognitive function (epistemological) is closely related to the first (human-creative) and, in a certain sense, follows from it. Culture concentrates the best social experience of many generations of people. She (immanently) acquires the ability to accumulate a wealth of knowledge about the world and thereby create favorable opportunities for its knowledge and development. It can be argued that a society is intellectual to the extent that it uses the richest knowledge contained in the cultural gene pool of humanity.

4. Regulatory (normative) function is primarily associated with the definition (regulation) of various aspects, types of social and personal activities of people. In the sphere of work, everyday life, and interpersonal relationships, culture in one way or another influences the behavior of people and regulates their actions, actions, and even the choice of certain material and spiritual values. The regulatory function of culture is supported by such normative systems as morality and law.

5. Semiotic or iconic(Greek semenion - sign) function is the most important in the cultural system. Representing a certain sign system, culture presupposes knowledge and mastery of it. Without studying the corresponding sign systems, it is not possible to master the achievements of culture. Thus, language (oral or written) is a means of communication between people. Literary language acts as the most important means of mastering national culture. Specific languages ​​are needed to understand the special world of music, painting, theater (Schnittke’s music, Malevich’s Suprematism, Dali’s surrealism, Vityk’s theater). Natural sciences (physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology) also have their own sign systems.

6. Value, or axiological(Greek axia - value) function reflects the most important qualitative state of culture. Culture as a certain value system forms very specific value needs and orientations in a person. By their level and quality, people most often judge the degree of culture of a person. Moral and intellectual content, as a rule, acts as a criterion for appropriate assessment.

in cultural studies

on the topic: “What is culture”

Introduction

1.The concept of culture

2. Common features of different cultures

Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism in the study of culture

Culture structure

The role of language in culture and social life

Cultural conflicts

Forms of culture

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Culture - key concept cultural studies. There are a lot of definitions of what culture is, because every time they talk about culture, they mean completely different phenomena. We can talk about culture as “second nature,” that is, about everything that is created by human hands and brought into the world by man. This is the broadest approach and, in this case, weapons of mass destruction are also in in a certain sense cultural phenomena. We can talk about culture as a kind of production skills, professional virtues - we use such expressions as work culture, football culture and even culture card game. For many, culture is, first of all, the sphere of spiritual activity of people throughout historical development humanity. Culture is always national, historical, specific in its origin and purpose, and the concept - world culture - is also very conditional and is only the sum national cultures. Scientists of various specialties - historians, art historians, sociologists, philosophers - study world culture in all its national, social, specific historical manifestations.

Culture, from the point of view of a culturologist, is generally recognized intangible values ​​created throughout human history; firstly, class, estate, group spiritual values, characteristic of various historical eras, and secondly, which may be especially important, relationships between people that develop as a result and process of production, distribution and consumption of these values.

In this work I will try to define the concept of “culture” and consider what functions it performs in our society.

culture ethnocentrism relativism conflict

1. The concept of culture

The word "culture" comes from Latin word colere, which means to cultivate, or cultivate the soil. In the Middle Ages this word came to mean progressive method cultivation of grain, thus the term agriculture or the art of farming arose. But in the 18th and 19th centuries. it began to be used in relation to people, therefore, if a person was distinguished by elegance of manners and erudition, he was considered “cultured.” Back then the term was applied mainly to aristocrats to distinguish them from the "uncultured" common people. The German word Kultur also meant a high level of civilization. In our life today, the word "culture" is still associated with opera house, excellent literature, good education.

The modern scientific definition of culture has discarded the aristocratic connotations of this concept. It symbolizes beliefs, values ​​and means of expression(used in literature and art) that are common to a group; they serve to organize experience and regulate the behavior of members of this group. The beliefs and attitudes of a subgroup are often called a subculture. The assimilation of culture is carried out through learning. Culture is created, culture is taught. Since it is not acquired biologically, each generation reproduces it and passes it on to the next generation. This process is the basis of socialization. As a result of the assimilation of values, beliefs, norms, rules and ideals, the child’s personality is formed and his behavior is regulated. If the process of socialization were to cease on a mass scale, it would lead to the death of culture.

Culture shapes the personalities of members of society, thereby largely regulating their behavior.

How important culture is for the functioning of an individual and society can be judged by the behavior of people who have not been socialized. The uncontrollable, or infantile, behavior of the so-called jungle children, who were completely deprived of communication with people, indicates that without socialization people are not able to adopt an orderly way of life, master a language and learn how to earn a living. As a result of observing several "beings who showed no interest in what was happening around them, who were rhythmically swaying back and forth, as if wild animals in the zoo", the Swedish naturalist of the 18th century. Carl Linnaeus concluded that they are representatives special type. Subsequently, scientists realized that these wild children did not develop the personality that requires communication with people. This communication would stimulate the development of their abilities and the formation of their “human” personalities. If culture regulates human behavior, can we go so far as to call it oppressive? Often culture does suppress a person's impulses, but it does not eliminate them completely. It rather defines the conditions under which they are satisfied. Culture's ability to control human behavior is limited for many reasons. First of all, the biological capabilities of the human body are unlimited. Mere mortals cannot be taught to jump over tall buildings, even if society highly values ​​such feats. Likewise, there is a limit to the knowledge that the human brain can absorb.

Environmental factors also limit the impact of a crop. For example, drought or volcanic eruptions can disrupt established farming practices. Environmental factors may interfere with the formation of some cultural patterns. According to the customs of people living in tropical jungles with a humid climate, it is not customary to cultivate certain areas of land for a long time, since they cannot produce high grain yields for a long time. Maintaining a stable social order also limits the influence of culture. The very survival of society dictates the need to condemn such acts as murder, theft and arson. If these behaviors became widespread, the cooperation between people needed to gather or produce food, provide shelter, and carry out other important activities would become impossible.

Another important part of culture is that cultural values are formed on the basis of selection of certain types of behavior and experience of people. Each society made its own selection cultural forms. Each society, from the point of view of the other, neglects the main thing and deals with unimportant matters. In one culture, material values ​​are barely recognized, in another they have a decisive influence on people's behavior. In one society, technology is treated with incredible disdain, even in areas essential to human survival; in another similar society, ever-improving technology meets the needs of the times. But every society creates a huge cultural superstructure that covers a person’s entire life - youth, death, and the memory of him after death.

As a result of this selection, past and present cultures are completely different. Some societies considered war to be the noblest human activity. Others hated her, and representatives of still others had no idea about her. According to the norms of one culture, a woman had the right to marry her relative. The norms of another culture strongly prohibit this. In our culture, hallucinations are considered a symptom of mental illness. Other societies regard " mystical visions"as the highest form of consciousness.

In short, there are a great many differences between cultures.

Even a cursory contact with two or more cultures convinces us that the differences between them are endless. We and they travel in different directions, they speak a different language. We have different opinions about what behavior is crazy and what is normal, we have different concepts of a virtuous life. It is much more difficult to determine the common features common to all cultures - cultural universals.

Common features of different cultures

Sociologists identify more than 60 cultural universals. These include sports, body decoration, teamwork, dancing, education, funeral rituals, custom of giving gifts, hospitality, prohibitions of incest, jokes, language religious ceremonies, making tools and trying to influence the weather.

However, different cultures may have different types of sports, jewelry, etc. Environment is one of the factors causing these differences. In addition, all cultural features are determined by history. certain society and is formed as a result of a unique development of events. On the basis of different types of cultures, different sports, prohibitions on consanguineous marriages and languages ​​arose, but the main thing is that in one form or another they exist in every culture.

Why do cultural universals exist? Some anthropologists believe that they are formed on the basis biological factors. These include having two genders; helplessness of babies; need for food and warmth; age differences between people; mastering different skills. In this regard, problems arise that must be solved on the basis of this culture. Certain values ​​and ways of thinking are also universal. Every society prohibits murder and condemns lying, but none condones suffering. All cultures must contribute to the satisfaction of certain physiological, social and psychological needs, although in particular there are different options.

Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism in the study of culture

There is a tendency in society to judge other cultures from a position of superiority to our own. This tendency is called entocentrism. The principles of ethnocentrism find clear expression in the activities of missionaries who seek to convert “barbarians” to their faith. Ethnocentrism is associated with xenophobia - fear and hostility towards other people's views and customs.

Ethnocentrism marked the activities of the first anthropologists. They tended to compare all cultures with their own, which they considered the most advanced. According to American sociologist William Graham Sumner, culture can only be understood by analyzing its own values, in its own context. This view is called cultural relativism. Readers of Sumner's book were shocked to read that cannibalism and infanticide made sense in societies where such practices were practiced.

Cultural relativism promotes understanding of subtle differences between closely related cultures. For example, in Germany, the doors in an institution are always tightly closed to separate people. The Germans believe that otherwise employees are distracted from their work. On the contrary, in the United States, office doors are usually open. Americans who work in Germany often complained that closed doors made them feel unwelcoming and alienated. A closed door has a completely different meaning for an American than it does for a German.

Culture is the cement of the building of social life. And not only because it is transmitted from one person to another in the process of socialization and contacts with other cultures, but also because it forms in people a sense of belonging to a certain group. Apparently, members of one cultural group They experience mutual understanding, trust and sympathize with each other to a greater extent than with strangers. Their general feelings reflected in slang and jargon, favorite foods, fashion and other aspects of culture.

Culture not only strengthens solidarity among people, but also causes conflict within and between groups. This can be illustrated by the example of language, the main element of culture. On the one hand, the possibility of communication contributes to the unity of members of a social group. Mutual language brings people together. On the other hand, a common language excludes those who do not speak this language or speak it slightly differently. In Great Britain, representatives of different social classes use slightly different forms in English. Although everyone speaks "English", some groups use more "correct" English than others. There are literally a thousand and one varieties of English in America. Besides, social groups differ from each other in the uniqueness of their gestures, clothing style and cultural values. All this can cause conflicts between groups.

Culture structure

According to anthropologists, culture consists of four elements. 1. Concepts. They are contained mainly in the language. Thanks to them, it becomes possible to organize people's experiences. For example, we perceive the shape, color and taste of objects in the world around us, but in different cultures the world is organized differently.

In the language of the Trobriand Islanders, one word designates six different relatives: father, father's brother, father's sister's son, father's mother's sister's son, father's sister's daughter's son, father's father's brother's son, and father's father's sister's son. The English language doesn't even have words for the last four relatives.

This difference between the two languages ​​is explained by the fact that the inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands need a word that covers all relatives, to whom it is customary to treat with special respect. In English and American societies, a less complex system of kinship ties has developed, so the British have no need for words denoting such distant relatives.

Thus, learning the words of a language allows a person to navigate the world around him through the selection of the organization of his experience.

Relationship. Cultures not only distinguish certain parts of the world with the help of concepts, but also reveal how these components are interconnected - in space and time, by meaning (for example, black is opposite to white), on the basis of causality ("spare the rod - spoil child"). Our language has words for earth and sun, and we are sure that the earth revolves around the sun. But before Copernicus, people believed that the opposite was true. Cultures often interpret relationships differently.

Each culture forms certain ideas about the relationships between concepts related to the sphere real world and to the realm of the supernatural.

Values. Values ​​are generally accepted beliefs about the goals to which a person should strive. They form the basis moral principles.

Different cultures may have preferences different values(heroism on the battlefield, artistic creativity, asceticism), and each social order establishes what is and is not a value.

Rules. These elements (including norms) regulate people's behavior in accordance with the values ​​of a particular culture. For example, our legal system includes many laws that prohibit killing, injuring, or threatening others. These laws reflect how highly we value individual life and well-being. Likewise, we have dozens of laws prohibiting burglary, embezzlement, property damage, etc. They reflect our desire to protect personal property.

Values ​​not only themselves need justification, but, in turn, they themselves can serve as justification. They justify the norms or expectations and standards that are realized in the course of interaction between people. Norms can represent standards of behavior. But why do people tend to obey them, even if it is not in their interests? While taking an exam, a student could copy the answer from a neighbor, but is afraid of getting a bad grade. This is one of several potentially limiting factors. Social rewards (such as respect) encourage compliance with the norm requiring students to be honest. Social punishment or incentives that promote compliance are called sanctions. Punishments that deter people from doing certain things are called negative sanctions. These include fines, imprisonment, reprimands, etc. Positive sanctions (for example, monetary rewards, empowerment, high prestige) are incentives for compliance with norms.

The role of language in culture and social life

In theories of culture, an important place has always been given to language. Language can be defined as a system of communication carried out using sounds and symbols, the meanings of which are conventional, but have a certain structure.

Language is a social phenomenon. It cannot be mastered outside of social interaction, i.e. without communicating with other people. Although the process of socialization is largely based on the imitation of gestures - nodding, smiling and frowning - language serves as the main means of transmitting culture. Another important feature of it is that native language It is almost impossible to unlearn how to speak if one's basic vocabulary, speech rules and structures are learned at the age of eight or ten, although many other aspects of one's experience may be completely forgotten. This indicates high degree adaptability of language to human needs; without it, communication between people would be much more primitive.

Language includes rules You, of course, know that there is correct and incorrect speech. Language has many implicit and formal rules that determine how words can be combined to express desired meaning. Grammar is a system of generally accepted rules on the basis of which a standard language is used and developed. At the same time, deviations from grammatical rules are often observed due to the characteristics of various dialects and life situations.

Language is also involved in the process of acquiring people's experience from an organization. Anthropologist Benjamin Lee Whorf has shown that many concepts seem “self-evident” to us only because they are ingrained in our language. "Language divides nature into parts, forms concepts about them and gives them meanings mainly because we have agreed to organize them that way. This agreement... is encoded in the patterns of our language." It is revealed especially clearly when comparative analysis languages. We already know that colors and relationships are designated differently in different languages. Sometimes there is a word in one language that is completely absent in another.

When using a language, compliance with its basic grammatical rules is required. Language organizes people's experiences. Therefore, like all culture as a whole, it develops generally accepted meanings. Communication is possible only if there are meanings that are accepted, used and understood by its participants. In fact, our communication with each other in everyday life is largely determined by our confidence that we understand each other.

The tragedy of mental disorders such as schizophrenia is, first of all, that patients cannot communicate with other people and find themselves cut off from society.

A common language also maintains community cohesion. It helps people coordinate their actions by persuading or judging each other. In addition, mutual understanding and empathy arise almost automatically between people who speak the same language. Language reflects people's general knowledge about the traditions that have developed in society and current events. In short, it promotes a sense of group unity, group identity.

Leaders of developing countries where tribal dialects exist strive to ensure that a single national language is adopted so that it spreads among groups that do not speak it, understanding the importance of this factor for the unity of the entire nation and the fight against tribal disunity.

Although language is a powerful unifying force, it can also divide people. Group using given language, considers everyone who speaks it as his own, and people who speak other languages ​​or dialects as strangers.

Language - main symbol antagonism between the British and French living in Canada. The struggle between proponents and opponents of bilingual education (English and Spanish) in some areas of the United States suggests that language can be important political problem.

Anthropologists late XIX V. tended to compare culture with huge collection“scraps and scraps” that have no special connections among themselves and were collected by chance. Benedict (1934) and other anthropologists of the 20th century. argue that the formation of various models of one culture is carried out on the basis of common principles.

The truth is probably somewhere in the middle. Cultures do have predominant features, but they are not the only culture; there is also diversity and conflicts.

Cultural conflicts

We can distinguish at least three types of conflicts associated with the development of culture: anomie, cultural lag and alien influence. The term "anomie", denoting a violation of the unity of culture due to the lack of clearly formulated social norms, was first introduced by Emile Durkheim back in the 90s of the last century. At that time, anomie was caused by the weakening influence of religion and politics about increasing the role of commercial and industrial circles. These changes entailed the collapse of the system of moral values, which in the past was stable. Since then, social scientists have repeatedly noted that the increase in crime and the increase in the number of divorces occurred as a result of a violation of unity and culture, especially in connection with the instability of religious and family values.

At the beginning of the century, William Fielding Ogborn (1922) introduced the concept of cultural lag. It is observed when changes in the material life of society outstrip the transformation of intangible culture (customs, beliefs, philosophical systems, laws and forms of government). This leads to a constant discrepancy between the development of material and intangible culture, and as a result many unresolved issues arise. social problems. For example, progress in the wood processing industry is associated with the destruction of vast forests. But gradually society realizes the vital need to preserve them. Likewise, the invention of modern machines has led to a significant increase in industrial accidents. It took a long time before legislation was introduced to provide compensation for work injuries.

The third type of cultural conflict, caused by the dominance of a foreign culture, was observed in pre-industrial societies who were colonized by the peoples of Europe. According to research by B.K. Malinovsky (1945), many opposing cultural elements slowed down the process of national integration in these societies. While studying the societies of South Africa, Manilovsky identified a conflict between two cultures formed in completely different conditions. Social life the natives before colonization formed a single whole. Based on the tribal organization of society, a system of kinship ties, an economic and political structure, and even methods of warfare were simultaneously formed. The culture of the colonial powers, mainly Great Britain, arose in different conditions. But when European values ​​were imposed on the natives, what happened was not a unification of the two cultures, but an unnatural, tension-filled mixing of them. According to Malinovsky, this mixture turned out to be unstable. He correctly predicted that there would be a long struggle between these two cultures, which would not end even after the colonies gained independence. It will be supported by the desire of Africans to overcome tensions in their culture. At the same time, Malilovsky believed that Western values ​​would ultimately win.

Thus, cultural models are formed in the course of a constant struggle between opposing tendencies - towards unification and separation. In most European societies by the beginning of the 20th century. two forms of culture emerged.

Forms of culture

High culture - fine art, classical music and literature - was created and perceived by the elite.

Folk culture, which included fairy tales, folklore, songs and myths, belonged to the poor. The products of each of these cultures were intended for a specific audience, and this tradition was rarely violated. With the advent of mass media (radio, mass printed publications, television, recordings, tape recorders) there was a blurring of the differences between high and popular culture. This is how mass culture arose, which is not associated with religious or class subcultures. The media and popular culture are inextricably linked.

Culture becomes "mass" when its products are standardized and distributed to the general public.

In all societies there are many subgroups with different cultural values ​​and traditions. The system of norms and values ​​that distinguish a group from the majority of society is called a subculture. The subculture is formed under the influence of such factors as social class, ethnic origin, religion and place of residence. The values ​​of the subculture influence the formation of the personality of group members.

Some of the most interesting research on subcultures focuses on language. For example, William Labov (1970) sought to argue that the use of nonstandard English by black ghetto children did not indicate “linguistic inferiority.” Labov believes that black children are not deprived of the ability to communicate like white children, they just use a slightly different system of grammatical rules; Over the years, these rules have become ingrained in the black subculture.

Labov proved that in appropriate situations, both black and white children say the same thing, although they use different words. However, the use of non-standard English inevitably causes a problem - a disapproving reaction from the majority to the so-called violation of generally accepted rules. Teachers often consider the use of black dialect as a violation of the rules of the English language. Therefore, black children are unfairly criticized and punished.

The term "subculture" does not mean that a particular group opposes the dominant culture in society. However, in many cases, the majority of society views the subculture with disapproval or distrust. This problem can even arise in relation to respected subcultures of doctors or the military. But sometimes a group actively seeks to develop norms or values ​​that conflict with core aspects of the dominant culture. On the basis of such norms and values, a counterculture is formed. Famous counterculture in Western society- bohemian, and the most striking example in it is the hippies of the 60s. Counterculture values ​​can be the cause of long-term and insoluble conflicts in society. However, sometimes they penetrate into the very dominant culture. The long hair, ingenuity in language and clothing, and drug use characteristic of hippies became widespread in American society, where, mainly through the media, as often happens, these values ​​became less provocative, therefore attractive to the counterculture and, accordingly, less threatening to the dominant culture

Conclusion

Culture is an integral part of human life. Culture organizes human life. In human life, culture largely performs the same function that genetically programmed behavior performs in animal life.

Culture is powerless to provide true meanings of existence: it contains only possible meanings and has no criterion of authenticity. If meaning does break into a person’s life, it comes in addition to culture - personally, addressing a specific person. Therefore, the benefit of culture is only in preparation for meaning. By teaching a person to see symbols, she can address him to what lies behind the symbolism. But she can also confuse him. A person can accept meanings as the ultimate reality and be content with only cultural existence, without even knowing what true reality is. Culture is contradictory. In the end, it is just a tool; you need to be able to use it and not turn this skill into an end in itself.

Bibliography

1.Culturology. Tutorial for higher education students educational institutions. M.: Phoenix. 1995. - 576 p.

2. Smezler N. Sociology: trans. from English - M.: Phoenix. 1994.- 688 p.

"Civilizations" edited by M.A. Barg 1 and 2 issues.

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How often in life we ​​hear and use the word “culture” in relation to a variety of phenomena. Have you ever thought about where it came from and what it means? Of course, concepts such as art, good manners, politeness, education, etc. immediately come to mind. Further in the article we will try to reveal the meaning of this word, as well as describe what types of culture exist.

Etymology and definition

Since this concept is multifaceted, it also has many definitions. Well, first of all, let's find out in what language it originated and what it originally meant. And it arose back in Ancient Rome, where the word “culture” (cultura) was used to describe several concepts at once:

1) cultivation;

2) education;

3) reverence;

4) education and development.

As you can see, almost all of them are still suitable today general definition of this term. In Ancient Greece, it also meant education, upbringing and love of agriculture.

As for modern definitions, in a broad sense, culture is understood as a set of spiritual and material values ​​that express one or another level, that is, an era, of the historical development of mankind. According to another definition, culture is the area of ​​spiritual life human society, which includes a system of upbringing, education and spiritual creativity. IN in the narrow sense culture is the degree of mastery of a certain area of ​​knowledge or skills of a particular activity, thanks to which a person gets the opportunity to express himself. His character, behavior style, etc. are formed. Well, the most used definition is the consideration of culture as a form social behavior individual in accordance with the level of his education and upbringing.

Concept and types of culture

Exist various classifications this concept. For example, cultural scientists distinguish several types of culture. Here are some of them:

• mass and individual;
• western and eastern;
• industrial and post-industrial;
• urban and rural;
• high (elite) and mass, etc.

As you can see, they are presented in pairs, each of which is an opposition. According to another classification, there are the following main types of culture:

• material;
• spiritual;
• informational;
• physical.

Each of them can have its own varieties. Some culturologists believe that the above are forms rather than types of culture. Let's look at each of them separately.

Material culture

The subordination of natural energy and materials to human purposes and the creation of new habitats by artificial means is called material culture. This also includes various technologies that are necessary for conservation and further development of this environment. Thanks to material culture, the standard of living of society is set, the material needs of people are formed, and ways to satisfy them are proposed.

Spiritual culture

Beliefs, concepts, feelings, experiences, emotions and ideas that help establish a spiritual connection between individuals are considered spiritual culture. It also includes all products of non-material human activity that exist in an ideal form. This culture contributes to the creation of a special world of values, as well as the formation and satisfaction of intellectual and emotional needs. She is also a product social development, and its main purpose is the production of consciousness.

Part of this type of culture is artistic. It, in turn, includes the entire set of artistic values, as well as the system of their functioning, creation and reproduction that has developed over the course of history. For the entire civilization as a whole, as well as for an individual individual, the role artistic culture, which is otherwise called art, is simply huge. It affects the inner spiritual world of a person, his mind, emotional condition and feelings. Types of artistic culture are nothing more than different types of art. Let us list them: painting, sculpture, theater, literature, music, etc.

Artistic culture can be both mass (folk) and high (elite). The first includes all works (most often single ones) by unknown authors. Folk culture includes folklore creations: myths, epics, legends, songs and dances - which are accessible to the general public. But elite, high culture consists of a collection of individual works by professional creators, which are known only to a privileged part of society. The varieties listed above are also types of culture. They simply relate not to the material, but to the spiritual side.

Information culture

The basis of this type is knowledge about the information environment: the laws of functioning and methods of effective and fruitful activity in society, as well as the ability to correctly navigate endless streams information. Since speech is one of the forms of information transmission, we would like to dwell on it in more detail.

A culture of speech

In order for people to communicate with each other, they need to have a culture of speech. Without this, there will never be mutual understanding between them, and therefore no interaction. From the first grade of school, children begin to study the subject “Native Speech”. Of course, before they come to first grade, they already know how to speak and use words to express their childhood thoughts, ask and demand from adults to satisfy their needs, etc. However, the culture of speech is completely different.

At school, children are taught to correctly formulate their thoughts through words. This promotes their mental development and self-expression as individuals. Every year the child acquires a new vocabulary, and he begins to think differently: wider and deeper. Of course, in addition to school, a child’s speech culture can also be influenced by factors such as family, yard, and group. From his peers, for example, he can learn words called profanity. Some people own very little for the rest of their lives. vocabulary, well, and, naturally, they have low culture speech. With such baggage, a person is unlikely to achieve anything big in life.

Physical Culture

Another form of culture is physical. It includes everything that is connected with the human body, with the work of its muscles. This includes the development of a person's physical abilities from birth to the end of life. This is a set of exercises and skills that contribute to the physical development of the body, leading to its beauty.

Culture and society

Man is a social being. He constantly interacts with people. You can understand a person better if you consider him from the point of view of relationships with others. In view of this, there are the following types of culture:

• personality culture;
• team culture;
• culture of society.

The first type relates to the person himself. It includes his subjective qualities, character traits, habits, actions, etc. The culture of a team develops as a result of the formation of traditions and the accumulation of experience by people united by common activities. But the culture of society is the objective integrity of cultural creativity. Its structure does not depend on individuals or groups. Culture and society, being very close systems, nevertheless do not coincide in meaning and exist, although next to each other, but on their own, developing according to separate laws inherent only to them.

Concept of culture originally in ancient Rome meant agriculture. Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder back in the 2nd century BC. wrote a treatise on agriculture, De Agri Cultura. Culture began to be used as an independent term in the 17th century and meant “good breeding” and “education.” In everyday life, culture has retained this meaning.

Culture - this is a collection of the most different manifestations human activity, including self-expression, self-knowledge, accumulation of skills and abilities. Simply put, culture is everything that is created by man, that is, not nature. Culture as an activity always has a result. Depending on the nature of this result (applies to material assets or spiritual), culture is distinguished into material and spiritual.

Material culture.

Material culture- this is everything that is related to the material world and serves to satisfy the material needs of a person or society. Essential elements:

• items(or things) - what is primarily meant by material culture (shovels and Cell phones, roads and buildings, food and clothing);
• technologies- methods and means of using objects in order to create something else with their help;
• technical culture- a set of practical skills, abilities and abilities of a person, as well as experience accumulated over generations (an example is a borscht recipe passed down from generation to generation from mother to daughter).

Spiritual culture.

Spiritual culture- This is an activity associated with feelings, emotions, as well as intellect. Essential elements:

• spiritual values(the main element in spiritual culture, as it serves as a standard, ideal, role model);
• spiritual activity(art, science, religion);
• spiritual needs;
• spiritual consumption(consumption of spiritual goods).

Types of culture.

Types of culture are numerous and varied. For example, according to the nature of the attitude towards religion, culture can be secular or religious, according to its distribution in the world - national or global, according to its geographical nature - eastern, western, Russian, British, Mediterranean, American, etc., according to the degree of urbanization - urban, rural , rural, as well as traditional, industrial, postmodern, specialized, medieval, ancient, primitive, etc.

All these types can be summarized in three main forms of culture.

Forms of culture.

1. High culture (elite). fine art high level, creating cultural canons. It is non-commercial in nature and requires intellectual decoding. Example: classical music and literature.
2. Mass culture(pop culture). Culture consumed by the masses, with low level difficulties. It is commercial in nature and aimed at entertaining a wide audience. Some consider it a means to control the masses, while others believe that the masses themselves created it.
3. Folk culture. Culture of a non-commercial nature, the authors of which, as a rule, are unknown: folklore, fairy tales, myths, songs, etc.

It should be borne in mind that the components of all these three forms constantly penetrate each other, interact and complement each other. Ensemble " Golden ring"is an example of both mass and folk culture.