Who is a literary hero definition. Literary hero: what is it? Literary hero or character

Language is a naturally occurring and developing system of signs in human society, expressed in audio (spoken speech) or graphic (written speech) form. Language is capable of expressing the totality of human concepts and thoughts and is intended for communication purposes. Outstanding Russian linguist A.A. Potebnya said: “Language is always as much an end as a means, as much created as it is used.” Language proficiency is an integral feature of a person, and the emergence of language coincides with the time of human formation.

Naturalness of occurrence and limitless possibilities to express the most abstract and complex concepts, language is distinguished from the so-called artificial languages , that is, languages developed specifically for special purposes, for example, programming languages, languages of logic, mathematics, chemistry, consisting of special symbols; traffic signs, marine alarms, Morse code.

The term “language” itself is ambiguous, since it can mean 1) any means of communication (for example, programming languages, body language, animal language); 2) natural human language as a specific property of a person; 3) national language ( Russian, German, Chinese); 4) the language of a group of people, one or more people ( children's language, writer's language). Until now, scientists find it difficult to say how many languages there are in the world; their number ranges from 2.5 to 5 thousand.

There are two forms of existence of language corresponding to the concepts language and speech , the first should be understood as a code, a system of signs existing in the minds of people, speech as the direct implementation of language in oral and written texts. Speech is understood as both the process of speaking and its result - speech activity recorded by memory or writing. Speech and language form a single phenomenon of human language in general and each specific national language, taken in its specific state. Speech is embodiment, realization a language that reveals itself in speech and only through it embodies its communicative purpose. If language is a tool of communication, then speech is the type of communication produced by this tool. Speech is always concrete and unique, in contrast to the abstract and reproducible signs of language; it is relevant, correlated with some life event, language is potential; speech unfolds in time and space, it is determined by the goals and objectives of speaking, the participants in communication, while language is abstracted from these parameters. Speech is infinite both in time and in space, and the system of language is finite, relatively closed; speech is material, it consists of sounds or letters perceived by the senses, language includes abstract signs - analogues of units of speech; speech is active and dynamic, the language system is passive and static; speech is linear, but language has a level organization. All changes that occur in language over time are caused by speech, initially take place in it, and then become fixed in the language.

Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, and coordinates them practical activities, participates in the formation of concepts, forms the consciousness and self-awareness of a person, that is, plays a vital role important role in the main spheres of human activity - communicative, social, practical, informational, spiritual and aesthetic. The functions of language are unequal: fundamental are those whose implementation predetermined its emergence and constitutive properties. The main one is considered communicative function language, which determines its main characteristic - the presence of a material shell (sound) and a system of rules for encoding and decoding information. It is precisely thanks to the ability of the language to perform communicative function– serve as a tool of communication, human society develops, transmits information in time and space that is vital, serves social progress and establishes contact between different societies.

Serving as an instrument for expressing thought is the second fundamental function of language, which is called cognitive or logical (as well as epistemological or cognitive). The structure of language is inextricably linked with the rules of thinking, and the main significant units of language - morpheme, word, phrase, sentence - are analogues of logical categories - concepts, judgments, logical connections. The communicative and cognitive functions of language are inextricably linked, as they have a common basis. Language is adapted both for the expression of thought and for communication, but these two most important functions are realized in speech. They, in turn, are closely related to more specific functions, the number of which varies. Thus, the famous psychologist and linguist K. Bühler identified three most important functions of language: representative – the ability to designate extra-linguistic reality, expressive – ability to express internal state speaker appellate – the ability to influence the addressee of speech. These three functions are inextricably linked with the communicative one, as they are determined based on the structure of the communication process, the structure of the speech act, the necessary components of which are the speaker, the listener and what is being communicated. However, expressive and representative functions are closely related to cognitive functions, since when communicating something, the speaker comprehends and evaluates what is being communicated. Another famous scientist is R.O. Jacobson - identified six unequal functions of language: referential or nominative , which serves to designate the surrounding world, extra-linguistic categories; emotive , expressing the attitude of the author of the speech to its content; conative , which determines the orientation of the speaker or writer towards the listener or reader. The scientist considered these functions to be basic. Closely related to the conative function magic function , designed to influence the listener’s psyche, inducing in him a state of meditation, ecstasy, serving the purpose of suggestion. The magical function of language is realized using certain techniques: spells, curses, incantations, divination, advertising texts, oaths, oaths, slogans and appeals, and others.

In the free communication of people it is realized phatic, or contact-establishing function. The phatic function of language is served by various etiquette formulas, appeals, the purpose of which is to initiate, continue and terminate communication. Language serves not only as a tool for people to communicate, but also as a means of understanding the language itself; in this case it is implemented metalinguistic function, since a person gains knowledge about language through the language itself. The orientation that the message, in its form in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee, creates the poetic function of language, which, being the main one for literary text, is also present in everyday speech, manifesting itself in its rhythm, imagery, metaphor, and expressiveness. When acquiring a language, a person simultaneously acquires and national culture and traditions of the people who are the bearer of this language, since the language also acts as the guardian of the national identity of the people, their culture and history, which is due to such a special function of the language as cumulative . The peculiar spiritual world of the people, its cultural and historical values are enshrined both in the elements of language - words, phraseology, grammar, syntax, and in speech - the set of texts created in this language.

Thus, all functions of language can be divided into main ones - communicative and cognitive (cognitive) and secondary ones, which are distinguished insofar as they create the main types of speech acts or specific types of speech activity. The basic functions of language mutually determine each other when using language, but in individual acts of speech or texts they are revealed to varying degrees. Particular functions are connected with the main ones, so the contact-establishing function, conative and magical functions, as well as the cumulative function are most closely related to the communicative function. The most closely related to the cognitive function are nominative (naming objects of reality), referential (representation and reflection in the language of the surrounding world), emotive (evaluation of facts, phenomena and events), poetic (artistic development and comprehension of reality).

Being the main instrument of communication between people, language manifests itself in speech activity, which is one of the types of human social activity. Like any social activity, verbal communication is conscious and purposeful. It consists of individual acts of speech, or speech (communicative) acts, which are its dynamic units. The following elements must be involved in a speech act: the speaker and the addressee, who have a certain fund of general knowledge and ideas, the setting and purpose of speech communication, as well as the fragment of objective reality about which the message is being made. These components form the pragmatic side of speech activity, under the influence of which the coordination (adaptation) of the utterance to the moment of speech is carried out. To perform a speech act means to utter articulate sounds belonging to a commonly understood language; construct a statement from the words of a given language and according to the rules of its grammar; provide the statement with meaning and relate it to the objective world; give your speech purposefulness; influence the addressee and thereby create new situation, that is, to achieve with your statement desired effect.

The informative orientation of communicative acts is very diverse and can be complicated by additional communicative tasks. With the help of speech acts, you can not only convey some information, but also complain, brag, threaten, flatter and others. Some communicative goals can be achieved not only with the help of speech, but also non-verbal means , for example, facial expressions, gestures - an invitation to enter, sit down, a threat, a request to remain silent. Other communicative goals, on the contrary, can only be achieved with using verbal means - oath, promise, congratulation, since speech in this case is equivalent to the action itself. According to the purpose of the statement, various types of communicative acts are distinguished: informative, reporting; motivating; etiquette formulas; expressing emotional reactions to what is being communicated.

Speech activity is the object of study by linguists (psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, phonetics, stylistics), psychologists, physiologists, specialists in higher nervous activity, communication theory, acoustics, philosophers, sociologists, and literary scholars. In linguistics, there seem to be two main areas of research: in one, language systems are studied, in the other, speech. Linguistics of speech studies typified phenomena that are associated with participants in communication and other conditions of communication; it breaks down into two interacting areas: text linguistics and theory of speech activity and speech acts. Text linguistics studies the structure of speech works, their division, methods of creating text coherence, the frequency of occurrence of certain language units in certain types of text, the semantic and structural completeness of the text, speech norms in different functional styles, the main types of speech - monologue, dialogue, polylogue), features of written and oral communication. The theory of speech activity studies the processes of speech production and speech perception, the mechanisms of speech errors, the goal setting of communication, the connection of speech acts with the conditions of their occurrence, the factors that ensure the effectiveness of a speech act, the relationship of speech activity to other types of human social activity. If the theory of text is inextricably linked with literary criticism and stylistics, then the theory of speech activity is developed in interaction with psychology, psychophysiology and sociology.

However, not all languages are capable of performing a communicative function and participating in speech activity. Thus, languages that have fallen out of use and are known based on written monuments or records that have survived to our time are called dead. The process of language extinction occurs especially in those countries where speakers of original languages are pushed into isolated areas and for inclusion in common life countries should switch to its main language (English in America and Australia; Russian in Russia). The use of a non-native language in boarding schools, colleges and other secondary and higher educational institutions plays a special role in accelerating this process. Many languages of the Far North, North America, Australia have become or are becoming dead; they can be judged mainly on the basis of descriptions compiled before their extinction.

When a language becomes extinct in the last stages of its existence, it becomes characteristic only of certain age and social groups: the language is preserved longest by the older age group, with whose physical death it dies. A dying language can also be used by preschool children, but when taught in a non-native language, they can almost completely lose their native language, switching to a common one. of this region or country language. This process, which is facilitated by the spread of the main language by means mass media, leads to the rapid extinction of small languages in the second half of the twentieth century. In more early eras The main factors for the extinction of languages could be the mass destruction of conquered peoples during the creation of large empires, such as the ancient Persian or the imposition of the main language of the Byzantine and Roman empires.

Dead languages often remain in living use as a language of worship for thousands of years after they have been displaced from other spheres of communication. So, Catholic Church To this day, the Christians of Egypt use the Coptic language, and the Buddhists of Mongolia use the Tibetan language. A rarer case is the simultaneous use of a cult language as a class and literary language, as Sanskrit was used in ancient India, Latin in medieval Europe, and Church Slavonic in medieval Rus'. The population of these regions used living languages in conversation, mostly dialects, and Latin, Sanskrit or Church Slavonic were used as the languages of the church, science, culture, literature and interdialectal communication. In exceptional social conditions it is possible to transform a dead language of worship into a spoken one, as happened in Israel. The Hebrew language fell out of use in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and remained the language of religious practice and spiritual and secular literature of high style. However, in the second half of the 18th century. it begins to revive as a language of educational and fiction, and from the second half of the 19th century. Hebrew also becomes a spoken language. Currently, Hebrew is the official state language in Israel.

The need for communication between representatives of different ethnic and language groups gives rise to language contacts, as a result of which the interaction of two or more languages occurs, influencing the structure and vocabulary of these languages. Contacts occur through constantly recurring dialogues, constant communication between speakers of different languages, in which both languages are used either simultaneously by both speakers, or separately by each of them. The results of contacts have different effects on different levels language depending on the degree of inclusion of their elements in the global holistic structure. The results of contacts have different effects at different levels of language. The most common result of such contacts is the borrowing of a word from one language to another. One of the necessary conditions for the implementation of language contacts is bilingualism, or bilingualism. Due to bilingualism, the mutual influence of languages occurs. According to the latest data from neurolinguistics, language contacts are carried out within each of the bilingual speakers in such a way that one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex speaks one language, while the other hemisphere understands or knows to a limited extent the second language. Through interhemispheric communication channels, the forms of one of the languages in contact are transmitted to the other hemisphere, where they can be included in a text spoken in another language or have an indirect impact on the structure of this text.

In certain areas of distribution of a language, linguistic changes can occur in different directions and lead to different results. Initially minor changes in the language of two neighboring areas can accumulate over time, and eventually mutual understanding between people speaking these languages becomes difficult and sometimes impossible. This process is called differentiation in language development. The reverse process—the gradual erasing of differences between two variants of a language system, ending in complete coincidence—is called integration. These opposing processes occur constantly, but at different stages of history their relationship is different, each new era brings something new to these processes. Thus, the fragmentation of the tribe caused the fragmentation of languages. Over time, the separated parts of the tribes began to speak differently than their former relatives: a process of differentiation of languages took place. If the main occupation of the population is hunting or cattle breeding, the process of differentiation occurs slowly, since the nomadic way of life forces individual clans and tribes to collide with each other; this constant contact of related tribes restrains centrifugal forces and prevents the endless fragmentation of the language. The striking resemblance of many Turkic languages is the result of the nomadic lifestyle of many Turkic peoples in the past; the same can be said about the Evenki language. Agriculture, or life in the mountains, greatly contributes to the differentiation of languages. Thus, in Dagestan and northern Azerbaijan there are 6 relatively large nations and more than 20 small ones, each speaking their own language. In general, in the absence of developed economic exchange and the dominance of a subsistence economy, the processes of linguistic differentiation prevail over the processes of integration.

Thus, many changes in language, in particular those arising as a result of language contacts, are carried out initially in speech, and then, repeated many times, they become a fact of language. Key figure in in this case is a native speaker of a language or languages, a linguistic personality. Language personality refers to any speaker of a particular language, characterized on the basis of an analysis of the texts he produces in terms of the use of language units in them to reflect his vision of reality and achieve certain goals as a result of speech activity. The linguistic personality or the person speaking is the central figure of modern linguistics. The very content of this term contains the idea of obtaining knowledge about the individual and the author of texts, who are distinguished by their own character, ideas, interests, social and psychological preferences and attitudes. However, it is impossible to study each individual individually, so knowledge about the speaker is usually generalized, the typical representative of a given linguistic community and the narrower speech community included in it, the aggregate or average speaker of a given language, are analyzed. Knowledge about a typical speaker of a language can be integrated, as a result of which it is possible to draw conclusions about a representative of the human race, an integral property of which is the use of sign systems, the main of which is natural human language. The complexity of the approach to the study of language through the prism of a linguistic personality is that language appears as a text produced by a specific individual, as a system used by a typical representative of a specific linguistic community, as a person’s ability to generally use language as the main means of communication.

Researchers come to the linguistic personality as a linguistic object in different ways: psycholinguistic - from studying the psychology of language, speech and speech activity in normal and altered states of consciousness, linguodidactic - from analyzing the processes of language learning, philological - from studying the language of fiction.

Essence of language:
Language is a social phenomenon

Language is the most important means of human communication, a tool for the formation and expression of thought.
Communication can be linguistic or non-linguistic. Communication, in all cases, is the transfer of some information. 2 plans: expression, method, or form of expression (movement of the tip of a cat’s tail) and the content of transmitted information behind this expression (excitability of the animal). Human communication is carried out mainly using sound language (writing and other forms). At the same time, non-verbal forms play a significant role in human communication. Linguistic communication is not just the communication of some facts or the transfer of emotions associated with it, but also the exchange of thoughts about these facts. Non-linguistic forms of communication are much older than auditory language. Facial expressions and gestures can sometimes express the feelings we experience brighter and more authentically.

Because language is not a natural phenomenon, respectively – public.
What language has in common with other social phenomena is that language is a necessary condition for the existence and development of human society and that, being an element of spiritual culture, language is unthinkable in isolation from materiality. Language is a social phenomenon with specific properties.
Because Being a tool of communication, language is also a means of exchanging thoughts; the question arises about the relationship between language and thinking. Thinking develops and is updated much faster than language, but without language thinking cannot exist. Thoughts are born on the basis of language and are fixed in it

Language is a kind of sign system.
A sign is an object that points to an object. An object is everything that has a definition in language. a word is a sign, a pointer. Signs are substitutes for something. They carry some information. Sign = semiotic – systems of signs and rules for their use. Sema is a sign.
All signs have a material, sensory form, which is sometimes called the “signifier” (exponent of the sign). The semantic side.
Sound, gesture, tactile sign - the material side.
The sign is:
-it must be material, i.e. must be accessible to sensory perception, like any thing
-it has no meaning, but is aimed at meaning, that’s why they exist, the sign is a member of the second signaling system
-its content does not coincide with its material characteristics, the content of things is exhausted by its material characteristics
- the content of a sign is determined by its distinctive features, analytically identified and separated from non-distinctive ones.
-a sign and its content are determined by the place and role of a given sign in a given system of a similar order of signs.

Language is a system of signs (Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Swiss linguist.)
Language is a means of forming thoughts.
Language is a means of communication, communication.
Language is the most important means of human communication, a tool for the formation and expression of thought.

Language functions:
Communicative. Serves as a tool for communication and exchange of thoughts.
Ascertaining. Serves for neutral messages of fact
Interrogative. Used to request a fact
Appellative. A means of calling, inducing action.
Expressive. Expression of the speaker's mood and emotions.
Contact making. Creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors.
Metalinguistic. Interpretation of linguistic facts to the interlocutor.
Aesthetic. Function of aesthetic impact.
Thought-forming. Language is the formative organ of thought. (Humboldt)

Linguistics is knowledge about language.
Linguistics draws conclusions based on the analysis of many languages.
Linguistics:
Partial - language learning based on the material of one language.
General - based on many languages.
Comparative – comparing different languages.

A national language is a language at a certain stage of development.
There is no single national language, but there are varieties (forms) of the national language. Dialects and group differences are studied by dialectology, and a set of issues related to the impact of society on language and to linguistic situations developing in society is sociolinguistics.
The national language is divided into: territorial dialect (division of the language into territories (Middle Great Russian, South Great Russian)), literary language (1. normalized, codified language. 2. supra-dialectal in nature, widespread throughout the country. The literary language preserves the unity of the nation, unites the people and time and space. 3. Polyfunctionality (multifunctional) 4. Stylistic differentiation), social dialect - a type of language used in a social group (professional, jargon, argot, slang), vernacular (reduced elements in the literary language (herring, zubik, po -anyone, no idea, no difference).

Literary language is a variant of the national language, understood as exemplary. It functions in written form (books, newspapers, official documents) and in oral form (public speaking, theater, cinema, radio and television programs). It is typical for him to have consciously applied rules and norms that are studied at school.

Geneological classification of languages is a classification of languages based on their appearance and the establishment of related languages. (theory of monogenesis and polygenesis)
A language family is the largest grouping of related languages. (branch, group, subgroup)
A proto-language is a language from which languages belonging to the same family originate.
Related languages are languages that originated from the same parent language and belong to the same family.
Living language - which is currently a means of communication.
Macrofamily - a hypothetical association different families who once belonged to the same family.
GKJ arose in the early 19th century.
Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language.
World languages are a means of communication in different countries (UN) (English, Russian, Spanish, French, Chinese, Arabic)
Creole is the primary language for native speakers.
Language appears when active communication between peoples occurs.
Linguo franca and pidgin languages originated from traders.

Main families:
Indo-European family. (12 groups)
Altai family. (Turkic (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Uzbek, Chuvash), Mongolian (Buryat, Kamchatka, Kalmyk), Tungus - Manchu (Manchu, Tungus)
Uralic family (Finno-Ugric languages! Ugric branch: Hungarian, Baltic-Finnish branch: Finnish, Estonian, Permian branch: Komi, Udmurt, Volga branch: Mordovian, Samoyedic language! Nenets)
Caucasian family. Western group: Abkhaz subgroup - Abkhazian, Circassian subgroup - Adyghe. Eastern group: Nakh subgroup - Chechen, Dagestan subgroup - Avar, Lak, southern group - Georgian.
Chinese-Tibetan family. Chinese branch - Chinese. Tibeto-Burman branch - Tibetan, Burmese.
Afrosian family. Semitic branch - Arabic, Egyptian branch - Ancient Egyptian, Berber-Libyan branch - Kabyle, Cushitic branch - Somalia, Chadian branch - Hausa.

Indo-European family

Indo-European family.
Indian group (more than 100 languages, Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu)
Iranian (Pashto, Dari, Assetian)
Greek (ancient Greek, Middle Greek (Byzantine), Modern Greek)
Germanic (German, Swedish, English, Danish, Norman)
Romanesque (French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Latin)
Armenian
Albanian
Slavic (Balto-Slavic was divided into Baltic (Latvian, Lithuanian) Proto-Slavic (East Slavic (Russian and Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian), Western Slavic (Polish, Czech) , Slovak)
Celtic (Irish, Scottish)
Baltic
Takharskaya (deceased)
Anatolian(Hittite)

Saussure defined language as a system of signs and then differentiated speech.
Language:
System of signs
Reflects the experience of the people
Doesn't depend on the people
A language unit has an abstract, generalized character (go: train, person, time, life)
The number of language units is limited or countable

Speech:
System implementation
Reflects the experience of an individual
Created by man (strives for clarity)
The unit of speech is specific (walk)
The number of units of speech is endless, limitless.

A level is a part of a language system that is associated with one unit.
Language Unit Level

From lowest to highest

A paradigm is the opposition of units of the same level. (Table - table)
In the 19th century the term was used in morphology. In the 20th century, it began to be used in relation to all levels. There is a reason, it has general meaning. Kinship terms.
Syntagma is a combination of units of the same level.

Synchrony - a system of language in a certain period of development (modern Russian language) Axis of simultaneity -
Diachrony is the path of language through time. Sequence axis (approximate sign).

Phonetics and phonology

Phonetics studies sounds without connection with meaning
Phonetics is the sound side of a language.
Phonology is the study of the phoneme. (A phoneme is the smallest unit of measurement.
Phonology emerged in the 19th century. Founder I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Development in the 20th century.
Acoustic aspect in the study of language sounds.
Every sound is a vibrational movement. These oscillatory movements are characterized by certain acoustic properties, the consideration of which constitutes the acoustic aspect in the study of the sounds of language and speech.
Uniform vibrations - tone. Uneven - noise. In linguistic sounds, both tone and noise are used in varying proportions. Tones arise as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords in the larynx, as well as response vibrations of air in the supraglottic cavities, and noises arise mainly as a result of an air stream overcoming various kinds of obstacles in the speech canal. Vowels are mainly tones, voiceless consonants are noises, and in sonants tone prevails over noise, and in voiced noisy ones (d, d) it is the other way around.
Sounds are characterized by height, which depends on the vibration frequency (the more vibrations, the higher the sound) and strength (intensity), which depends on the amplitude of the vibration.
Timbre is a specific color. It is timbre that distinguishes sounds.
In the formation of speech sounds, the role of a resonator is played by the oral cavity, nose and pharynx, thanks to the various movements of the speech organs (tongue, lips, velum).
Biological aspect in the study of language sounds.
Every sound we pronounce in speech is not only a physical phenomenon, but also the result of a certain work of the human body and an object of auditory perception, which is also associated with certain processes occurring in the body.
The biological aspect is divided into pronunciation and perceptual.
Pronunciation aspect.
For pronunciation it is necessary: A certain impulse sent from the brain; transmitting impulses to the nerves that perform this work; complex work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea); hard work pronunciation organs (voices, tongue, lips, velum, lower jaw.
The totality of the work of the respiratory apparatus and the movements of the pronunciation organs necessary to pronounce the corresponding sound is called the articulation of this sound.
The vocal cords, when stretched, begin to vibrate, and when air passes through the glottis, a musical tone (voice) is created.
The supraglottic cavities - the cavity of the pharynx, mouth, nose - create resonator tones. There is an obstacle in the path of the air stream. When the pronunciation organs come into close contact, a bow is formed, and when they are sufficiently close, a gap is formed.
The tongue is a mobile organ that can take different positions. Forms a gap or closure.
Palatalization - the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, giving the consonant a specific coloring one iota.
Velarization is the raising of the back of the tongue towards the soft palate, imparting hardness.
Lips are an active organ. Forms a gap and a bow.
The velum palatine can take a raised position, closing the passage into the nasal cavity, or, on the contrary, lower, opening the passage into the nasal cavity and thus connecting the nasal resonator.
Also, the active organ is the tongue, which trembles when pronounced.

Functional (phonological) aspect in learning the sounds of a language.
Sound performs certain functions in language and speech, and it is a background in the flow of speech and a phoneme in the language system. In combination with other sounds, it acts as a material, sensory-perceptible means of consolidating and expressing thoughts, as an exponent of a linguistic sign.

The sound of speech is a specific sound pronounced by a specific person in a specific case. The sound of speech is a point in articulatory and acoustic space.
The sound of a language is a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in articulatory-acoustic terms, defined by speakers as identity.
The sound of a language is a sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers.
Vowels can be characterized as "mouth opener" sounds. Consonants are “mouth-closers.” When pronounced, one or another obstacle appears in the path of the air stream. With vowels, no obstacle is created when the air stream passes, but with consonants, the opposite is true.
Sounds can be instantaneous (p, b, g, k) and long-lasting (m, n, r, s).

Vowels are classified according to the width of the mouth - wide (a), medium (e, o), narrow (i, u). The pitch of the tone (resonator) corresponding to a given volume and a given shape of the resonator (lowest U, highest I)
When pronouncing vowels, the tip of the tongue does not play any role; it is lowered, and the back of the tongue articulates with its front, back and middle parts. In this case, each part of the tongue rises to one level or another, just so that a bow or gap does not form with the palate. The position of the lips is very important. Stretching the lips shortens the front part of the resonator, which increases the resonator tone; rounding the lips into a ring and stretching them into a tube increases the front part of the resonator, which lowers the resonator tone; this articulation is called rounding or labialization. Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally, along a row, i.e. along the part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given vowel sound (front, middle, back).
Vertically - along the rise, i.e. according to the degree of elevation of one or another part of the tongue..(upper, middle, lower)

Consonants are divided into sonants and noisy (acoustic characteristics)
They are divided according to the method of formation - defined as the nature of the passage for a stream of air during the formation of a speech sound. Fricatives (gap) and stops (stop). And stops are divided into: plosives (the bow breaks from a stream of air), affricates (the bow itself opens to allow air to pass into the gap and the air passes through this gap with friction, but unlike fricatives, not for a long time, but instantly, nasal (nasal, air passes bypassing through the nose, the soft palate descends and the soft tongue advances. The bow prevents air from escaping through the mouth), lateral (lateral, the side of the tongue is lowered down, a lateral bypass is formed between it and the cheek, through which the air escapes), tremulous (vibrants, bow periodically opens until there is a free passage and closes again. The organs of speech tremble.) All fricatives are noisy and come in two varieties - voiceless and voiced
According to the place of formation, this is the point at which two organs come together into a gap or close in the path of a stream of air and where, when directly overcoming an obstacle (plosives, affricates, fricatives), noise arises. In each pair, one organ plays an active role - an active organ (tongue) and a passive organ (teeth, palate).
Classification by active organs (labial, anterior, middle, posterior lingual)
By passive organs: labial, dental, anterior, middle, posterior palatal.

The main variety of the phoneme i is I, the minor variety is Y. There can be many varieties of one phoneme (an allophone is a type of phoneme), a protophone is the main variety of a phoneme. Minor varieties of phoneme - the rest. Sounds that alternate positionally cannot distinguish words (because they are in different positions). Words are distinguished only by those sounds that can be in the same position. Positional alternation - alternation of sounds in the same phoneme. (garden, gardens, gardener)

A beat is a part of a phrase (one or more syllables), united by one stress. The measures are united by the strongest point - the stressed syllable, and are delimited in those segments of the sound chain where the strength of the previous stressed syllable is already in the past, and the strengthening of the subsequent stressed syllable is still in the future.
Measures are divided into syllables. A syllable is a part of a beat consisting of one or more sounds, while not all syllables can be syllabic (form a syllable). A syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit.!
Syllables are divided into sounds. Thus, the sound of speech is a part of a syllable pronounced in one articulation, i.e. there will be a sound combination. (ts – ts)

A proclitic is an unstressed word attached to the front (at home, my uncle, what is he) (proclitic)
An enclitic is an unstressed word attached to the back. (has anyone seen it, on the house) (enkliza)

Phonology is the study of the phoneme. (phoneme is the smallest unit of measurement)
Phonology arose in Russia in the 70s of the nineteenth century. Its founder Baudouin de Courtenay introduced the concept of phoneme, contrasting it with the concept of sound. Based on his ideas, several phonological schools arose. 2 phonological schools.
MFS – A.A Reformatsky, R.I Avanesov (main), P.I. Kuznetsov(main), M.V. Panov, L.L. Kasatkin, L. Kalinchuk.
LFS – L.V. Shcherba (founder), Verbitskaya, N.S. Trubetskoy
MFS has 5 vowel sounds (the letter Y was not included)
The main difference between MFS and P(L)FS is in the assessment of sounds appearing in significatively weak positions. The IFS establishes the principle of invariability of the phonemic composition of a morpheme during phonetic alternations of sounds determined by given positions; the phonemic composition of morphemes can change only with historical alternations. P(L)FS believes that the phonemic composition of morphemes varies depending on similar phonetic positions.

2 main questions

34 consonant phonemes and 5/6 vowels (39, MFS). Disagreement over the phoneme Y.

LFS: smoke and curie. That is, foreign words were also attracted.

A phoneme is the smallest, insignificant, generalized unit of language that serves to form words, to distinguish words, and to identify words.
A phoneme is a minimal linear, semantically distinctive unit of language, represented by a series of positionally alternating sounds and within one morpheme.
The phoneme performs 3 functions:

A phoneme exists to designate the basic (smallest) unit.
Varieties of phoneme: allophone – any variety of phoneme.
Protophone is the main type of phoneme.
Minor phoneme varieties are divided into phoneme variant and phoneme variation.
Regarding the perceptual function strong position one in which the phoneme appears in its basic form, regardless of position; a weak position is one in which the phoneme changes its sound depending on the position and appears as a variation of the phoneme. Father - otedz was
And significatively, strong and weak positions do not belong to any one phoneme, but to the opposition of two or more phonemes, which is carried out in a strong position and is neutralized in the general version in a weak position. Bow - Meadow.

Signs of phonemes:
A phoneme is a minimal but complex unit; it consists of a number of features. Features are determined by their main type: 1. Differential feature (DP) - a feature by which one phoneme differs from another phoneme. 2. An integral feature (IP) is a feature that is included in a phoneme, but does not contrast it with another phoneme.
The nature of the feature is determined only in the opposition of the phoneme. How many oppositions a phoneme is included in, so many differential features does it have. Pairing is a property of phonemes, but not sounds.
P – B. (steam room for deaf/ringing)
Ts-DZ-Ts’ – unpaired in deaf/sound and soft/tv.

Paired phonemes are phonemes that differ in one differential feature and have the ability to be neutralized.
(P)
1.yy
2.cm-adult
3.noisy, deaf.
4.tv.

T,k – DP
F – DP
B – DP
P”-DP
Those phonemes that are not neutralized by place and method of formation.

The distinctiveness of a phoneme is based on its connection with meaning. Because phonemes are meaningful units. According to the teachings of the IMF, the phoneme performs two main functions:
perceptual - to promote the identification of significant units of language - words and morphemes;
significative - to help distinguish significant units.

Phoneme boundaries are the definition of the principle by which a sound belongs to a phoneme.
The IMF has developed a functional or morphological criterion. If sounds form one morpheme, then they belong to the same phoneme.
Desk (a) (a)
Board, winter, mountain. To check - a word of the same part of speech, the same grammatical constructions.
Phonemic basically coincides with spelling.

The concept of phoneme position. Phonemes perform 2 functions. Significative and Perceptual.

(above the letter) Significative-strong position - a position in which phonemes are distinguished, contrasted and thereby distinguish words:
Vowel – stress (u-and unstressed position is strong.
For paired phonemes in deafness/voice: position before the vowel (code-year), - before sonorants, - before B (your-two)
For couples on TV/software. – end of a word, - before a vowel

Significative-weak position - a position in which phonemes do not differ, are not opposed, do not distinguish words (non-distinction) (Neutralization - rock-horn) OPTION.
For vowels - unstressed position (sama-soma, mela-mila)
For paired voice/voice phonemes - the end of the word!
For couples on TV/software. Phoneme. For dental before soft phonemes
In the middle of a word before deaf/sound. Consonant.
Pro[b]ka – pro(p)ka

(under the letter) Perceptually - strong position - the position in which the phoneme appears in its basic form.
Par(+), five(-)

Perceptually, a weak position is a position in which the phoneme appears not in its basic form, but in the form of a variation. (father was father)

etc.................

§ 2. LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON

If language is not a natural phenomenon, then, consequently, its place is among social phenomena. This decision is correct, but in order for there to be complete clarity, it is necessary to clarify the place of the language among others social phenomena. This place is special due to the special role of language in society.

What does language have in common with other social phenomena and how does language differ from them?

What language has in common with other social phenomena is that language is a necessary condition for the existence and development of human society and that, being an element of spiritual culture, language, like all other social phenomena, is unthinkable in isolation from materiality.

But the functions of language and the patterns of its functioning and historical development is fundamentally different from other social phenomena.

The idea that language is not a biological organism, but a social phenomenon, was expressed earlier by representatives of “sociological schools” both under the flag of idealism (F. de Saussure, J. Vandries, A. Meillet) and under the flag of materialism (L. Noiret, N.Ya. Marr), but the stumbling block was a lack of understanding of the structure of society and the specifics of social phenomena.

In social phenomena, Marxist science distinguishes between the basis and the superstructure, that is, the economic structure of society at a given stage of its development and the political, legal, religious, artistic views of society and the institutions corresponding to them. Each base has its own superstructure.

It never occurred to anyone to identify language with the base, but the inclusion of language in the superstructure was typical of both Soviet and foreign linguistics.

The most popular opinion among anti-biologists was to classify language as an “ideology” - in the realm of superstructures and to identify language with culture. And this entailed a number of incorrect conclusions.

Why is language not a superstructure?

Because language is not a product of a given basis, but a means of communication of the human collective, which develops and persists over the course of centuries, even though at this time there are changes in the bases and the corresponding superstructures.

Because the superstructure in class society is an accessory of this class, and the language does not belong to one class or another, but to the entire population and serves different classes, without which society could not exist.

N. Ya. Marr and the followers of his “new doctrine of language” considered the class character of language one of their main positions. This reflected not only a complete misunderstanding of language, but also of other social phenomena, since in a class society, not only language, but also economics is common to different classes, without which society would fall apart.

This feudal dialect was common to all levels of the feudal ladder “from prince to serf”¹, and during the periods of capitalist and socialist development of Russian society, the Russian language served Russian bourgeois culture just as well before the October Revolution as it later served the socialist culture of Russian society.

¹See . Ch. VII, § 89.

So, there are no class languages and there never were. The situation is different with speech, as discussed below (§4).

The second mistake of linguists was to identify language and culture. This identification is incorrect, since culture is an ideology, and language does not belong to ideology.

The identification of language with culture entailed whole line incorrect conclusions, since these premises are incorrect, i.e. culture and language are not the same thing. Culture, unlike language, can be both bourgeois and socialist; language, being a means of communication, is always popular and serves both bourgeois and socialist culture.

What is the relationship between language and culture? The national language is a form of national culture. It is connected with culture and is unthinkable without culture, just as culture is unthinkable without language. But language is not an ideology, which is the basis of culture.

Finally, there were attempts, in particular by N. Ya. Marr, to liken language to tools of production.

Yes, language is a tool, but the “tool” is in a special sense. What language has in common with the instruments of production (they are not only material facts, but also a necessary element of the social structure of society) is that they are indifferent to the superstructure and serve different classes of society, but the instruments of production produce material goods, while language produces nothing and serves only as a means of communication between people. Language is an ideological weapon. If the tools of production (axe, plow, combine, etc.) have a structure and structure, then language has a structure and systemic organization.

Thus, language cannot be classified as either a base, a superstructure, or an instrument of production; language is not the same as culture, and language cannot be class-based.

Nevertheless, language is a social phenomenon that occupies its own special place among other social phenomena and has its own specific characteristics. What are these specific features?

Since language, being a tool of communication, is also a means of exchanging thoughts, the question naturally arises about the relationship between language and thinking.

Regarding this issue, there are two opposing and equally incorrect trends: 1) the separation of language from thinking and thinking from language and 2) the identification of language and thinking.

Language is the property of the collective; it communicates between members of the collective and allows them to communicate and store the necessary information about any phenomena in the material and spiritual life of a person. And language as a collective property has been evolving and existing for centuries.

Thinking develops and is updated much faster than language, but without language thinking is only a “thing for itself”, and a thought not expressed in language is not that clear, distinct thought that helps a person comprehend the phenomena of reality, develop and improve science, it is , rather, some kind of foresight, and not actual vision, this is not knowledge in the exact sense of the word.

A person can always use ready material language (words, sentences) as a “formula” or “matrix” not only for the known, but also for the new. Chapter II (“Lexicology”) will show how one can find means of expression for new thoughts and concepts in language, how one can create terms for new objects of science (see § 21). And it is precisely by finding the right words for oneself that a concept becomes understandable not only to other members of society, but also to those who want to introduce these new concepts into science and into life. The Greek philosopher Plato once spoke about this ( IV V. BC e.). “It seems funny to me, Hermogenes, that things become clear if you depict them through letters and syllables; however, this is inevitably so” (“Cratylus”) ¹.

¹ See: Ancient theories of language and style. L., 1936. P. 49.

Every teacher knows: only then can he affirm what he teaches when it is clear to him - when he can tell it to his students in words. No wonder the Romans said: Docendo discimus (“By teaching, we learn”).

If thinking cannot do without language, then language without thinking is impossible. We speak and write while thinking, and we try to express our thoughts more accurately and clearly in language. It would seem that in those cases when the words in speech do not belong to the speaker, when, for example, a reciter reads someone’s work or an actor plays a role, then where is the thinking? But it is hardly possible to imagine actors, readers, even announcers as parrots and starlings who pronounce but do not speak. Not only artists and readers, but also everyone who “speaks someone else’s text” interprets it in their own way and presents it to the listener. The same applies to quotes, the use of proverbs and sayings in ordinary speech: they are convenient because they are successful and laconic, but their choice and the meaning embedded in them are a trace and consequence of the speaker’s thoughts. In general, our ordinary speech is a set of quotations from a language known to us, the words and expressions of which we usually use in our speech (not to mention the sound system and grammar, where “new” cannot be invented).

Of course, there are situations when a given speaker (for example, a poet) is not satisfied with ordinary words “worn out like dimes” and creates his own (sometimes successfully, sometimes unsuccessfully); but, as a rule, new words of poets and writers most often remain the property of their texts and are not included in mutual language, - after all, they are formed not to convey the “general”, but to express something individual, associated with the figurative system of this text; These words are not intended for mass communication or for conveying general information.

This idea was expressed in a paradoxical form by the Greek philosopher of the 2nd century. n. e. Sextus Empiricus, who wrote:

“Just as a person who loyally adheres to a well-known coin that is in circulation in a city according to local custom can easily carry out monetary transactions taking place in that city, another person who does not accept such a coin, but mints some other, new coin for himself and pretending to its recognition will do it in vain, so in life that person is close to madness who does not want to adhere to the speech accepted like a coin, but (prefers) to create his own.

¹ Ancient theories of language and style. L., 1936. P. 84.

When we think and want to convey to someone what we have realized, we put our thoughts into the form of language.

Thus, thoughts are born on the basis of language and are fixed in it. However, this does not mean at all that language and thinking are identical.

The laws of thinking are studied by logic. Logic distinguishes concepts with their characteristics, propositions with their members and conclusions with their forms. There are other significant units in the language: morphemes, words, sentences, which do not coincide with the indicated logical division.

Many grammarians and logicians of the 19th and 20th centuries. tried to establish parallelism between concepts and words, between judgments and sentences. However, it is easy to see that not all words express concepts (for example, interjections express feelings and desires, but not concepts; pronouns only indicate, and do not name or express the concepts themselves; proper names do not express concepts, etc.) and not all sentences express judgments (for example, interrogative and imperative sentences). In addition, the members of the judgment do not coincide with the members of the sentence.

The laws of logic are universal laws, since people all think the same way, but express these thoughts in different languages in different ways. The national characteristics of languages have nothing to do with the logical content of a statement; the same applies to the lexical, grammatical and phonetic form of an utterance in the same language; it can be varied in the language, but correspond to the same logical unit, for example: This is a huge success And This is a huge success. This is their home And This is their home, I wave the flag And I'm waving the flag[uh 2 t @ tv ö ro 2 k] and [e 2 t @ tvo 2 r @ x], etc.

With regard to the connection between language and thinking, one of the main issues is the type of abstraction that permeates the entire language, but is different in its structural tiers, lexical, grammatical and phonetic, which determines the specificity of vocabulary, grammar and phonetics and the special qualitative difference between their units and the relationships between them¹.

¹ See about this in chap. II, III and IV.

Language and thinking form a unity, since without thinking there can be no language and thinking without language is impossible. Language and thinking arose historically simultaneously in the process of human labor development.

So, at the risk of being subjected to harsh criticism for excessive typology, let's say that these characteristics are distributed among modern races as follows.

3. question language

Language as a social phenomenon

Language arises, develops and exists as a collective property. Its main purpose is to serve the needs of human society and, above all, to ensure communication between members of a large or small social group, as well as the functioning of the collective memory of this community.

The concept of society is one of the most difficult to define. Society is not just a set of human individuals, but a system of diverse relationships between people belonging to certain social, professional, gender and age, ethnic, ethnographic, religious groups, to the ethno-sociocultural environment where each individual occupies his specific place and in Because of this, he acts as a bearer of a certain social status, social functions and roles as an individual. An individual as a member of society can be identified on the basis of a large number of relationships that connect him with other individuals. The peculiarities of an individual's linguistic behavior and his behavior in general turn out to be largely determined by transpersonal factors.

The problem of the relationship between language and society includes many aspects, including those that are included in the groups of problems:

Social essence of language: Functions of language in society. The main directions of the social evolution of languages. The history of the language and the history of the people speaking it.

Variation of language in society: Functional variants (forms of existence) of language (literary language and its book-written and oral-spoken forms, vernacular). Language and territorial differentiation of society (territorial dialects). Languages social differentiation societies (social dialects). Language and social roles of speakers.

Interaction of languages in a multi-ethnic society: Languages and ethnic groups. Language situations. National language policy. Language contacts. Multilingualism in a sociological aspect. Language and ethnic identity.

Language and culture: Language as a product of culture and as an instrument of culture. Cultural stratification of society and language. Interaction of ethnocultures and intercultural communication.

These problems are studied by sociolinguistics (social linguistics), which arose at the intersection of linguistics and sociology, as well as cultural and linguistic anthropology, ethnolinguistics, ethnography of speech, stylistics, rhetoric, pragmatics, theory of linguistic communication, theory of mass communication, theory of intercultural communication, etc. . Let us dwell for now on the subject of sociolinguistics.

Language performs the following social functions in society:

Communicative / informative (transmission and receipt of messages in the form of linguistic / verbal statements carried out in acts of interpersonal and mass communication, exchange of information between people as participants in acts of linguistic communication),

cognitive / cognitive (processing and storage of knowledge in the memory of the individual and society, the formation of conceptual and linguistic pictures of the world),

interpretative / interpretive (revealing the deep meaning of perceived linguistic statements / texts),

regulatory / sociative / interactive (linguistic interaction of communicants with the goal of exchanging communicative roles, asserting their communicative leadership, influencing each other, organizing a successful exchange of information due to compliance with communicative postulates and principles),

contact-establishing / phatic (establishing and maintaining communicative interaction),

emotional-expressive (expression of one’s emotions, feelings, moods, psychological attitudes, attitude towards communication partners and the subject of communication), aesthetic (creation of works of art),

magical / “spellcasting” (use in religious ritual, in the practice of spellcasters, psychics, etc.),

ethnocultural (unification into a single whole of representatives of this ethnic group as native speakers of the same language),

metalinguistic / metaspeech (transmission of messages about the facts of the language itself and speech acts in it).

The history of each language is closely connected with the history of the people who are its speakers. There are significant functional differences between the language of a tribe, the language of a people, and the language of a nation. Language plays an extremely important role in the consolidation of related (and not only related) tribes into a nationality and in the formation of a nation.

The same ethnic group can use two or more languages at the same time. Yes, many nations Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages they used both their spoken languages and Latin. In Babylonia, along with Akkadian (Babylonian-Assyrian) for a long time Sumerian language was used.

On the contrary, the same language can simultaneously serve several ethnic groups. So, Spanish used in Spain, and also (often simultaneously with other languages) in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, the Republic of Cuba, Philippines, Republic of Equatorial Guinea, etc.

An ethnic group may lose its language and switch to another language. This happened, for example, in Gaul due to the Romanization of the Celts. The same thing happened with the ethnic groups living in the territory of what is now Spain and Portugal, Romania and Moldova.

Describing the relationships used in one social group different options language or different languages, they talk about the linguistic situation. Having uttered the expression “language situation,” we turned to the field of sociolinguistics. To begin with, briefly, about what sociolinguistics is as a science and what it studies.

4.language structure

As an instrument of communication, language must be organized as a whole, have a certain structure and form the unity of its elements as a certain system. Since our concepts and ideas about an object are not at all correlated with the world of real things, but are only a reflection of them, then what are words? It is absolutely clear that words as certain sound complexes do not “reflect” reality, as concepts do. Why do we still learn that “house” is “house” and “cat” is “cat”? We find the answer to this in the theory of sign.

A sign is a member of a specific sign system. First of all, it must be said that not every unit can be a sign. Because to implement it you need to have:

1. Denoting(what we see, hear, feel, etc.)

2. Designated(content that is hidden behind the external form)

3. Conditional connection between them(not natural, not natural).

Based on this, it is clear that speech sounds are not signs, but certain combinations make it possible for the appearance of morphemes, words, and significant units of language. Letters are characterized by inclusion in two sign systems: alphabetic and graphic. The ability of signs to perform different functions is based on the fact that the signs within a given sign system (alphabet, sound structure of a language) themselves differ either in general or through some particular, separate diacritics. This can be illustrated in letters. Let's say, O and X differ in general, having nothing in common, and the letters Ш and Ш have everything in common, except for one diacritic.

Among scientists there is no common understanding of the sign in language, and many explain this concept in different ways. F.F. Fortunatov often used this term and noted that language represents a set of signs mainly for thought and for expressing thought in speech. There are also signs in language to express feelings. The Danish scientist L. Hjelmslev wrote that language, in its purpose, is primarily a sign system. Given an unlimited number of signs, this is achieved by the fact that all signs are built from non-signs, the number of which is limited.

Words as names of things and phenomena have nothing to do with these things and phenomena. If such a connection existed, then the language could not have the following groups of words:

1. synonyms (various sounding words, but calling the same thing) strike - strike, plant - factory;

2. homonyms (words that sound the same, but have different meanings) onion– weapons and plants, key– a spring and a tool for unlocking the lock;

3. It would also be impossible to transfer values: tail– part of the animal’s body and line;

4. finally, it would be impossible to have different sounding words to denote the same phenomenon in different languages, For example, Russian word"eagle" - goal. Adelaar( A delar), German Adler ( A dler), English Eagle (eagle), fr. Aigle.

Why anyway table, house and so on. not just sound combinations, but words that have meaning and are understandable to everyone who speaks Russian? To clarify this issue, you should also familiarize yourself with the structure of the language.

Under structure one should understand the unity of heterogeneous elements within the whole. The language is characterized by complexity and inconsistency of structure. So, verbal communication process can be presented in two plans: speaking plan And hearing plan. They are completely different from each other, or rather, mirror opposites: where the process of speaking ends is the beginning of the process of listening. What it produces speaking, forms articulatory complex, that which catches and perceives listening, forms acoustic complex. Physically, these processes are not equivalent. However, in the act of speech, these two complexes form a unity; they are two sides of the same object. Saying a word and hearing a word are the same thing from the point of view of language. The identification of what is spoken and what is heard ensures correct perception, without which it is impossible to achieve mutual understanding between speakers. For correct perception, it is necessary that both interlocutors possess the same articulatory-acoustic skills, i.e. skills of the same language. But the act of speech is not limited to perception. The next stage is understanding. It can only be achieved if speakers relate words and meanings in the same way, i.e. speak the same language. Thus, the Russian word “tobacco” in Turkish correlates with the meaning “dish”, “sheet of paper”.

So, language– a complex structure of interconnected heterogeneous elements. The difference in the elements of language structure is qualitative, which is determined by the different functions of these elements.

Nothing else exists or can exist in language.

The elements that make up language perform following functions:

1. Sounds perform two functions - perceptual- to be an object of perception and significative- have the ability to distinguish significant elements language – morphemes, words, sentences: mot, that, lot, cat, bot etc.

2. Morphemes perform semasiological function, i.e. express concepts. They can’t name morphemes, but they have meaning: ( red-) expresses only the concept of a certain color, and can name something only by turning into a word - redness, red, blush.

3. words characteristic nominative function, i.e. words name things and phenomena of reality (nominative). Proper names perform this function in pure form, while common nouns, for example, combine it with a semasiological function.

4. Offers perform communicative function, i.e. serve for message. Since sentences are made up of words, they components have both nominative and semasiological functions.

The elements of this structure form a unity in the language. Each element of a lower level can be used to create a larger unit: sound - morpheme - word - sentence.

Within each tier of the linguistic structure there is its own system, and the members of a given tier are members of this system.

System- a set of language units interconnected by stable relationships and characterized by interconnectedness and interdependence. Systems of individual tiers of linguistic structure, interacting with each other, form common system of this language.

There are several ways to classify languages:

· areal, according to cultural and historical areas (place of distribution);

· typological; for example, by the way of expression grammatical meaning languages are divided into analytical, isolating, synthetic and polysynthetic;

· genetic, by origin and degree of relationship. Languages are grouped into groups; those, in turn, become families. For some families, it has been proposed to unite them into taxa of a higher level - macrofamilies. Language taxonomy deals with the classification of languages based on genetic characteristics.

[edit]Language dynamics in the world

There are about 5 thousand languages on Earth.

There are about 5-6 thousand languages on Earth. With the development of communications, the number of living languages is declining at an average rate of 1 language per two weeks.

The 40 most common languages are spoken by approximately 2/3 of the world's population. The languages most spoken by people are Chinese, Hindi, English, Spanish, Arabic, Russian and Portuguese. Considerably widespread and French, however, the number of those who consider him family (first) is relatively small.

In order for a language to be preserved, about 100 thousand of its speakers are required. There are currently just over 400 languages considered endangered.

Languages die along with the last speaker, and therefore danger threatens, first of all, nations that do not use writing.

At the same time, it should be noted that differences in development, as well as the influence of neighbors, lead to changes in the area of language use and its changes. So, for example, Cyril and Methodius, when they created the Slavic alphabet, did not need a translator during their travels, because in the 9th century from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and from the Vltava to the Dnieper, all Slavs spoke the same language (proto-Slavic).

One of the reasons for the death of languages is their uneven distribution among the number of speakers. Thus, 80% of the world's population knows only 80 languages. At the same time, 3.5 thousand languages account for 0.2% of the Earth's inhabitants. The main reason for the process of extinction of languages is considered to be globalization and migration. People leave villages for cities and lose the language of their people.

About half of currently existing languages will fall out of use by the middle of the 21st century. Many languages are disappearing due to the fact that their speakers come into contact with a stronger linguistic environment, so the languages of small nationalities and the languages of peoples without statehood are primarily at risk of extinction. If less than 70% of children learn a language, it is considered endangered. According to UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, approximately 50 languages are currently at risk of extinction in Europe.

[edit]Characteristics of language

Languages are characterized by the degree of preservation and functional limitations.

[edit] Degree of preservation

Main article:Degree of preservation of languages

According to the degree of preservation Levels of endangerment) languages are characterized by a scale of six categories proposed in the UNESCO Red Book of Languages to more clearly determine the danger threatening a particular language:

· Extinct languages ( extinct)

Possibly extinct languages ( extinct)

· On the verge of extinction (almost extinct, nearly extinct)

· Endangered (dying) languages ( seriously endangered)

· Troubled languages ( endangered)

· Unstable languages ( potentially endangered)

· Prosperous languages (non-extinct) ( not endangered)

[edit] Functional limitation

Functionally limited is a language that does not have sufficient or no resources such as:

· stable spelling in certain system writing;

· reference literature (grammar, dictionaries, works of classics);

materials mass distribution(press, audio recordings, films, songs and music);

· technical and educational literature (technical and scientific publications, didactic works, textbooks);

· various media of everyday information (posters, announcements, correspondence, certificates, manuals, etc.);

· other means of transmitting information in language.

6.genetics of languages

There are several thousand languages in the world. The most well-known reference books include only modern (i.e. living and recently extinct) languages. According to the Ethnologist there are 6909 of them, and according to the Register of Linguistics (English) - 4994. Most of them are grouped into families, some languages are considered isolated (that is, they are monolingual families) or remain unclassified.

Family languages is considered to be a genetic linguistic union of approximately the same level of depth as the Indo-European languages, that is, it disintegrated approximately 6-7 thousand years ago. Some families, traditionally so called, turn out to be deeper units (for example, Austronesian languages, Cushitic languages). Below they are called superfamilies.

There are approximately 240 language families, over 100 isolates, and over 100 unclassified languages. Families are often united into units of a higher level - macrofamilies (phyla, English phylum), but most of them are scientifically unproven and/or unrecognized by most linguists. Only hypotheses about the existence of the Nostratic and Afrasian macrofamily can be considered reliable.

the most convenient way to organize such large number families are not genetic, but geographical - across continents or continents, although the boundaries of linguistic families, of course, do not entirely correspond to physical boundaries.

Genetic diversity is not equal among different regions.

1. Eurasia: a total of 21 families, 4 isolates and 12 unclassified languages.

2. Africa and South-West Asia: a total of 28 families, 10 isolates and 10 unclassified languages.

3. Oceania: “Papuan” and Australian languages. A total of 100 families and 32 isolated languages.

4. North America (including Mesoamerica): a total of 42 families, 28 isolates and 6 unclassified languages.

5. South America: According to the latest information, there are 55 families, 43 isolated and 77 unclassified languages.

Extinct languages, families and groups of languages are marked with †. The number of languages is indicated in (curly) brackets.

7.Indo-European

Indo-European languages- the most common in the world language family. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth, the number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. According to the views of some modern linguists, it is part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.

rmin Indo-European languages(English) Indo-European languages) was first introduced by the English explorer Thomas Young in 1813. In German-language literature the term is more often used Indo-Germanic languages(German) indogermanische Sprachen). Sometimes the Indo-European languages were previously called "Aryan", but this term now refers to the subfamily of Indo-European languages that includes the Nuristani branch and the Indo-Iranian languages.

[edit]Origin and history

The languages of the Indo-European family descend from a single Proto-Indo-European language, whose speakers probably lived about 5-6 thousand years ago. There are several hypotheses about the place of origin of the Proto-Indo-European language, in particular, regions such as Eastern Europe, Western Asia, steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia. With a high probability, the archaeological culture of the ancient Indo-Europeans (or one of their branches) can be considered the so-called “Yamnaya culture”, the bearers of which in the 3rd millennium BC. e. lived in the east modern Ukraine and southern Russia.

In turn, the Proto-Indo-European language, according to the hypothesis of H. Pedersen, developed by V. M. Illich-Svitych and S. A. Starostin, is part of the Nostratic macrofamily of languages, among which it is especially close to the Kartvelian languages, which, like it, have ablaut.

[edit]Composition and classification

The Indo-European family includes Albanian, Armenian, Greek languages and Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic, Iranian, Indian, Anatolian (Hittite-Luvian), Tocharian and Italic language groups. At the same time, the Anatolian, Tocharian and Italic groups (if the Romance ones are not considered Italic) are represented only by dead languages.

8.state

What is the State?

State - this is special form of organization of society that has certain means and methods of using power within society, establishing a certain order of relationships between members of society, installed on certain territories, And involving the entire population in its activities in the established territory. The main means of maintaining the established order is the use of power. The order of relationships between members of society and the use of power is determined by: the constitution, laws and other legal documents of the state, which are part of the formal structure of the state; as well as customs formed within society, regardless of the state, which are the basis for understanding the laws of the state and determine the informal procedure for the application and interpretation of laws.

State goals

In modern developed countries, the main goals of the state are:

· maintaining normal relationships between members of society, which consists in ensuring a certain level of security of people’s lives and property, that is, the security of their personal, scientific, creative and commercial activities;

· implementation and preservation of material and spiritual goals and values common to members of society, such as freedom, morality, justice, medicine, education, roads, ecology.

One of the foundations that can ensure the implementation of the stated goals is democracy, That there is a public choice of persons with power and managers government agencies authorities. In practice, democracy can only create the appearance that government bodies fully serve society. Driving skillfully public opinion By manipulating society through methods known in “crowd” psychology, one person, or a small group of people with the means to influence the masses, can ensure any convenient outcome of the elections. This type of democracy is especially characteristic of a state with an insufficiently educated and/or politically inactive population.

The term is commonly used in legal, political as well as social contexts.

Compared to a community, which is a simple (unorganized) society, the state contains in itself social class (or classes), whose professional occupation(or which) is the management of general affairs(in a communal structure, each community member is involved in managing them).

In Russian there is often a confusion between the concept of "state" and the political power that manages the general affairs of an organized society (for example: "in this state ..." and "the state insists on more intensive intervention in the economy ...")