It is not without reason that they assume that. Writing in Kievan Rus

Sergei was packing his things. On the go, one might say, I grabbed only the most necessary things: I wanted to make it before my wife returned from work... To run away as quickly as possible... From my wife, from my children... And to start a new life...

I was standing on the threshold with a suitcase when Svetlana came out of the elevator.

- Where are you going? - I asked my husband in surprise.

“I’m going to another woman,” he blurted out in one breath, “you and I no longer have anything in common.” Nothing!..

Despite his wife’s eyes, he suddenly turned around and ran down the stairs. The quick steps became quieter, and suddenly the entrance door creaked. And Svetlana was still standing on the threshold, puzzled and somewhat confused.

"Nothing in common? — I mentally asked myself a question. - What about children? “And even now the woman was thinking about only one thing - how to explain to the children that dad left them?

Sergei got into the car. He breathed out a sigh of relief: “Well, finally! I would rather go to my beloved, to Natasha... And start a new life...” And the past? That's it, all the bridges have been burned, as if he, this past, Sergei never had...

In his youth, Sergei had many girls. Some stayed in his life a little longer, others only a few hours. I was in no hurry to get married. I was sure: you need to choose a wife, as they say, for life - caring, devoted, economical.

And Sergei did not come across such and such. And suddenly Svetlana appeared in his life. I met her at a friend's wedding. Childishly naive, simple and at the same time intelligent, beautiful girl immediately captivated Sergei's heart.

And after a few months he asked Svetlana to marry him. The girl agreed. Sergei was, as they say, in seventh heaven. One after another, children were born to the couple.

There is an apartment, a car, a well-paid job... And her parents - both hers and his - help... What more do you need? Life, as they say, was good, and Sergei was sure of it...

A few years ago, Natalya appeared in their office. She came from a neighboring region in the direction. The young woman had a small daughter, whom she left at home with her mother. That's all that my colleagues knew about the new employee.

Natalya was a competent worker, whom everyone appreciated, and very often, at the request of her manager, she stayed after work. That’s when she and Sergei became close. The not-so-young boss, like a boy, fell in love with his subordinate...

Sergei had no plans for the future with Natasha. He lived, as they say, for today's meeting. But over time, the woman began to become unsatisfied with such a relationship, and she set a condition: either you leave your family and come to live with me, or we break up.

Sergei had no intention of leaving his family—that’s what he told Natalya about it. And after a few weeks, he begged her for forgiveness on his knees.

“I can’t live without you,” you understand.

At first everything was the same for them as before. Sergei did not spare anything for Natalya: he bought her clothes, took her to restaurants. Twice a year they went abroad on vacation... The man stopped thinking about children, and especially about his ex-wife. Only when he visited his parents did his mother really ask him to return to the family.

“Before it’s too late, son, come to your senses,” the woman persuaded. Every time I come to visit them, your son asks about you... He waits...

Sergei was annoyed by those motherly conversations, so he began to visit his parents less often. One day before Easter, when Sergei was looking through his mail in the office, a leaflet came into his hands. Opened it - congratulations on the holidays and the signature: “Dima and Lena.” And at the end, in large letters, it is carefully written: “WE ARE WAITING FOR YOU, Dad!!!”

Something skipped a beat inside... Sergei even smiled, remembering the children: Dima, who looked so much like him, and Alenka - and, although she was a girl, she always ran to dad with joy. I looked at the postcard again.

The thought even flashed through my head to take the children at least for a day: to go together to the carousel, to a cafe... But suddenly I remembered Natalya: I knew that she would not allow this. I was really jealous of Sergei for his past. Although... Are children a thing of the past? The man closed greeting card and hid it in a box...

Subsequently, Sergei remembered this postcard more than once, but he did not go to the children. More than once he walked through back streets, walked around - tried not to even drive past their house: was he afraid of this meeting, did he want to erase it from his life forever? The man himself didn’t understand this... And, apparently, he didn’t try to understand...

From time to time I learned news from my mother: that Dima finished the school year with a certificate of merit, and Alenka got sick - she caught a cold somewhere... from her mother I learned that Svetlana, ex-wife got married.

“Oh, Sergei, Sergei,” the mother said sadly, “you will regret it, you will regret it very much, but it will be too late... But what can I say - it’s already too late...

And the mother, while looking into the water: Sergei’s life with Natasha did not work out. And she became something completely different - selfish, aggressive, selfish... Or maybe she was like that, and Sergei, blinded by love or rather temporary infatuation, did not notice this before?

And one evening after work he decided to visit the children. Now he doesn’t care whether Natalya is angry or not. And, it seems, it’s the same for her now too: for six months now they’ve been living like strangers...

Sergei stood under the windows of the house for a long time. I kept thinking that I had to tell him what to do. And, perhaps, there is one in the apartment new husband Svetlana... But what does he mean to Sergei: he came to his children...

Already at the door, I shifted from foot to foot for several minutes and listened. Laughter was heard behind the door. Pressed the call button. Dima opened the door. The boy's joyful face suddenly became surprised. He called his sister.

Alenka also looked at dad strangely. The words seemed stuck in my throat. This minute of silence seemed like an eternity to everyone. Sergei tried to smile and, confused, even a little guiltily, held out a bag of sweets... The children continued to stand on the threshold...

Sergei ran down the stairs without even saying goodbye. I realized: now no one was waiting for him here...

Now no one considers it supernatural and inexplicable that Kievan Rus was a country that had a high written culture. It is not without reason that literacy was adopted in our country within a very short time and developed unhindered at first. This is confirmed by inscriptions that were preserved on wooden objects, for example, on spinning wheels, on fancy combs, for combing flax, on unpretentious pottery, on various pieces of wood...

It is not without reason that science attaches great importance to the study antiques. Without exaggeration, we can say that archaeological finds, thanks to which pictures of living antiquity were revealed, exceeded all the expectations of scientists.

In the well-known excavations near Novgorod, which were carried out for ten years, extremely interesting letters on birch bark were found. They imprinted the original background of the Russian book. The content of the letters is varied: these are private letters, commercial records, orders, wills... Noteworthy are the records of school exercises, which were apparently made by diligent students.

Control dictation for the first trimester (9)

At the age of eighteen, it is impossible for a person who feels an irresistible desire to come into contact with the unknown, the unknown, to be sedentary.

How wonderful it is in the evening to climb up the trembling ship's gangway onto the festively lit deck and join the noisy crowd of passengers who say goodbye to the land and go to sea, to some new, amazing, incomparable life.

When the steamer began to hum with a trumpet voice and the deck began to tremble from the work of the machines hidden in the hold, dark water with orange oil stains and light reflections began to boil at the sides. Suddenly he shuddered and, slowly turning around, the shore began to move away with a dark crowd of mourners who remained on the pier. The port lights floated, misty, and, running further and further into the interior of the mainland, they turned yellow there, in the distance. The cheerful stars that began to quickly approach seemed to hang directly on the yards, and they could be removed by hand, like a butterfly.

And suddenly there was a breath of freedom, salty coolness, and the Black Sea looked straight into your eyes.

I walked along the lower deck among the singing, screaming, dancing passengers, proud and sad, sitting motionless and falling asleep right on the deck. I was one of them that night, an unknown grain of sand that set off on a distant and unknown voyage.

Number the SPPs with subordinate clauses and make their diagrams.

Control dictation for the first trimester (9)

Now (n..) who (not) considers it beyond (b, b) natural (n, nn) ​​and (un)obviously (b, b) clear that Kievan Rus was a country that region.. gave a high letter (n , nn)y culture. It is not without reason that they believe that literacy was acquired in our country (in) the shortest possible time. .failed at first. This is confirmed..is confirmed(?) by the inscriptions..that have been preserved on wood(nn, n)y other..objects, for example on spinning wheels on pr..wonderful combs for scratching.. flax on (un)pretty clay...(nn, n) dishes on various pieces of wood...

It is not for nothing that science gives... great importance to the study of ancient objects. Without further amplification, we can say that the arch..logical discoveries, thanks to which pictures of living antiquity were discovered, all the expectations of scientists have risen.

In (un)unknown excavations near Novgorod that lasted for ten years, very interesting letters on birch bark were found. The or..g..nal pre..history of the Russian book was baked in them..smoldering. The content of the letters is varied..variably, these include private letters and co(m, mm)erical records and ra(z, s)p..r..zhenies, bequests... (Not) without..interesting are the records of school administrations. .life which (s, z)deal(n, nn)s were apparently diligent students.

Number the SPPs with subordinate clauses and make their diagrams.

Control dictation for the first trimester (9)

At eight(?)twelve years old, a person who feels a (un)one..desire (with)pr..k..sleep(?) with (un)known(n, nn)ym ( not) famous (it is not) possible to be settled.

How pr..redly in the evening hour it was lifted(?) up the deep(f, zh)sh.. ship's ladder onto the pr.. connects(?) to a noisy crowd of pa(s, ss)zhirov who say goodbye(?) to the earth and go to sea to some new amazing n..(s) than (not) cf ..pay attention to life!

When the steamer began to hum with a trumpet voice and the deck began to tremble..gat(?) from the work of the hidden(n, nn) ​​cars in the hold..sang at the sides dark with oil..(nn, n)s..range.. water with bright spots, with light reflections. Suddenly he..trembled and slowly (n, nn)o..turned around and began to move away the shore with a dark crowd of w..w..s who remained on the pro..berth. The port lights floated foggy, fading further and further (into) the depths of the metropolis and turning yellow there (in) the distance. The cheerful stars that began to quickly pr..f..huddle seemed to sit right on the yards and they could be removed like a butterfly by hand.

And suddenly there was a breath of freedom, salt (nn, n) oh coolness, and the Black Sea looked straight into your eyes.

I walked around the lower deck among the singing, screaming, dancing proud and sad (immobile) sitting and falling asleep right on the deck pa(ss, s)zhirov. I was one of them that night, a weightless sand girl who was setting off on a distant and (un)known voyage.

Number the SPPs with subordinate clauses and make their diagrams.

The reason for the arrest of the Magomedov brothers was the transfer of compromising evidence against Kerimov to France

The decisive factor in the prosecution of the co-owners of the Summa group, businessmen Ziyavudin and Magomed Magomedov, was the French criminal case against their competitor Suleiman Kerimov. As Dozhd found out, the senator was detained precisely at the instigation of the Magomedovs; in Moscow this was considered a betrayal.

A source close to the FSB and interlocutors surrounded by the Magomedovs and Kerimov told Dozh about the connection between the arrest of the Magomedovs and the persecution of Kerimov in France.

In 2016, a confrontation began between businessmen over the Makhachkala port. According to the statutory documents, the port is a federal state unitary enterprise. Its director since 2010 is Akhmed Gadzhiev, the brother of State Duma deputy of the last three convocations Magomed Gadzhiev and a close friend of Senator Suleiman Kerimov. The media named Kerimov as the real beneficiary of the port.

In May 2016, Rosmorrechflot unexpectedly decided not to renew the contract with Gadzhiev and appoint a new director, Andrei Gormakh, a native of the Summa group. Until this time, Gormakh was the first deputy head of the United Grain Company (UGC), which was part of the Summa group of the Magomedov brothers. The confrontation between businessmen lasted almost a year - the port was captured by MMA fighters, and the decisions of Rosmorrechflot regarding the Makhachkala port were canceled by Kerimov's supporters in the Chechen Republic - in the Gudermes city court.

Ziyavudin and Magomed Magomedov

According to Dozhd's interlocutor, close to the leadership of the FSB, the Magomedov brothers decided to sort out this situation and initiate a criminal case against Kerimov. “They handed over financial documents about Kerimov’s money laundering to the French police,” says a source in the intelligence service. “They passed it on through their business partner, David Kaplan,” clarifies Dozhd’s second interlocutor, close to the Magomedovs’ entourage.

Forbes also connected the Magomedovs with businessman Kaplan, “a mysterious oligarch and big capital.” And it was after this, both sources say, that Kerimov was detained in Nice in November 2017. This version is also confirmed by an interlocutor surrounded by the senator. In France, Kerimov was charged with tax evasion when purchasing a villa on the Cote d'Azur.

In January, the French authorities released the senator to Moscow for several days. During this visit, he met with the head of the Federation Council, Valentina Matvienko, and explained to her his position on the case. At the same time, well-known businessmen, politicians and top managers of state-owned companies, including billionaire Mikhail Prokhorov and the head of Sberbank German Gref, sent letters with instructions to the French embassy.

Dozhd's sources close to the FSB and the Magomedovs' entourage claim that there was also an informal personal guarantee from Vladimir Putin, and it was thanks to him that they finally decided to release Kerimov to Russia. It was important for Kerimov to fly to Moscow to collect evidence for his defense. As a result, in June 2018, seven months later, all charges against the senator were dropped.

In March, the Magomedov brothers ended up in the Lefortovo pre-trial detention center in Moscow. “They should have immediately understood everything when Kerimov flew to Moscow in the winter, but for some reason they delayed,” says a source close to them. “But they were really planning to leave the country.” The plane was already waiting for them to go to Miami with a full tank. Now no one will let them go.”

Suleiman Kerimov

“This is how to hand over Suleiman! Vladimir Vladimirovich did not like this, he does not like it when our citizens arrange showdowns with each other abroad,” an interlocutor close to Kerimov’s entourage told Dozhd. A source close to the FSB also says that the Magomedovs’ criminal case was a response to their actions in France. According to him, the decision was made “at the very top.”

Ziyavutdin Magomedov’s lawyer, Alexander Gofshtein, told Dozhd that he does not have any information about the confrontation between businessmen. At the same time, he stated that he considered the version that the Magomedovs handed over anything to the French police to be “nonsense.”

Now the Magomedovs have been charged with organizing a criminal community, fraud and embezzlement. In total, they are charged with seven episodes totaling damage to the state and regional budget of 2.5 billion rubles. One of the biggest episodes in their case is the withdrawal of money during the construction of the Arena Baltika football stadium. At this construction site, according to investigators, the Magomedovs stole 750 million rubles and almost disrupted the opening of the stadium for the World Cup.

Anastasia Mikhailova, Olga Gladysheva

According to S.I. Alliluyeva, he died without regaining consciousness for a day after a drinking session with some Georgians. An autopsy revealed complete destruction of the body by alcohol. He was forty-one years old.

His son and daughter from his first marriage went to the funeral with his third wife, Capitolina, his only friend.

Almost the whole of Kazan gathered for the funeral... They looked at the children and Capitolina with surprise: the nurse Masha, who had illegally registered her marriage with him, assured everyone that she had been his “faithful friend” all his life... She barely allowed the children to approach the coffin .

In Kazan, in the cemetery now stands the grave of General V.I. Dzhugashvili with a pretentious inscription made by Masha - “To the only one.”

This is how Svetlana described her brother’s death in her book “Twenty Letters to a Friend.” This book was created in the summer of 1963 in the holiday village of Zhukovka, near Moscow, over the course of 35 days. I have already mentioned the history of its writing. The more time passes since then, the more often the reliability of the information given in it is questioned.

So S.V. Gribanov had objections. Yes, Vasily Stalin was buried in Kazan, at the Arskoye cemetery. Svetlana Alliluyeva writes that almost the entire city gathered for the funeral. On the contrary, there was almost no one there. Son, daughter, Kapitolina Vasilyeva and several curious onlookers gathered at the entrance when the coffin was carried out. Some “comrades” quickly loaded him onto a hearse. They slammed the doors - and off the gas! No speeches, no farewell words...

What more!

S.P. Krasikov:

He is buried in the Arsky (Ershovoy) field-cemetery of Kazan. In depth central alley- the first grave on the left side is Vasily Iosifovich Stalin. Twenty-seven times Vasily Stalin went into battle, twenty-seven times he came face to face with death, and only for this he should be revered and respected.

Vladimir Alliluyev says that their family asked N.S. Khrushchev to bury Vasily next to his mother, in the family grave, but did not find any understanding. Vasily Stalin is buried in Kazan. Vladimir Alliluyev is still convinced that this is unfair and Vasily’s ashes should lie not in Kazan, but in Moscow, on Novodevichy near his mother Nadezhda Sergeevna Alliluyeva-Stalina. The dead are not punished...

He was reburied in Moscow. But not next to his mother on Novodevichy, but next to his last wife Maria Nuzberg on Troekurovskoye Cemetery. This happened in November 2002. Daughter Tatyana made her way to Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov in August 2002 and asked for assistance in reburying her father. The minister gave corresponding instructions.

Among the documents of the KGB department in Kazan, the shortest report I have ever seen was recently discovered: “Certificate. The expenses for the funeral of “Flieger” amounted to 426 rubles 05 kopecks.”

“Flieger” is none other than Vasily Stalin. This was the nickname he went by in state security papers. She was not indifferent to him even during her stay in the Vladimir prison. As follows from a secret special report from the head of the prison, Lieutenant Colonel Kozik, Vasily Stalin was placed in cell 4-36 with two prisoners (also in cell 58), one of whom, according to Kozik, is “our source.”

Literacy in Rus'. Dictation (text and article)

Literacy in Rus'. Dictation (text)

(1) Now no one considers it supernatural and inexplicable that from the beginning of Christianity until the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Kievan Rus was a country of high and beautiful written culture. (2) The introduction of Christianity and its integration into Byzantine literature established the continuity of two written cultures. (3) This greatly increased the interest of the Eastern Slavs in the book and contributed to the spread of writing at the dawn of its civilization.

(4) It is not without reason that literacy was adopted in our country within the shortest time and developed unhindered at first. (5) Nothing blocked the people’s path to literacy, and our ancestors quickly mastered a relatively high level of writing. (6) This is confirmed by surviving inscriptions on wooden objects, for example, on spinning wheels, on fancy combs for combing flax, on unpretentious pottery, on various pieces of wood not suitable for display ́rovaniye.

(7) It is not without reason that science attaches great importance to the study of ancient objects. (8) Without exaggeration, we can say that archaeological finds have exceeded all the expectations of scientists, revealing pictures of living antiquity. (9) In the well-known excavations near Novgorod, which lasted for ten years, very interesting letters on birch bark were found. (10) This is an unprecedented discovery in archaeology: they capture the original prehistory of the Russian book.

(According to I. Golub.)

Tasks

Option I

IN 1. In one or two sentences, formulate the main idea of ​​the text.

AT 2. Among sentences 5-6, find a sentence with an introductory word. Indicate its number.

AT 3. Among sentences 4-6, find a compound sentence. Indicate its number.

AT 4. From sentence 4, write down all|all the prepositions.

AT 5. From sentences 1–3, write down the word with an alternating unstressed vowel at the root.

AT 6. From sentences 4-6, write out a separate definition.

AT 7. Indicate the way the word is formed for a reason (sentence 7).

AT 8. Write down the phrase (sentence 7) built on the basis of adjacency.

AT 9. Write down the grammatical basics of sentence 8.

Option II

IN 1. How else could the text be titled? Write down 2 of your own headings for the text.

AT 2. Among sentences 1-4, find a sentence with an introductory construction. Indicate its number.

AT 3. Among sentences 7-10, find a non-conjunctive complex sentence. Indicate its number.

AT 4. From sentence 9, write down all|all the prepositions.

AT 5. From sentences 4–6, write out the word with an alternating unstressed vowel at the root.

AT 6. From sentences 7-10, write out a separate circumstance.

AT 7. Indicate the method of formation of a written word (sentence 3).

AT 8. Write down the phrase (sentence 4) built on the basis of adjacency.

AT 9. Write down the grammatical basics of sentence 5.

Literacy in Rus' (article)

Education, enlightenment and literacy came to ancient Rus' along with Christianity. The faith in Christ was brought to the pagan Slavs from above by state power. By order of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, the original pagan faith was abolished, and a new one, unknown to the people, was established. In Kiev and Novgorod, the rite of baptism was performed on the pagan people in a compulsory manner. But a formal act is not at all sufficient for people professing another faith to suddenly become genuine Christians. Immersing a person in water three times and reading the rite of baptism over him does not mean turning him into a convinced neophyte. The Slavic pagans, having returned to their huts, did not at all become the “new people” of the New Testament. They continued to live according to the long-established way of life with their original views, beliefs, and traditions. To become a true Christian, a person must be enlightened and educated: he must know, understand and confess the fundamentals of the faith of Christ, its dogmas and rituals.

The difficult, painstaking and long-term mission - teaching and introducing the people to the Christian faith - became the main task for both the princely authorities and the Church.

With the formal churching of the Eastern Slavs, the need for educated and enlightened people increased sharply. In the ancient Orthodox culture, an educated person was considered a Christian who truly believed in Christ’s teaching, comprehended its essence and was read in the “divine books,” that is, who became like the image of Christ. The understanding of an “enlightened person” completely coincided with the original meaning of the word “enlightened”. Such was the believer who was illuminated by the light of the Lord. “I am the light of the world; whoever follows me will not remain in darkness, but will have the light of life” (John 8:12). The Gospel words of Jesus Christ were addressed not only to the apostles, but to everyone who followed his path: “You are the salt of the earth…, you are the light of the world” (Matthew 5: 13-14). “Enlightenment” in Church Slavonic means “baptism”. And the one who revealed the truths of Christian teaching to the pagans and actively contributed to the spread of the faith was revered as an enlightener. This designation was applied to saints who did much in the educational field and became famous for converting peoples to the Christian faith.

Meanwhile, Rus' needed not only educated and enlightened ascetics, but also literate people. The baptism of Russia and the spread of literacy became links in one chain. On the one hand, to strengthen the Kiev statehood, a competent administration was required. On the other hand, the Church, the ideological pillar of princely power, was equally interested in training competent clergy. For the numerous churches that were opening needed people who could read the statutory books to conduct worship. First of all, this directly concerned the parish clergy, who was directly connected with the unenlightened and uneducated pagan people.

By the time of the churching of the Eastern Slavs, the Christian doctrine, which emerged from the Jewish environment, had already been fully formed through the works of many generations of Greek apologists. Christian dogma has already been established as an unshakable stronghold of the true faith at the Ecumenical Councils. A complete set of church rules and regulations was developed, which were included in the Nomocanon. In a modified form, it received the name of the Kormcheya book in the Slavic lands, regulating the ecclesiastical and secular state of society. Finally, for the enlightenment of the Slavic peoples, the Byzantine enlighteners Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius created a Slavic grammar more than a hundred years before the baptism of Russia.

The ordinary priesthood and Christian ecclesia actually did not need, and it was impossible, to assimilate all the complex theological constructs of the Byzantine Church. You just had to accept with true faith the fundamental principles of Christian teaching in the Greek variation and be guided by them in your life. However, this task, stretched over centuries, turned out to be only partially feasible.

At the early stages of Christianization of the Eastern Slavs, a multi-ethnic composition of the clergy developed, which created additional difficulties in the widespread dissemination of the new religion. The majority of the clergy were foreigners who did not know the local language. The priestly composition consisted mainly of Greeks, taken by Vladimir from Korsun, where he, apparently, was baptized; and also Bulgarians, to some extent Serbs. Both of them had a more developed ecclesiastical knowledge in this era.

Services in churches were conducted in Greek, unknown to the parishioners, and later in ancient Church Slavonic, which is not identical in any of its variants to the Old Russian language. Nobody spoke Church Slavonic in real life, it was never spoken and was understandable only in narrow circles of educated people.

Temple worship could not orient pagan parishioners to consciously accept a foreign religion. Involuntarily, the neophytes were required, first of all, to outwardly observe Christian principles and piety. Therefore, the chronicler, with bitterness, but rightly, wrote under the year 1068: “they are called Christians in a word, but live in filthy ways,” that is, as pagans.

The opening temples only in the Mary Tolik played the role of the “teachers of the beliefs”, what they should become with the regulatory and methodical reading of the Propes, clarifying the Christian learning and instructing the path and the sustainable. But for the Byzantine clergy, preaching was not the primary task in church activity. “Eastern Rome (Byzantium) was too far from Russia for it to really become part of its spiritual landscape,” G. Podskalski rightly noted. In addition, the Greek enlightenment missionaries were by no means in a hurry to the distant newly converted pagan lands. Enlightenment and preaching did not become obligatory for Russian “priests” either in the initial period or later until the 19th century. In addition to all this, among the Eastern Slavs there were extremely few of their own people, educated and “book-literate.”

Prince Vladimir himself did not know how to read and write and, according to the chronicler, was “ignorant.” His baptized squad and palace entourage were also by no means strong in “written wisdom” and well-read in the Gospel. And even more so for other privileged classes.

Only in the second generation of Christians in the country does a small layer of people who know literacy appear. Before others, the upper echelons of society took possession of it. It is known, for example, that the sons of Prince Vladimir, the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb, having received home education, had already read the Holy Scriptures.

pocrovahram.ru

Writing, literacy, schools. Ancient Rus'

The basis of any ancient culture is writing. When did it originate in Rus'? For a long time there was an opinion that the letter came to Rus' along with Christianity, with church books and prayers. However, it is difficult to agree with this. There is evidence of existence Slavic writing long before the Christianization of Rus'. In 1949, Soviet archaeologist D.V. Avdusin, during excavations near Smolensk, found a clay vessel dating back to the beginning of the 10th century, on which was written “gorushna” (spice). This meant that already at that time writing was in use in the East Slavic environment, there was an alphabet. This is also evidenced by the testimony of the Byzantine diplomat and Slavic educator Kirill. During his stay in Chersonesus in the 60s. 9th century he became acquainted with the Gospel written in Slavic letters. Subsequently, Cyril and his brother Methodius became the founders of the Slavic alphabet, which, apparently, was in some part based on the principles of Slavic writing that existed among the eastern, southern and Western Slavs long before their Christianization.

We must also remember that the treaties between Rus' and Byzantium dating back to the first half of the 10th century had “baking trays” - copies also written in the Slavic language. The existence of interpreters (translators) and scribes who recorded the speeches of ambassadors on parchment dates back to this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the further development of writing and literacy. Since the time of Vladimir, church scholars and translators from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia began to come to Russia. Numerous translations of Greek and Bulgarian books of both ecclesiastical and secular content appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. In particular, Byzantine texts are translated historical works, biographies of Christian saints. These translations became the property of literate people: they were read with pleasure in princely, boyar, merchant environment, in monasteries, churches, where Russian chronicle writing originated. In the 11th century such popular translated works as “Alexandria”, containing legends and traditions about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, “Deed of Devgenia”, which is a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis.

Thus, a literate Russian person of the 11th century. knew much of what was available in the writing and book culture of Eastern Europe and Byzantium.

The cadres of the first Russian scribes, scribes, and translators were formed in schools that were opened at churches from the time of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise, and later at monasteries. There is a lot of evidence of the widespread development of literacy in Rus' in the 11th–12th centuries. However, it was widespread mainly in the urban environment, especially among wealthy citizens, the princely-boyar elite, merchants, and wealthy artisans.

In rural areas, in remote, remote places, the population was almost entirely illiterate.

From the 11th century In wealthy families, they began to teach literacy not only to boys, but also to girls. Vladimir Monomakh's sister Yanka, the founder of a convent in Kyiv, created a school there to educate girls.

Birch bark letters are clear evidence of the widespread spread of literacy in cities and suburbs. In 1951, during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, expedition member Nina Akulova extracted birch bark from the ground with well-preserved letters on it. “I’ve been waiting for this find for twenty years!” - exclaimed the head of the expedition, Professor A.V. Artsikhovsky, who had long assumed that the level of literacy in Rus' at that time should have been reflected in mass writing, which could have been in the absence of paper in Rus', writing either on wooden tablets, as indicated by foreign evidence, or on birch bark Since then, hundreds of birch bark letters have been introduced into scientific circulation, indicating that in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, and other cities of Rus', people loved and knew how to write to each other. Among the letters are business documents, exchange of information, invitations to visit, and even love correspondence. A certain Mikita wrote to his beloved Ulyana on birch bark: “From Mikita to Ulianitsa. Come get me..."

There remains one more interesting evidence of the development of literacy in Rus': the so-called “graffiti”. They were scratched on the walls of churches by those who loved to pour out their souls. Among these inscriptions are reflections on life, complaints, prayers. The famous Vladimir II Monomakh, while still a young man, during church service, lost in the crowd of the same young princes, scrawled on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv: “Oh, it’s hard for me” and signed with his Christian name: "Basil".

moitvoru.ru

Culture of Ancient Rus' (9th - first third of the 13th centuries) Writing, literature, education

There was writing in Rus' even before the adoption of Christianity, and Old Russian writing was alphabetic. However, it was after the adoption of Christianity that writing began to spread and books appeared.

The spread of writing is associated with the names of the brothers - Cyril and Methodius in the 2nd half of the 9th century. . They created the first Slavic alphabet. From the 60s to the 9th century - the beginning of their educational activities.

The turn of the 9th-10th centuries - the Cyrillic alphabet was used (simplified Glagolitic alphabet), we still use it now. Its reform - under Peter 1 and in 1918.

First documents:

Treaty between Oleg and Byzantium in 911.

Birch bark charters (Novgorod)

Inscriptions on handicrafts and on the walls of stone buildings - graffiti (for example, a record of the death of Yaroslav the Wise on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv).

They wrote on parchment - specially treated calfskin, as well as on birch bark with ink or cinnabar, and until the 19th century - with goose feathers.

Books were decorated with miniatures, gold, precious stones or enamel.

The first chronicles - ca. 1040

Folklore.

Conspiracies, spells, ritual songs, epics, proverbs, sayings, riddles.

Epics about Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Mikul Selyaninovich, about the giant Svyatogor, about Sadko. The legendary storyteller is Boyan.

Genres of Old Russian literature.

Genres of literature: chronicle, life, word, teaching, historical stories.

40th 11c- “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Hilarion (on the equality of Rus' among Christian states).

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century-1187-). - about the unity of Rus'. (Igor’s campaign was in 1185).

“The Word” of Daniil Zatochnik (beginning of the 13th century)

Gospel.

1056-1057-Ostromir Gospel (Under Izyaslav) - the earliest.

Mstislav Gospel-12th century.

Chronicles.

1113, i.e. beginning of the 12th century - “The Tale of Bygone Years”, written by the monk Nestor (Kievo-Pechersk Monastery).

1377 - Laurentian Chronicle (it includes “The Tale of Bygone Years”) - a chronicle of the events of Rus' until 1305.

Beginning of the 15th century - Ipatiev Chronicle - (The same Laurentian Chronicle, but added events in Kyiv, Galich, Volyn before 1292).

Teaching.

1117- Teachings of V. Monomakh - a political and moral testament with elements of autobiography.

Walking (Walking)

Hegumen Daniel's journey to Palestine.

At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries - Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner.

Hagiographic literature (lives of saints, hagiography)

"The Tale of Boris and Gleb"

“The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” by the chronicler Nestor.

poznaemvmeste.ru

Russian language: From the history of Russian writing. Educational film

into Russian

writing appeared in the tenth

inscriptions made by Russian people pokal

find him years ago found him in Kerch

in the game prince at least by the sea political scientist hell we

cockroach races in short

Kerch 14 thousand is also about 30

kilometers

Did they find a dressing in Khmelnytskyi?

Etna inscriptions on bricks

asset on the walls of St. Sophia Cathedral

found records scratched on

plaster plant owner old people

also appeared

writing in Russian

more than a thousand one hundred years ago

wonderful educators

Cyril and Methodius were created on the basis

Greek alphabet southern Slavic

Cyrillic alphabet

this reference went to Rus'

the oldest that has come down to us

Russians handwritten books the rest come on

gospel written in cyrillic

like all the books of that time it was written

from on parchment

and more than nine hundred years

diligent scribes

by weight, each regiment strived to

so that all letters

were the same size

the text was continuous without division into

letters least geometrically

style

such a letter was called a charter

capital letters were drawn especially carefully

they were painted with red cinnabar

painted and buried in Egypt's body

artistic drawings

this is where the expression sign with comes from

red line that is, starts a new one

there were no special signs at that time

for numbers they were designated using

old stuff doesn't really mean anything to blame him for

in their handwritten books

there were many miniatures and drawings

chroniclers recorded important

historical events

initial Russian chronicle

talks about Kosovo and the Russian struggle

people with numerous

the most wonderful literary

works ancient Rus'

and Igor's regiment

Prince Igor went to war against the Polovtsians

and was cruel to take revenge

and the ground is black under the hooves

half a meter of the roof was sown with bones

Gorin they walked across Russian soil

a word about Igor's campaign

terribly called for Russian unity

on the eve of a difficult and terrible test

thirteenth century

Mongol Tatar ports fell on

Conquerors marched across Rus' with fire and sword

leaving behind flaming ruins

thousands of manuscripts were destroyed

the advent slowed down development for a long time

Russian writing but that didn’t stop

largest center of Russian culture

Novgorod was the only big one left

Russian city

which was not captured by operations

roof of the Mongol Tatars

during excavations of ancient Novgorod

were found in a scroll blackened by

birch bark time

covered with inscriptions

scientist processed birch bark ingots and

read them

it turned out to be birch bark letters

letters documents of ancient Novgorodians

here is one of these giants

bowed to my son Gregory

buy me Indian ships rub good heart

Akunin I gave money to David for wagering

and you, son, do it yourself, bring the year

in Novgorod they learned to read and write and simple

here is the Novgorod rebound

thirteenth 15 mines

in Novgorod Pskov Smolensk

Hundreds of birch bark letters were found

these findings tell us broad

spreading literacy in Rus'

in the fifteenth century

Moscow united the Russian land into one

state

from polled Mongol Tatar yoke

Moscow became the capital of the state and the center

general Russian writing

for a time

the nature of the letter changes

the letters become smaller and

rounded marks indicate the division of the text into

some are weak

such a letter is called

semi-artisanal

according to the statutes was written 1490 seventh

year and a judge or on the third

first code of laws of Moscow

states

the order looked like

ancient institutions for were compiled

important documents

in the executive chamber listened to wild and

going chery the idea was

census takers

and here are letters from that time to the homeland

ink and passenger

goose feathers

documents were written on separate sheets

which are then glued together

brightness fastened the places of his gluing

signature

glued highlighted strips documents

rolled up in a scroll

each column is also fastened by

pessimistic

this is what the original cathedral looks like

1649 position

this is a complete set of Russian laws

states

the cathedral code is a very valuable document

it is stored in a special box

scribes had to write

there are a lot of documents, so more appeared

one type of letter soon thousand

soon after writing letters easier free

many words describe abbreviated central banks

the code of law was written in cursive

Ivan the Terrible 1500 fiftieth year

in Rus' there were many books, handwritten books

are very expensive

in the middle of the sixteenth century

appeared in Rus' and printing

you were the first Russian printer

the best creations of sofas Fedorova book

apostles

published in 1564 this year

book printing

promote the dissemination

literacy

books became Poland

appeared secular in the seventeenth century

first about the textbook

simultaneously with printing

correspondence of books continued

at that time most books were

religious content

it was necessary to free the printed

pay the church

under Peter the Great

writing reform was carried out

civil autoguide produced

more simple and convenient

for reading and writing

Widespread publication of books began

in various fields of science and technology

textbooks

and the first Russians

so at the beginning of the eighteenth century

writing appeared in Russia

close to modern

www.watch-listen-read.com

Writing in Kievan Rus - report

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Kazan State Energy University

By discipline

"Story"

"Writing in Kievan Rus"

Completed by: Filinova A.D.

Group EKP-4-11

Teacher: Pospelova E.Yu.

Kazan 2011.

• Introduction
• Chapter 1. Birch bark letters Writing in pre-Christian Rus'.
• Chapter 2. Everyday writing of Ancient Rus'. Part 1.
• Chapter 3. Everyday writing of Ancient Rus'. Part 2.
• Chapter 4. Culture of Kievan Rus IX–XI centuries.
• Conclusion.
• Bibliography.

Introduction

Now no one considers it supernatural and inexplicable that from the beginning of Christianity to Tatar-Mongol invasion Kievan Rus was a country of high and beautiful written culture. The introduction of Christianity and its integration into Byzantine literature established the continuity of the two written cultures. This greatly increased the interest of the Eastern Slavs in the book and contributed to the spread of writing at the dawn of their civilization.

It is not without reason that it is assumed that literacy was adopted in our country within a very short time and developed unhindered at first. Nothing blocked the people's path to literacy, and our ancestors quickly mastered a relatively high level of writing. This is confirmed by surviving inscriptions on wooden signs, for example on spinning wheels, on fancy combs for combing flax, on unpretentious pottery, and on various pieces of wood unsuitable for display.

It is not without reason that science attaches great importance to the study of ancient objects. Without exaggeration we can say that archaeological finds exceeded all the expectations of scientists, revealing pictures of living antiquity.

In the well-known excavations near Novgorod, which were carried out for ten years under the leadership of Professor Artsikhovsky, extremely interesting letters on birch bark dating back to the 11th - 16th centuries were found. Finding such confirmation of the long tradition of Russian written culture was far from easy. But the ineradicable optimism of the archaeologists who conducted this difficult search, the correct calculation that has always been their integral feature, and the countless efforts of the entire team gave an incomparable scientific effect.

This topic is relevant because it is important to know history native language, the language of the state, the language of a huge nation. This is important to know not only for general development, but also for enriching your intellectual capabilities. Through writing one can learn many aspects of the history of a nation and state.

The purpose of my work is to analyze various literary and historical sources from different times, historical figures And archaeological sites from the times of Kievan Rus.

To achieve this goal, I need to thoroughly study all the available literature on this topic, as well as study different views and points of view about the emergence of writing in Rus' and its development.

Chapter 1. Birch bark letters Writing in pre-Christian Rus'

All attempts to prove the existence of a developed East Slavic written language before the baptism of Rus' in 988 ended in failure and do not stand up to the test of scientific facts. The evidence presented in reality represents either crude, incompetent forgeries (the notorious “Veles Book”), or untenable hypotheses (the so-called “Askold Chronicle”, allegedly used in the “Nikon Chronicle” of the 16th century among articles of 867-889), or admits others , more reliable explanations (evidence from the “Life of Cyril”) about the Gospel and Psalter, written in “handwriting” and found by Constantine the Philosopher in Chersonesos (for more details, see “Hear, all Slavs...”).

However, this does not mean that any kind of writing was completely absent in pre-Christian Rus'. Extremely valuable information about the beginning of ancient Russian literature is contained in The Tale of Bygone Years. According to A. A. Shakhmatov, Nestor found the treaties in the Grand Duke's book depository in Kyiv and included them in the chronicle Old Russian state with Byzantium, concluded in 911 by Oleg, in 944 by Igor and in 971 by Svyatoslav (another agreement is placed in the chronicle under 907, but, as A. A. Shakhmatov proved, it did not exist: parts are given under 907 and 911 one contract). All treaties were written in Byzantium and are translations of Greek documents drawn up in accordance with Byzantine diplomatic practice.

This is also indicated by the discoveries made by the Novgorod expedition of the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. During excavations in Novgorod, two wooden cylinders with carved Cyrillic inscriptions of business content were found. V.L. Yanin proved that cylinders were used in the princely household as special locks on bags. According to archaeological data, the dating of the finds is quite wide - 973-1051. The princely sign carved on one of the cylinders (in the form of a simple trident) of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, the future baptist of Rus', who ruled in Novgorod in 970-980, helps to significantly clarify it. Thus, the Cyrillic alphabet was used in the state apparatus of Ancient Rus' before the official adoption of Christianity and writing.

In medieval sources, not only the Eastern Slavs, but also the Normans and Scandinavians (or, as they said in Ancient Rus', the Varangians) are called Russia. Yes, on average Greek means "Normans", in Finnish Ruotsi "Sweden". However, the message draws attention to the fact that “Russian letters” were carved (or rather, scratched?) on white wood. According to L.P. Zhukovskaya, the interlocutor showed an ancient Russian letter scratched on birch bark.

The oldest birch bark documents discovered today date back to the first half - mid-11th century. However, two bone writing tools were found in Novgorod, which, according to archaeological data, date back to the time before the baptism of Rus': one - 953-957 years, and the other - 972-989 years. Such writing instruments on birch bark or tablets with wax are metal or bone rods with a point at one end and a spatula at the other for erasing what is written. In Ancient Rus' they were called writing.

Christianity and books began to penetrate into Rus' long before its baptism in 988. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, there were many Christians among the warriors of Prince Igor (912-945), and in Kiev there openly existed a significant Christian community of Varangian Christians and there was a cathedral church in the name of the Prophet Elijah, where the oath was taken. The existence of a cathedral church apparently implies the presence of other churches in Kyiv. The Tale of Bygone Years, under 983, reports the murder of Christian Varangians, father and son, who refused to submit to the pagan Kyivians. This event is sometimes seen as a pagan reaction to the strengthening of Christianity, which threatened to undermine the spiritual foundations of the old society.

E. E. Golubinsky believed that the Elias Church in Kiev was Varangian (“... many besha Varangians are Christians,” the chronicler notes in connection with its mention) and was in a filial relationship with the Norman church of the prophet Elijah of the same name in Constantinople. According to the assumption of E. E. Golubinsky, services in Kiev, as in Constantinople, were performed in Greek or, more likely, in Gothic, which was used in liturgical practice from the 4th century, close and understandable to the Normans. As B. A. Uspensky notes, the Christian community in Kyiv was ethnically heterogeneous: it included not only Varangians, but also East Slavs and possibly baptized Khazars. The language of Christianity in Kyiv was undoubtedly Church Slavonic, accessible to everyone ethnic groups Kyiv population and served as a means of interethnic communication. The Spanish Jew Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, the author of a note about his trip to Germany and the Slavic countries, reports around 965 that the Varangians used the Slavic language.

Christianity was professed by the ruler of the Old Russian state, Princess Olga, who wore Scandinavian name(Helga > Elьga > Olga, cf.: Helgi > Elьgъ > Olg > Oleg). Olga was baptized in Constantinople in 957. Her intention initially included not only personal baptism, but also the Christianization of the country and the creation of an independent church organization.

Olga's plans were destined to come true only after her death, when her pupil became the ruler of Rus' younger son Svyatoslav, Prince Vladimir I, who ascended the throne after a bloody internecine struggle. Even during the paganism of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, of his five wives, at least three were Christians (Greek, Czech, Bulgarian) and, presumably, had priests, Old Slavonic and Greek books with them. The baptism of Vladimir and then Kyiv in 988 brought Rus' into orbit Byzantine world and created the necessary conditions to transfer to the country the richest Cyril and Methodius book heritage from the southern and, to a lesser extent, western Slavs. The South Slavic influence in Ancient Rus' at the end of the 10th-11th centuries marked the beginning of the Old Russian book culture and literary language.

Chapter 2. Everyday writing of Ancient Rus'.

Birch bark letters are mostly private letters. The daily life and concerns of a medieval person are presented in them in great detail. All this everyday side of the medieval way of life, all these little things of everyday life, so obvious to contemporaries and constantly eluding researchers, are poorly reflected in the traditional genres of literature of the 11th-15th centuries.

The Old Novgorod dialect lacked the common Slavic result of the second palatalization: the transition of back-lingual [k], [g], [x] into soft sibilant consonants [ts?], [z?], [s?] in position before the front vowels [e] ( ) or [and] diphthong origin. All Slavic languages ​​survived the second palatalization, and only the Old Novgorod dialect did not know it.

Chapter 3. Everyday writing of Ancient Rus'.

As Zaliznyak established, the main differences between household graphic systems and book writing boil down to the following points:

1) replacing the letter ь with e (or vice versa): kone instead of horse, slo instead of village;

2) replacing the letter ъ with o (or vice versa): bow instead of bow, chet instead of chto;

3) replacing a letter with e or b (or vice versa). Consecutive replacement of e and b with h (very rare graphic technique) is presented in the inscription of the 20-50s of the 12th century, scratched on a wooden tablet (tsere): “A yaz tiundan z uyal” ‘And I, tiun, took tribute? (tiun ‘butler, house manager for princes, boyars and bishops; official for the administration of a city or locality?).

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Household writing of Ancient Rus'

Household writing of Ancient Rus'.

From sources on everyday writing of the 11th-15th centuries greatest interest are represented by birch bark letters and epigraphic monuments (epigraphy is a historical discipline that studies inscriptions on solid material). The cultural and historical significance of these sources is extremely great. Monuments of everyday writing made it possible to put an end to the myth of almost universal illiteracy in Ancient Rus'.

Birch bark letters were first discovered in 1951 during archaeological excavations in Novgorod. Then they were found (albeit in incomparably smaller quantities than in Novgorod) in Staraya Russa, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Torzhok, Moscow, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, Zvenigorod Galitsky (near Lvov). Currently, the collection of birch bark texts numbers over a thousand documents, and their number is constantly growing with each new archaeological expedition.

Unlike expensive parchment, birch bark was the most democratic and easily accessible writing material in the Middle Ages. They wrote on it with a sharp metal or bone rod, or, as it was called in Ancient Rus', a scribble. Letters were squeezed out or scratched onto soft birch bark. Only in rare cases was it written on birch bark with pen and ink. The oldest birch bark documents discovered today date back to the first half - mid-11th century. However, two bone writings were found in Novgorod, which, according to archaeological data, date back to the time before the baptism of Rus': one - 953-957 years, and the other - 972-989 years.

As V.L. Yanin notes in the book “I sent you birch bark...” (3rd ed. M., 1998. P. 30, 51), “birch bark letters were a common element of Novgorod medieval life. Novgorodians constantly read and wrote letters, tore them up and threw them away, as we now tear up and throw away unnecessary or used papers,” “correspondence served Novgorodians who were not engaged in some narrow, specific field human activity. She was not a professional sign. It has become an everyday occurrence."

The social composition of the authors and recipients of birch bark letters is very wide. Among them are not only representatives of the titled nobility, clergy and monasticism, but also merchants, elders, housekeepers, warriors, artisans, peasants and other persons. Women took part in the correspondence on birch bark. In some cases, they act as addressees or authors of letters. Five letters have survived, sent from woman to woman.

The overwhelming majority of birch bark letters were written in Old Russian, and only a small number were written in Church Slavonic. In addition, two birch bark letters were discovered, written by foreigners who lived in Novgorod in Latin and Low German. Greek and Baltic-Finnish charters are also known. The latter is a spell, a pagan prayer from the mid-13th century. It is three hundred years older than all currently known texts written in Finnish or Karelian.

Birch bark letters are mostly private letters. The daily life and concerns of a medieval person are presented in them in great detail. The authors of messages on birch bark talk about their momentary affairs and concerns: family, household, economic, trade, monetary, judicial, often also about trips, military campaigns, expeditions for tribute, etc. All this everyday side of the medieval way of life, all these little things everyday life, so obvious to contemporaries and constantly eluding researchers, are poorly reflected in the traditional genres of literature of the 11th-15th centuries.

Texts on birch bark are diverse in genre. In addition to private letters, there are various kinds of bills, receipts, records of debt obligations, ownership labels, wills, bills of sale, petitions from peasants to the feudal lord and other documents. Texts of an educational nature are of great interest: student exercises, alphabets, lists of numbers, lists of syllables with which they learned to read. In charter No. 403 of the 50-80s of the 14th century there is a small dictionary in which for Russian words their Baltic-Finnish translations are indicated. Much less common are birch bark letters with church and literary content: excerpts of liturgical texts, prayers and teachings, for example, two quotations from the “Tale of Wisdom” famous writer and the preacher Cyril of Turov, who died before 1182, in the birch bark list of the first 20th anniversary of the 13th century from Torzhok. Conspiracies, a riddle, and a school joke have also been preserved.

Of all the East Slavic written sources From the 11th to the 15th centuries, birch bark documents most fully and diversely reflected the features of living spoken language. The study of texts on birch bark allowed A. A. Zaliznyak to restore many of its features in the monograph “Ancient Novgorod Dialect” (M., 1995). Let's look at the most important of them.

The Old Novgorod dialect lacked the common Slavic result of the second palatalization: the transition of back-lingual [k], [g], [x] into soft sibilant consonants [ts?], [z?], [s?] in position before the front vowels [e] ( ) or [and] diphthong origin. All Slavic languages ​​survived the second palatalization, and only the Old Novgorod dialect did not know it. Thus, in charter No. 247 (11th century, probably second quarter) the false accusation of burglary is refuted: “And the lock is intact, and the doors are intact...”, that is, ‘And the lock is intact, and the doors are intact...?. Is the root kl- ‘whole? presented in both cases without the effect of second palatalization. In a birch bark document of the 14th century. No. 130 the word khr is found in the meaning of ‘gray (undyed) cloth, homespun? (root hr- ‘gray?).

In Im. pad. units h. husband R. the solid o-declension ending was -e. This ending is found in the nouns brother ‘brother?, adjectives meretve ‘dead?, pronouns same ‘sam?, participles ruined ‘ruined?’, in the nominal part of the perfect - forgot ‘forgot?. “Is bread cheaper,” that is, “is bread cheap (here)?,” wrote the Novgorodian Gyurgiy (George) in the first quarter of the 12th century, advising his father and mother to sell the farm and move to Smolensk or Kiev, since in Novgorod, obviously, there was hunger. Inflection -e distinguishes the Old Novgorod dialect from all Slavic languages ​​and dialects. In the rest of the Slavic world it corresponds to ancient era ending -ъ (for example, brat, sam), and after the fall of the reduced ъ and ь - zero inflection (brother, sam). Let us recall that in ancient times the letters ъ “er” and ь “er” denoted special super-short sounds, somewhat similar in their pronunciation to [ы] and [и], respectively, which finally disappeared from the Russian language at the beginning of the 13th century.

In Rod. pad units h. For nouns of a-declension in the Old Novgorod dialect, from the very beginning of writing, the ending - (in women) was dominant, while in the standard Old Russian language there was an ending -ы (in wife). The present tense of the verb was characterized by a clear predominance of 3 liters. units tsp and 3 l. pl. including forms without -t: live, grind, beat, coming, etc. In the standard Old Russian language it was accordingly: live, grind, beat, come.

Everyday literacy is extremely close to dialect speech. However, they cannot be considered an accurate representation of the spoken language. Everyday writing had its own established custom of language use, which was learned during literacy training. N.A. Meshchersky established that in private correspondence there were special address and etiquette epistolary formulas on birch bark. Some of these formulas are of book origin, although the vast majority of birch bark letters are not literary works and monuments book language. So, at the beginning of the letter, the traditional formula of veneration or bow from such and such to such and such is often used, and at the end of the message there are stable phrases of goodness, ‘be kind, please? or kiss you in the sense of ‘I greet you?

Birch bark letters provide rich material for the study of non-book, everyday graphic systems. In Ancient Rus', the elementary literacy course was limited to just learning to read. But after finishing it, the students, although unprofessionally, could write, transferring reading skills to writing. The art of writing and spelling rules were taught specifically, mainly to future book writers. Unlike book texts created by professional scribes, birch bark letters were created by people who, for the most part, did not specifically learn to write. Without passing through the filter of book spelling rules, birch bark letters reflected many local peculiarities live speech of the 11th-15th centuries.

In the monuments of book writing, on the contrary, the features of dialect speech were carefully eliminated. Only those local linguistic features that were difficult to get rid of, such as clicking, penetrated into the book text. Birch bark letters show how great importance had a filter of book spelling, how radically medieval book writers abandoned the regional features of living speech in their professional activity.

As Zaliznyak established, the main differences between everyday graphic systems and book writing boil down to the following points: 1) replacing the letter ь with e (or vice versa): kone instead of horse, slo instead of village; 2) replacing the letter ъ with o (or vice versa): bow instead of bow, chet instead of chto; 3) replacing the letter with e or ь (or vice versa). The consistent replacement of e and ь with h (a very rare graphic device) is presented in the inscription of the 20-50s of the 12th century, scratched on a wooden tablet (tsere): “A yaz tiun dan z uyal” 'A ya, tiun, dan something did you take it? (tiun ‘butler, house manager for princes, boyars and bishops; official for the management of a city or locality?). 4) scanning, or the scanning principle of writing, is that in writing any consonant letter must be followed by a vowel letter. If there is no vowel at the phonetic level, then “dumb” ъ or ь, o or e are written, depending on the hardness or softness of the preceding consonant, for example: the other side instead of the other side. y or i could also be used as “silent” vowels after consonants: ovisa instead of oats, svoemy instead of svoem.

As you can see, a text written using everyday graphic rules differs significantly from book writing. Thus, in the letters of the 40-50s of the 12th century, the spelling ko mon is found, which in book orthography corresponds to the form ky mun. Nevertheless, everyday graphic systems sometimes penetrated book writing. Their use is known in a number of ancient Novgorod and ancient Pskov manuscripts.

The language of birch bark letters is similar to graffiti inscriptions, drawn with a sharp object (often the same writing) on ​​a hard surface. Texts on the plaster of ancient buildings, mainly churches, are especially numerous and linguistically interesting. Graffiti has now been found on the walls. architectural monuments many ancient Russian cities: Kyiv, Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Ladoga, Vladimir, Smolensk, Polotsk, Staraya Ryazan, Southern Galich, etc. A large number of inscriptions made not only by representatives of princely-boyar and church circles, but also by warriors, artisans, and simple pilgrims, testify to the widespread spread of literacy in Rus' already in the 11th-12th centuries. Important studies by historians and linguists have been devoted to ancient Russian graffiti (see, for example: Vysotsky S.A.

Kyiv graffiti of the XI-XVII centuries. Kyiv, 1985; Medyntseva A. A. Literacy in Ancient Rus': According to the monuments of epigraphy X - the first half XIII century. M., 2000; Rozhdestvenskaya T.V. Old Russian inscriptions on the walls of churches: New sources of the 11th-15th centuries. St. Petersburg, 1992).

Rozhdestvenskaya highlights following types inscriptions: “prayer” inscriptions with the formula “Lord, help (remember, save, etc.)”, memorial inscriptions with a message about death (this is the entry in Sophia of Kiev about the death of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise in 1054), inscriptions autographs (for example, the 12th and 13th centuries in the St. George Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery in Novgorod: “and behold Sozon?l the fierce...” - “But the fierce Sozon wrote?”, “Ivan?l with his left hand”), liturgical inscriptions (biblical and liturgical quotes , penitential verses, etc.), “chronicle” or “event” inscriptions, inscriptions of a business content, inscriptions of a “literary” nature (for example, sayings from the translated monument “Reason of Addition” quoted on the wall of Sophia of Kiev in the second half - the end of the 11th century Barnabas the Incomparable,” known from manuscripts only from the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, date the appearance of this work in Russia no later than the second half of the 11th century), folklore inscriptions (proverbs, sayings, riddles, etc.), “everyday” inscriptions ( for example, in the 14th-15th centuries in the church of Fyodor Stratilates in Novgorod: “about the priest priest, avoid drunkenness...” - “oh priest-priests, avoid drunkenness!?,” “And (o) sav (e) walked with me and made a bargain I (z)apsl" - 'Josaph walked with me from the market place, knocked me down (off my feet), and I wrote it down?). Some inscriptions have been carefully crossed out. One of them, from the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, was dismantled from the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod. According to Medyntseva, this is a children’s counting song, but Rozhdestvenskaya connects the inscription with a pagan funeral rite: “(ako s)dite pyro(ge in) ovens, gridba in ships... pelepelka steam (and in) Dubrovo post(avi) porridge on ( st)avi pirogue tu [there. - V.K.] go.” As Rozhdestvenskaya notes, this rhythmic text is based on semantic parallelism, which is supported in syntactic constructions and grammatical forms: pie (singular) - in the oven, grilla ‘druzhina? (units) - in the ship, quail (units) - in the oak forest. Some contemporary of the inscription carefully crossed it out and cursed the author, writing below: “Dry your hands.”

Sometimes graffiti representing legal documents appeared on the walls of temples. On the wall of the Kyiv Sophia, the main temple of Kievan Rus, an inscription was made about the purchase by the widow of Prince Vsevolod Olgovich of the land that previously belonged to Boyan, for a huge amount- 700 hryvnia sables. The inscription is drawn up according to the form of deeds of sale with the mention of witnesses-“rumors”: “... and before these rumors, buy all the land of the princess Boyanya...”. Vysotsky, who discovered the inscription, dated it to the second half of the 12th century and suggested that the sold land once had something to do with the famous poet-singer “prophetic” Boyan, who lived in the 11th century and was sung in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” According to a less probable assumption by B. A. Rybakov, the inscription dates back to the end of the 11th century and could have been made shortly after Boyan’s death. However, Rybakov emphasized that “the text of the graffito itself does not give us the right to identify Boyan the songwriter with Boyan the landowner.”

Glagolitic writing, invented by the first teacher of the Slavs, Saint Cyril, was not widespread in Ancient Rus' and was used only by skilled scribes. Not a single East Slavic Glagolitic book has survived to our time. Only eight surviving Cyrillic manuscripts from the 11th to 13th centuries contain individual Glagolitic words and letters. Meanwhile, Glagolitic and mixed Glagolitic-Cyrillic inscriptions of the 11th-12th centuries are known on the walls of the St. Sophia Cathedrals in Novgorod and Kyiv. One of them was scratched by the “fierce Sozon” in the first half of the 12th century, ending the above Cyrillic text with Glagolitic letters. According to Rozhdestvenskaya, since most of the finds of Old Russian inscriptions with Glagolitic letters and Cyrillic manuscripts with Glagolitic “interspersed” belong to Novgorod and Northern Russia (in Novgorod, for example, 10 graffiti of the 11th century have been preserved, and in Kiev 3), this suggests the existence of closer and independent connections of Novgorod in comparison with Kiev with the Glagolitic tradition and Glagolitic centers in Western Bulgaria, Macedonia and Moravia.

According to Rozhdestvenskaya’s observations, important difference epigraphic monuments from book texts is a more free attitude to the book norm. Moreover, the degree of implementation of the book norm largely depends on the type of inscription. If in liturgical inscriptions the Church Slavonic language is more Russified compared to similar book texts, then in the inscriptions of secular content the language of narrative and business genres is reflected Old Russian writing. Lively colloquial speech can be heard in a small rhymed mockery of the 11th-12th centuries, perhaps at a dozing choirboy or pilgrim in Sofia Novgorod: “Yakim, standing, sleeps and does not step on a stone.” “Yakim, standing, will fall asleep, but will not break his mouth on a stone (that is, will not disclose)?.

In graffiti inscriptions of all types there is no strict opposition between the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages. At the same time, Novgorod inscriptions reflect the book's spelling norm more consistently than the birch bark letters. As for dialectal features, in this regard, graffiti, like epigraphy in general, is more restrained than birch bark letters, which is explained by the smaller volume of text and the stability of written formulas. Thus, the book language norm in epigraphy is more variable than in book texts, and less variable than in birch bark letters.

bankreferatov.kz

Writing of ancient Rus' dictation text

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