Presentation on the topic of culture of ancient Greece. Presentation "Culture of Ancient Greece" (grade 10) at the Moscow Chemical Culture - project, report

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Pupils of 10th grade “A” Zenina Daria and Zhuravleva Antonina Presentation on history on the topic “Culture of Ancient Greece”

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Mythology of Ancient Greece The mythological culture of Ancient Greece is based on material-sensual or animate-intelligent cosmologism. Cosmos is understood here as an absolute, a deity and as a work of art. The Greeks' idea of ​​the world comes down to the idea of ​​it as a theatrical stage, where people are actors, and all together are a product of the Cosmos.

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Myths about the Greek gods The Greeks believed in many gods. According to myths, the gods behaved like people: they fought, quarreled, fell in love. They all lived on Olympus

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Zeus Zeus is the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, in charge of the whole world. Chief of the Olympian gods, father of gods and people, third son of the titan Kronos and Rhea, brother of Hades, Hestia, Demeter and Poseidon. Zeus's wife is the goddess Hera. The attributes of Zeus were: a shield and a double-sided ax, sometimes an eagle.

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Hades The kingdom of the dead was ruled by Hades, brother of Zeus. Few myths have survived about him. The kingdom of the dead was separated from the rest of the world by the deep river Styx, through which the souls of the dead were transported by CHARON. Cerberus or Kerberus, in Greek mythology, the watchdog of the kingdom of the dead, guarding the entrance to the world of Hades

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Poseidon Poseidon (Neptune to the Romans) was the Greek god of the seas and oceans. He is depicted as a powerful bearded man, somewhat similar to Zeus, with a trident in his hand. Poseidon is the wildest of the gods, the god of storms and earthquakes, swift and merciless tidal waves - dangers exposed when the forces dormant under the surface of consciousness are unleashed. His animal symbols are the bull and the horse.

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Demeter Demeter was the great Olympian goddess of agriculture, grain, and the daily bread of mankind. She also exercised control over the foremost of the region's secret cults, whose initiators were promised her protection on the path to a happy afterlife. Demeter was depicted as a mature woman, often wearing a crown and holding a sheaf of wheat and a torch.

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Hestia Hestia is the goddess of the family hearth and sacrificial fire in Ancient Greece. Eldest daughter of Kronos and Rhea. Sister of Zeus, Demeter, Hades and Poseidon. Her image was in the Athenian Prytaneum. She is called “the owner of the Pythian laurel.” A sacrifice was made to her before the start of any sacred ceremony, no matter whether the latter was of a private or public nature, due to which the saying “start with Hestia” was formed, which served as a synonym for a successful and correct start to the matter.

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Hera Hera is a goddess, the patroness of marriage, protecting the mother during childbirth. One of the twelve Olympian deities, the supreme goddess, wife of Zeus.

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Sculpture of Ancient Greece Ancient Greek sculpture is one of the highest achievements of the culture of antiquity, which left an indelible mark on world history. The origin of Greek sculpture can be attributed to the era of Homeric Greece (XII-VIII centuries BC). Already in the archaic era, in the 7th-6th centuries, wonderful statues and ensembles were created. The heyday and highest rise of Greek sculpture occurred during the period of the early and high classics (5th century BC). And the 4th century BC. e., already the period of the late classics.

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The sculpture of the Archaic era is dominated by statues of slender naked youths and draped young girls - kouros and koras. Neither childhood nor old age attracted the attention of artists then, because only in mature youth are vital forces in full bloom and balance. Early Greek sculptors created images of Men and Women in their ideal version. Archaic sculptures were not so monotonously white as we imagine them now. Many still have traces of painting. Artists were looking for mathematically verified proportions of the human body and the “body” of architecture “Goddess with a Pomegranate” from Keratea 580-570 “Discobolus” Myron 460-450 BC.

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Ancient Greek temples The main task of architecture among the Greeks was the construction of temples. It gave birth to and developed artistic forms. Throughout the entire historical life of Ancient Greece, its temples retained the same basic type, which was later adopted by the Ancient Romans. Greek temples were not like the temples of Ancient Egypt and the East: they were not colossal, religiously awe-inspiring mysterious temples of formidable, monstrous deities, but friendly dwellings of humanoid gods, built like the dwellings of mere mortals, but more elegant and rich.

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Architecture The main task of architecture among the Greeks was the construction of temples. Throughout the historical life of Ancient Greece, its temples retained the same basic type. The column played an important role in Greek architecture: its shapes, proportions and decorative decoration subordinated the shapes, proportions and decoration of other parts of the structure; it was the module defining his style. The columns of Ancient Greece are divided into two styles: The Doric style is distinguished by the simplicity, power, and even heaviness of its forms, their strict proportionality and full compliance with mechanical laws. Its column represents a circle in its section; In the Ionic style, all forms are lighter, gentler and more graceful than in the Doric. The column stands on a quadrangular, rather wide base Temple of Apollo Temple of Artemis

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Vase painting The ancient Greeks painted any types of pottery used for storage, eating, in rituals and holidays. Works of ceramics, decorated with special care, were donated to temples or invested in burials. Ceramic vessels and their fragments that have undergone strong firing and are resistant to environmental influences have been preserved in the tens of thousands. From the second half of the 7th century. before the beginning of the 5th century BC, human figures began to appear in images. The most popular motifs for images on vases are feasts, battles, and mythological scenes telling about the life of Hercules and the Trojan War. At different periods of their lives, the Greeks used different types of vase painting: black-figure, red-figure, vase painting on a white background, Gnathian vases, Canosan, Centuripal. Red-figure vase-painting Black-figure vase-painting Vase-Gnathia Vase-painting on a white background Centurip vase-painting

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Ancient Greek writing The ancient Greeks developed their writing based on Phoenician. The names of some Greek letters are Phoenician words. For example, the name of the letter “alpha” comes from the Phoenician “aleph” (bull), “beta” - from “bet” (house). They also came up with some new letters. This is how the alphabet came about. The Greek alphabet already had 24 letters. The Greek alphabet formed the basis of the Latin alphabet, and Latin became the basis of all Western European languages. The Slavic alphabet also came from Greek. The invention of the alphabet is a huge step forward in the development of culture.

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Literature Of the huge variety of works of ancient Greek literature, only very few have reached us. The literature of Ancient Greece is divided into two periods: The Archaic period is the main phenomenon of Homeric poems, representing the completion of a long series of smaller experiments in legendary poetry, as well as religious and everyday songwriting. This also includes the Odyssey and the Iliad. Classical Period – This period was dominated by comedy and tragedy, reflecting the real political life of the Greeks. Hellenistic period - among the scientific disciplines of that time, philology or literary criticism occupied first place. The removal of poetry from politics was, as it were, compensated for by idyllic pictures of common people’s life

Class: 10

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Target: contribute to the formation of students' knowledge about the artistic culture of Ancient Greece.

Tasks:

• give an idea of ​​the nature of ancient Greek architecture and sculpture;
• introduce the concept of “order” in architecture; consider their types;
• identify the role of ancient Greek culture in the formation of European culture;
• cultivate interest in the culture of other countries;

Lesson type: formation of new knowledge

Lesson equipment: G.I. Danilova MHC. From the origins to the 17th century: a textbook for 10th grade. – M.: Bustard, 2013. Presentation, computer, projector, interactive board.

During the classes

I. Class organization.

II. Preparing to accept a new topic

III. Learning new material

The land of Ancient Hellas still amazes with its majestic architectural structures and sculptural monuments.

Hellas - this is how its inhabitants called their country, and themselves - Hellenes, named after the legendary king - the ancestor of Hellenes. Later this country was called Ancient Greece.

The blue sea splashed, going far beyond the horizon. Among the expanse of water, the islands were green with dense greenery.

The Greeks built cities on the islands. In every city there lived talented people who were able to speak the language of lines, colors, and reliefs. SLIDE 2-3

Architectural appearance of ancient Hellas

“We love beauty without whimsicality and wisdom without effeminacy.” This is exactly how the ideal of Greek culture was expressed by a public figure of the 5th century. BC. Pericles Nothing superfluous is the main principle of the art and life of Ancient Greece. SLIDE 5

The development of democratic city-states greatly contributed to the development of architecture, which reached special heights in temple architecture. It expressed the main principles that were subsequently formulated on the basis of the works of Greek architects by the Roman architect Vitruvius (second half of the 1st century BC): “strength, usefulness and beauty.”

Order (Latin - order) is a type of architectural structure that takes into account the combination and interaction of load-bearing (supporting) and non-supporting (overlapping) elements. The most widespread were the Doric and Ionic (end of the 7th century BC) and, to a lesser extent, later (end of the 5th – beginning of the 4th century BC) the Corinthian order, which are widely used in architecture up to our time. SLIDE 6-7

In a Doric temple, the columns rise directly from the pedestal. They have no decorations except fluted stripes and vertical grooves. The Doric columns hold the roof with tension, you can see how hard it is for them. The top of the column is crowned with a capital (head). The trunk of a column is called its body. Doric temples have very simple capitals. The Doric order, as the most laconic and simple, embodied the idea of ​​masculinity and tenacity of character of the Greek tribes of the Dorians.

It is characterized by the strict beauty of lines, shapes and proportions. SLIDE 8-9.

The columns of the Ionic temple are taller and thinner. Below it is raised above the pedestal. The fluted grooves on its trunk are more frequent and flow like folds of thin fabric. And the capital has two curls. SLIDE 9-11

The name comes from the city of Corinth. They are richly decorated with plant motifs, among which images of acanthus leaves predominate.

Sometimes a vertical support in the form of a female figure was used as a column. It was called a caryatid. SLIDE 12-14

The Greek order system was embodied in stone temples, which, as you know, served as a dwelling for the gods. The most common type of Greek temple was the peripterus. Peripterus (Greek - “pteros”, i.e. “feathered”, surrounded by columns around the perimeter). On its long side there were 16 or 18 columns, on the shorter side 6 or 8. The temple was a room shaped like an elongated rectangle in plan. SLIDE 15

Athens Acropolis

5th century BC - the heyday of the ancient Greek city-states. Athens is becoming the largest political and cultural center of Hellas. In the history of Ancient Greece, this time is usually called the “Golden Age of Athens.” It was then that the construction of many architectural structures was carried out here, included in the treasury of world art. This time is the reign of the leader of the Athenian democracy, Pericles. SLIDE 16

The most remarkable buildings are located on the Acropolis of Athens. Here were the most beautiful temples of Ancient Greece. The Acropolis not only decorated the great city, first of all it was a shrine. When a person first came to Athens, he first of all saw

Acropolis. SLIDE 17

Acropolis means “upper city” in Greek. Situated on a hill. Temples were built here in honor of the Gods. All work on the Acropolis was supervised by the great Greek architect Phidias. Phidias gave 16 whole years of his life to the Acropolis. He revived this colossal creation. All temples were built entirely from marble. SLIDE 18

SLIDE 19-38 These slides show the plan of the Acropolis, with a detailed description of architectural monuments and sculpture.

On the southern slope of the Acropolis was the Theater of Dionysus, which could seat 17 thousand people. It played out tragic and comedic scenes from the life of gods and people. The Athenian public reacted lively and temperamentally to everything that happened before their eyes. SLIDE 39-40

Fine art of Ancient Greece. Sculpture and vase painting.

Ancient Greece entered the history of world artistic culture thanks to its remarkable works of sculpture and vase painting. Sculptures adorned the squares of ancient Greek cities and the facades of architectural structures in abundance. According to Plutarch (c. 45-c. 127), there were more statues in Athens than living people. SLIDE 41-42

The earliest works that have survived to our time are kouros and koras, created in the archaic era.

Kouros is a type of statue of a young athlete, usually naked. Reached significant sizes (up to 3 m). Kouros were placed in sanctuaries and on tombs; they had predominantly memorial significance, but could also be cult images. Kuros are surprisingly similar to each other, even their poses are always the same: upright static figures with a leg extended forward, arms with palms clenched into a fist, extended along the body. Their facial features are devoid of individuality: the regular oval of the face, the straight line of the nose, the oblong shape of the eyes; full, protruding lips, large and round chin. The hair behind the back forms a continuous cascade of curls. SLIDE 43-45

The figures of kor (girls) are the embodiment of sophistication and sophistication. Their poses are also monotonous and static. Steeply curled curls, intercepted by tiaras, are parted and fall down to the shoulders in long symmetrical strands. There is a mysterious smile on all faces. SLIDE 46

The ancient Hellenes were the first to think about what a beautiful person should be, and sang the beauty of his body, the courage of his will and the strength of his mind. Sculpture received particular development in Ancient Greece, reaching new heights in conveying portrait features and the emotional state of a person. The main theme of the sculptors' works was man - the most perfect creation of nature.

The images of people by the artists and sculptors of Greece begin to come to life, move, they learn to walk and slightly put their foot back, frozen in mid-step. SLIDE 47-49

Ancient Greek sculptors really liked to sculpt statues of athletes, as they called people of great physical strength, athletes. The most famous sculptors of that time are: Myron, Polykleitos, Phidias. SLIDE 50

Myron is the most beloved and popular among Greek portrait sculptors. Myron's statues of winning athletes brought him the greatest fame. SLIDE 51

Statue “Discobolus”. Before us is a beautiful young man, ready to throw a discus. It seems that in a moment the athlete will straighten up and the disc thrown with tremendous force will fly into the distance.

Miron, one of the sculptors who sought to convey a sense of movement in his works. The statue is 25 centuries old. Only copies have survived to this day and are stored in various museums around the world. SLIDE 52

Polykleitos was an ancient Greek sculptor and art theorist who worked in Argos in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC. Polykleitos wrote the treatise “The Canon”, where he first spoke about what forms an exemplary sculpture could and should have. Developed a kind of “mathematics of beauty”. He carefully looked at the beauties of his time and deduced proportions, observing which one could build a correct, beautiful figure. The most famous work of Polykleitos is “Doriphoros” (Spearman) (450–440 BC). It was believed that the sculpture was created on the basis of the provisions of the treatise. SLIDE 53-54

Statue of “Doriphoros”.

A handsome and powerful young man, apparently the winner of the Olympic Games, walks slowly with a short spear on his shoulder. This work embodied the ancient Greeks’ ideas about beauty. Sculpture has long remained a canon (model) of beauty. Polykleitos sought to portray a person at rest. Standing or walking slowly. SLIDE 55

Around 500 BC. In Athens, a boy was born who was destined to become the most famous sculptor of all Greek culture. He earned the fame of the greatest sculptor. Everything that Phidias did remains the hallmark of Greek art to this day. SLIDE 56-57

The most famous work of Phidias is the statue of “Olympian Zeus.” The figure of Zeus was made of wood, and parts from other materials were attached to the base using bronze and iron nails and special hooks. The face, hands and other parts of the body were made of ivory - it is quite close in color to human skin. Hair, beard, cloak, sandals were made of gold, eyes - of precious stones. Zeus's eyes were the size of an adult's fist. The base of the statue was 6 meters wide and 1 meter high. The height of the entire statue together with the pedestal was, according to various sources, from 12 to 17 meters. The impression was created “that if he (Zeus) wanted to get up from the throne, he would blow the roof off.” SLIDE 58-59

Sculptural masterpieces of Hellenism.

In the Hellenistic era, classical traditions were replaced by a more complex understanding of the inner world of man. New themes and plots appear, the interpretation of well-known classical motifs changes, and approaches to depicting human characters and events become completely different. Among the sculptural masterpieces of Hellenism one should name: “Venus de Milo” by Agesander, sculptural groups for the frieze of the Great Altar of Zeus in Pergamon; “Nike of Samothrocia by an unknown author, “Laocoon with his sons” by sculptors Agesander, Athenadore, Polydorus. SLIDE 60-61

Antique vase painting.

Just as beautiful as the architecture and sculpture was the painting of Ancient Greece, the development of which can be judged by the drawings decorating the vases that have come down to us, starting from the 11th–10th centuries. BC e. Ancient Greek craftsmen created a great variety of vessels for various purposes: amphoras - for storing olive oil and wine, kraters - for mixing wine with water, lekythos - a narrow vessel for oil and incense. SLIDE 62-64

The vessels were modeled from clay and then painted with a special composition - it was called “black varnish”. Black-figure painting was called black-figure painting, for which the natural color of baked clay served as the background. Red-figure painting was a painting for which the background was black and the images had the color of baked clay. The subjects for painting were legends and myths, scenes of everyday life, school lessons, and athletic competitions. Time has not been kind to the antique vases - many of them broke. But thanks to the painstaking work of archaeologists, some were able to be glued together, but to this day they delight us with their perfect shapes and the shine of black varnish. SLIDE 65-68

The culture of Ancient Greece, having reached a high degree of development, subsequently had a huge influence on the culture of the whole world. SLIDE 69

IV. Reinforcing the material covered

V. Homework

Textbook: chapter 7-8. Prepare reports on the work of one of the Greek sculptors: Phidias, Polykleitos, Myron, Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippos.

VI. Lesson summary

Classical Greece The brightest and most significant period in the development of Greek culture is the classical period associated with the heyday of Athens, called the “golden age”. Pericles, who led the Athenian democracy, begins the reconstruction of the Acropolis, the sculptor Phidias supervises these works.

Pinakothek “To the left of the Propylaea,” says Pausanias, the author of the “Description of Hellas,” there is a building with paintings; those that time has not yet destined to become unrecognizable depict Diomedes and Odysseus; the latter steals the bow of Philoctetes on Lemnos, and the former carries away the image of Athena from Ilion Orestes is also depicted here,

Temple of Nike Apteros, to the right of the Propylaea, a small rectangular temple of Nike Apteros was built, dedicated to the goddess of victory Nike. Translated, its name sounds like “Wingless Victory.” It is believed that under the conditions of a truce in the protracted Peloponnesian War, the Athenians thereby expressed the hope that victory would now not “fly away” from them. Since this temple housed a statue of Athena, it is often also called the Temple of Athena Nike. Relief of the balustrade of the temple of Nike Apteros.

Propylaea First, the Athenians climbed a wide stone staircase to the Propylaea - the main entrance to the Acropolis, which was a deep through portico with a colonnade; At the same time, the side passages were intended for pedestrian citizens, and horsemen and chariots passed along the middle one and carried out sacrificial animals.

Statue of Athena Promachos Once past the Propylaea, visitors found themselves on a flat, rocky cliff top. Directly in front of them they saw a huge bronze statue of Athena Promachos (Warrior) sculpted by Phidias. It is believed that the gilded tip of her spear served as a guide for ships approaching the city on clear days. Behind this statue, in an open area, there was an altar, and on the left a small temple was erected, where the priests performed rituals of worship of the patroness of the city, the goddess Athena.

Phidias. Athena Promachos Phidias had knowledge of the achievements of optics. A story has been preserved about his rivalry with Alcamenes: both were ordered statues of Athena, which were supposed to be erected on high columns. Phidias made his statue in accordance with the height of the column on the ground; it seemed ugly and disproportionate. The people almost stoned him. When both statues were erected on high pedestals, the correctness of Phidias became obvious, and Alkamen was ridiculed

Acropolis. Erechtheion One of the sacred temples of the Acropolis is the Erechtheion, built by an unknown architect on the site of the mythical dispute between Athena and Poseidon for dominance over Attica. This temple is famous for its portico, which is supported by graceful female figures - caryatids. One of the parts of this temple, dedicated to the legendary king of Athens Erechtheus, was called Erechtheion; here was his grave and sanctuary. However, later this name was transferred to the entire temple.

Erechtheion, neither the interior of this temple nor its marble relief friezes have survived to this day. All four original porticos were also damaged, including the most famous of them, the portico of the caryatids. But even in its damaged state, it still remains the main attraction of the Erechtheion.

Acropolis.Parthenon It contained a twenty-meter statue of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), the patroness of the city, made of gold and ivory. The proportions of the columns and the plan, the subtlety of drawing details and the nuances of the architectural solution - everything testifies to the desire of the architects to achieve harmony. Speaking of nuances, we mean, for example, the slight inclination of the columns inward, giving the silhouette a subtle pyramidal shape and creating a feeling of its almost organic growth; a subtle shift of the outer columns towards the corners, giving them additional strength and stability; finally, a slight rise in all horizontal lines from the edges of the structure to the center. Athena Varvakeion" (marble copy of the statue of Athena Phidias)

Chrysoelephantine technique He was accused of concealing the gold from which the cloak of Athena Parthenos was made. But the artist justified himself very simply: the gold was removed from the base and weighed, and no shortage was found. (Phidias attached the removable gold plates in such a way, on the advice of Pericles, that they could be weighed at any time).

“Athena Parthenos.” Phidias 438 BC. e. It was installed in the Athens Parthenon, inside the sanctuary and represented the goddess in full armor. The most complete copy is considered to be the so-called. "Athena Varvakion" (Athens), marble. The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon (Parthenon frieze, metopes, etc.) was carried out under his leadership.

Phidias. Phidias had knowledge of the achievements of optics. A story has been preserved about his rivalry with Alcamenes: both were ordered statues of Athena, which were supposed to be erected on high columns. Phidias made his statue in accordance with the height of the column on the ground; it seemed ugly and disproportionate. The people almost stoned him. When both statues were erected on high pedestals, the correctness of Phidias became obvious, and Alkamen was ridiculed

"Athena Promachos" by Phidias, a colossal image of the goddess Athena brandishing a spear on the Athenian Acropolis. Erected approx. 460 BC e. in memory of victories over the Persians. Its height reached 60 feet and towered over all the surrounding buildings, shining over the city from afar. Bronze casting. Not preserved.

Phidias. Golden ratio (golden ratio, division in extreme and average ratio) division of a continuous quantity into two parts in such a ratio in which the smaller part is related to the larger one as the larger one is to the entire value. Interesting facts The golden ratio was designated in algebra by the Greek letter φ precisely in honor of Phidias, the master who embodied it in his works.

Greek sculpture. “Laocoon” In the last, Hellenistic period, the optimism and harmony of Greek culture began to be lost; the culture of Hellenism is sophisticated, distinguished by a complex artistic language and strives to express the whole gamut of emotional experiences.

N.V. Zagladin The Macedonian campaign resembled a raid of barbarians, ruining everything in their path, rather than a well-thought-out conquest. Having defeated the troops of the Persian despotism, which formed the backbone of civilization, he was unable to create his own control system, attempts to bring the Persian nobility closer failed (he ordered 10 thousand Macedonians to marry the daughters of the Persian nobility)

Hellenism Synthesis of cultures and civilizations of the Ancient East and Ancient Greece - The relatives and generals of Macedon declared themselves kings. They relied on an army of Macedonians, Greeks and officials of the local nobility - the Hellenic ruling elite found itself embedded in the system of power and property relations of the East. After two generations they were no different from the eastern nobles. -The cities of the East became centers of Greek culture

During this period, the main architectural structures became not temples, but theaters, gymnasiums and other civil buildings. Hellenistic architecture is characterized by the use of the whimsical Corinthian order and the mixing of elements of all three orders. A new type of building appears - the mausoleum in Halicarnassus (Tomb of King Mausolus), which gave its name to monuments of this kind, designed to perpetuate a specific person, a heroic ruler.

The crisis of the polis is the death of Greek civilization. the endless Peloponnesian wars ruined the policies, the active sale of land plots shook the main support of the policy - the connection of the citizen with the land, the civil militia gave way to the mercenary, social tension grew (in Athens this was due to the lack of tribute received in previous times from the allies, in Sparta the destruction of the community of equals led to conflicts between rich and poor) Population growth

Hanging Gardens of Babylon Nebuchadnezzar, out of love for his wife and, frankly, because of his own vanity, decided to lay out not an ordinary park, but a fairy-tale one that would glorify Babylon throughout the world. Herodotus wrote about the capital of the world: “Babylon surpasses in splendor any other city on earth.”

Babylonian Gardens However, the hanging gardens only seemed to be. For their construction, special basements were dug, covered on top with several rows of vaults. On the vaults lay large stone slabs, on which lay layers of brick, bitumen, reeds, lead and, finally, a thick layer of earth, in which the trees of the hanging garden grew.

Temple of Artemis of Ephesus The Temple of Artemis was located near the ancient city of Ephesus, approximately 50 kilometers south of the modern port city of Izmir in Turkey. Nowadays, Ephesus has been renamed the city of Selchuk. The ruins of the temple are located near the resort of Kusadasi, east of Pamukkale Halicarnassus Mausoleum. Mausolus reigned from 377 to 352 (353) BC. In 377, he succeeded his father, Hecatomnus of Milas, on the throne. Mausolus was married to his sister Artemisia (Artemisia). Nowadays this seems wild, but then such marriages in noble families were often practiced, not only among the Carian rulers, but also among the Roman ones.

Halicarnassus Mausoleum. Mausolus reigned from 377 to 352 (353) BC. In 377, he succeeded his father, Hecatomnus of Milas, on the throne. Mausolus was married to his sister Artemisia (Artemisia). Nowadays this seems wild, but then such marriages in noble families were often practiced, not only among the Carian rulers, but also among the Roman ones.

The lighthouse on Pharos was not at all like most modern structures of this type - thin single towers, but rather resembled a Futuristic skyscraper. It was a three-story (three-tiered) tower, whose walls were made of marble blocks held together with lead-laced mortar.

Colossus of Rhodes At the base of the statue were three giant stone columns on which the sculpture itself was based. The Colossus of Rhodes was made of bronze plates mounted on an iron base (similar to the design of the Statue of Liberty, whose frame is made of steel and its shell is made of copper). According to the testimony of Pilon of Byzantium, 15 tons of bronze and 9 tons of iron were spent on the statue.

Agricultural labor was considered as first-class labor, while crafts, trade, etc., despite their high profitability, were second-class occupations. These occupations were more characteristic of foreigners and slaves. For this reason, ancient citizens sought to use their slaves (foreigners, most often barbarians) in auxiliary work, leaving labor on the land to their family.

Land and labor on the land were seen as the most important source of well-being and a decent life. In ancient society, relapses of archaic psychology, based on the attitude towards the earth as a sacred object, persisted. Therefore, work on the land was considered a matter of honor for the ancient citizen, and not a means of enrichment. It was possible to get rich faster through trade, crafts, usury, and war. Agricultural labor served to demonstrate the qualities of a worthy citizen. Agricultural labor

Roman culture Roman culture developed under the influence of many peoples, but primarily the culture of the Etruscans and Greeks. Using foreign achievements, the Romans in many ways surpassed their teachers and raised the level of development of their power to unprecedented heights. The most ancient religious beliefs of the Romans are very poorly known and were associated primarily with the cults of the Lares and Penates - deities of the hearth and the cult of the Genius - the head of the family and patron of man. The mythology of the Romans was devoid of poetry and spirituality.

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The type of progressive development in the history of mankind is represented by the ancient civilization of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and modern European civilization. By the end of the 20th century. a generalized concept has emerged - Western civilization, which reflects the unity of peoples and the common values ​​of a pan-European home. The culture of the USA, Canada, New Zealand and Australia was created by emigrants, so they are not independent civilizations, but belong to Western civilization.

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Specific features of Western civilization: the idea of ​​the original existence of Western civilization, based on the concept of continuous assimilation and transformation of the historical experience of ancient peoples (the Jews gave religious impulses, the Greeks - philosophy, the Romans - “Roman law” and a high degree of organization of the state; emergence on the basis of the great form of the human spirit - Christianity (“axis of history” - the birth of Christ). Christianity became the source of Western freedom, and humanism - a form of education and consciousness; unlike the closed civilizations of China and India, the territory of the West is diverse, so the countries have a unique appearance; to the West, unlike China and India share the idea of ​​political freedom;

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Specific features of Western civilization, in contrast to Eastern thinking, the West is characterized by consistent rationality, which made it possible to develop mathematics, logic and law; Western man realized that he is the beginning and creator of everything, he is “the measure and value of all things,” realized a certain absolute “I”; if the East is a state of peace, then the West is a constant spiritual and political tension of spiritual energy. The desire for renewal led to the struggle between the state and the church, Christianity and culture, the empire and individual peoples, Catholicism and Protestantism, philosophy and theology; the civilizational processes of the West are aimed at organizing a comfortable space around a person, the East - at spiritual improvement;

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Specific features of Western civilization The Western world developed within the framework of the internal polarity of West and East. However, the Greeks, as the founders of Western civilization, constantly turned their gaze to the East; characterized by a constant process of human change throughout the life of one generation, rejection by young people of the lifestyle and experience of the older generation. Hence the eternal problem of “fathers and sons.” The past is perceived as material for learning lessons, and society is focused on moving into the future; Europeans have been systematically exploring the Earth's space for centuries: 1492 - Columbus discovered America; 1498 - Vasco da Gama reached India; 1519-1522 - Magellan traveled around the world; Western science and technology revolutionized the entire world, marking the beginning of the global history of mankind. We will trace the origin and formation of the Western type of civilization using the example of the most ancient civilizations of Europe

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ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF ANCIENT GREECE - a group of civilizations of the 3rd millennium BC. e. - I century BC e., created by the Greek-speaking population on the territory of modern Greece (the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and adjacent islands) and the Magna Graecia region (Cyprus, the Caucasus, Crimea, Ionia (the western coast of Asia Minor - modern Turkey), Sicily and southern Italy, the Mediterranean coast , Black and Azov seas). The Geks called their country Hellas, and themselves Hellenes. The name "Greece" comes from the times of ancient Rome.

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The origins of Greek civilization relate to geographically separate but interconnected prehistoric cultures - Bronze Age Aegean civilization (3000 to 1000 BC) Cycladic; Trojan; Creto-Minoan; Hellenic-Mycenaean (on the Greek mainland).

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Cycladic civilization (3500-2000 BC) - flourished on the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea (literal translation - “lying around” - reflects the location relative to the Temple of Apollo on the island of Delos). The achievements of civilization are amazing: the construction of 2-4-story houses with terracotta baths, stone latrines and elegant wooden furniture; the presence of a canal system under city streets (Fera Island); high level of execution of marble vases, ceramic bowls, silver jewelry and statues; Rituals, festivals and gods played an important role in art and everyday life; developed trade with the Middle East, Egypt and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

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The reason for the death of civilization: the threat of disaster due to a volcanic eruption forced the inhabitants to sail to an unknown place. Myths collected by the Greek poet Geosides in the 8th century. BC, allegorically preserved the history of the cosmic struggle between Zeus and the monster Typhon. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato spoke about the achievements of the disappeared civilization of Atlantis.

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Trojan civilization (western Anatolia, Türkiye) IN the 19th century. German self-taught archaeologist G. Schliemann on the Hissarlik hill (“small castle”) lifted the veil of oblivion over the historical fortified city of Troy. Excavations gave the world 10 thousand artifacts made of gold. The 10-year Trojan War, which took place in the 13th century. BC, the great Homer sang in the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey (8th century BC). The Greeks perceive the Homeric epic as a true historical narrative. Scientists believe that the cause of the war was not the beautiful Helen, but the establishment of control over trade from the Aegean to the Black Sea.

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Ancient myths: the myth of the abduction of the Phoenician princess Europa by Zeus in the guise of a white bull. From this union on about. Crete gave birth to 3 sons (one of them is the legendary king Minos); a myth about how the master Daedalus built a labyrinth palace for Minos in Knossos. The hero Theseus defeated the monster Minotaur, finding a way out of the labyrinth with the help of Ariadne's thread. The Creto-Minoan civilization (2500-1400 BC) is the most powerful civilization that subjugated the entire Mediterranean. Discovered by the English archaeologist A. Evans The Labyrinth Palace at Knossos

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Achievements of a great civilization: Innovations in construction: the world's first highly developed monumental palace culture (1900 BC, the “golden age” occurred in 1700-1470 BC). The palace complex is a multi-storey building with a ventilation system, water supply and light shafts, connected by a complex system of passages, decorated with frescoes. Center for storing food, raw materials and foreign trade (farmers stored surplus crops); 2. Innovations in public administration: the form of the state - thalassocracy - the kingdom was based on a well-thought-out social hierarchy, where the apparatus of officials controlled society from a certain single social layer of blood relatives. This ensured peace and social balance; 3. Innovations in crafts and metal processing - fine processing of bronze (they did not know iron); 4. Innovations in navigation: creation of a strong fleet;

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4. Innovations in culture: they invented linear writing (not deciphered) instead of hieroglyphic writing. 5. Innovations in art: the creation of a marine style for painting ceramics (images of octopuses, dolphins and corals against a background of rocks and algae (1500 BC). Art reflected the love of the sea, competitions and festivities, luxury and pleasures. Cretan labyrinth Cretan palace frescoes in the palaces of Crete

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How and why did civilization perish? In 1470 BC. The Minoan civilization collapsed under the blows of Mycenae. Over the course of a century, the palaces (except for Knossos) perished in fire. In 1380 BC. earthquakes shrouded the Aegean kingdoms in darkness, but their history was immortalized by Greek myths. ceramics women's figurines Frescoes of Crete

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Mycenaean civilization (XVI-XII centuries BC) In the absence of political unity in the Late Helladic period, Mycenae, located in Balkan Greece and inhabited by Achaean Greeks, became the center of Greek civilization. Distinctive features of civilization: a pronounced military character (dominance in the Trojan War, establishing dominance over the Aegean Sea); division of the state into Near and Far provinces (16 regions); type of state - ancient Eastern despotism of palace kingdoms; creation of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus; the palace is the control center and industrial and economic center of architects, mechanics, gunsmiths and jewelers; lack of money and market trade (payment of labor in kind); Religion occupied a special place. Mycenaean palaces

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Civilization left a grandiose legacy (the archaeological discoveries of G. Schliemann) powerful defensive fortifications made of huge rough stone blocks; Lion Gate, decorated with a bas-relief of 2 lionesses; the golden tomb of the kings - the tomb of Atreus - these are underground structures located in a circle with domed vaults; palace complexes (borrowed from the Cretans); ceramics; clay tablets with texts; the most important thing is the myths that became the starting point for the development of Western civilization. Lion Gate Tomb of Atreus Map of the tomb Golden mask of King Atreus

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In the 12th century. BC. The Mycenaean palace system suddenly died. Ambiguity from the point of view of different scientists about the reasons for the death of civilization: civil war; social revolution or slave revolt; foreign invasion; loss of trade with the East and famine; epidemics; soil erosion (deforestation); earthquakes.

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At this stage, processes were underway: ethnic consolidation of the Greek world; the formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood; The highest cultural and scientific flowering of ancient Greek civilization was achieved. Polis period in the history of Ancient Greece (XI-IV centuries BC) - The main stages of the polis period Stage I: Homeric (pre-polis) period XI-IX centuries. BC e. (named after the author of the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” - Homer). At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. From Central Europe, the “barbarian” tribes of the legendary Dorians invaded the Balkan Peninsula. They were not the cause of the death of the Mycenaean civilization, but they completely destroyed it. The local population was turned into slaves. The history of Greece began almost anew, which is why this period is called the Dark Ages. Dorian warrior

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Signs of a general decline in culture: primitive agricultural settlements arose on the site of destroyed cities and palace culture; decline in the level of culture, loss of writing (Cretan writing); revival of tribal relations; dominance of subsistence farming. At the end of the period, the formation of a prepolis social organization (early class society) and the revival of material culture took place. The Dorians borrowed the achievements of the Mycenaeans: the potter's wheel; metal processing technology; shipbuilding techniques; culture of growing grapes and olives. But it was the Dorians who brought the art of smelting iron and used it to make tools.

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Stage II: Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC) Socio-economic and political changes - widespread introduction of iron into all spheres of production; the growth of economic independence of families weakened dependence on the clan; the emergence of elements of private property; separation of crafts from agriculture; the transition to the market created the foundations of commodity production; urban growth; trade has become international; ethnic consolidation of Hellenic society (evidenced by the recognition of the city of Delphi with the oracle of Apollo and the city of Olympia with the Temple of Zeus and the Olympic Games as pan-Greek religious centers). During the period VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the formation of policies took place. A polis is a small sovereign city-state united by a common language, religion, cultural traditions, political and trade ties.

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The process of the flourishing of the great Greek colonization in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Economic reasons for colonization: lack of food due to the growing population of Greece; the need for more slaves as the main labor force. Political reasons for colonization: the flight of political opponents as a result of the struggle between the demos and the aristocracy. Regions of colonization: Mediterranean (Italy, Spain, North Africa and islands in the sea); Northern Black Sea region and Azov region (Olbia, Chersonese, Panticapaeum, Bosporan Kingdom); Coast of Asia Minor. Only people from Miletus founded 70 colonies on the Black Sea coast).

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In Athens, the archon (elected ruler) Solon carried out a reform to abolish debt slavery, which laid the foundations of Athenian democracy (power of the people) and its antipode - a special form of tyranny to protect peasants and artisans. At the end of the Archaic period, slavery spread to cities regardless of the form of organization of the polis. In the 6th century BC. the struggle of the demos (people) against the aristocracy for land unfolded; the struggle of the demos with the aristocracy Slavery in Ancient Greece

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After the victory in the Greco-Persian wars, the city of Athens became the most influential political and cultural center. Athens reached its maximum power in the “Golden Age of Pericles” (an outstanding politician, commander, democrat, elected strategist 15 times). Cultural flourishing was ensured by the titans of Greek thought - Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC) - the era of the highest prosperity of ancient Greek society and culture

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The political and economic rivalry of the policies led to the creation of military alliances and wars Reasons: 1. Political contradictions: the struggle to establish the policy's own political structure: Athens represented democracy, Sparta represented oligarchy and supremacy in Greece; 2. Ethnic contradictions: the Athenians were Ionians, the Spartans were Dorians; 2. Economic contradictions: trade war between Athens and Corinth. Sparta established hegemony

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The Macedonian king Philip II took advantage of the weakness of the policies, who created and led the Corinthian Union of Greek States (337 BC). As a result of the Corinthian War (395 BC), Persia imposed a humiliating peace on the Greeks, the implementation of which was controlled by Sparta. To fight Sparta, they created the Second Athenian Naval League, which collapsed after the war.

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Hellenism is a new stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, which began with the campaigns of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. and ended with the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Ancient Rome in the 1st century. BC. The reign of Alexander the Great (336-323 BC) led to the short-term (12 years) establishment of a world power (Greece, Persia, part of India, Egypt). Alexander vigorously suppressed the rebellion in the Balkans and invaded Asia. Reasons for the invasion of Macedonian troops into Asia: liberation of Anatolian Greece from barbarians; revenge for troubles during the Greco-Persian wars; the idea of ​​​​spreading Hellenic culture to the east. THE HELLENISTIC WORLD AT THE ORIGINS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION (IV-I centuries BC) King Alexander, raised by Aristotle on the examples of high Hellenic culture, was convinced that he came from Hercules on his father’s side, and from Achilles on his mother’s side. Died at the age of 33.

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The insignificance of the Greek-Macedonian army during the conquest of the world is striking: 40 thousand soldiers in Asia, 120 thousand in India. The greatest of commanders, the formidable ruler proved himself to be a brilliant organizer. The empire rested on the personality of Alexander, who had inhuman efficiency.

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The main goal of Alexander the Great was the creation of a Greek-Eastern type of statehood based on Greek philosophy and the monarchical traditions of the East. Alexander's reforms: the creation of a complex fiscal structure for collecting taxes; introduction of a single monetary unit - Macedonian coins according to the Attic weight standard; measures to merge the conquered peoples and the Greeks into a single people. Methods: mixed marriages (during the “wedding in Susa” 10 thousand soldiers married girls from Asia in 1 day); construction of 34 cities in the empire - Alexandria, which became conductors of Greek culture and language; educating 30 thousand Iranian children using examples of Greek culture; resettlement of people to various parts of the empire; construction of roads, canals and ships. The ideal of the unity of mankind, which denied the difference between Greeks and barbarians, and great innovations brilliantly confirmed Plutarch’s thought that history sometimes depends on one great man.

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After devastating wars, the empire split into 3 large states: the Kingdom of Egypt; Seleucid (Syrian) kingdom; Macedonian kingdom. This confirmed the importance of a political innovation - the institution of monarchy. However, the kingdoms coexisted with several poleis (Athens and Corinth). With the establishment of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. e. Greece turned into the Roman province of Achaia (except for the nominally free city of Athens). From the 4th century AD Greece formed the core of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium.

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Mythology of Ancient Greece Mythology, the origins of which date back to the Cretan-Mycenaean period, played a unifying role for ancient Greek culture. The most ancient deities were the ones who embodied the forces of nature. From the union of Gaia - the earth and Uranus - the sky - the titans appeared, the eldest being the Ocean. The younger Kronos killed his father in a dream out of revenge for the imprisonment of the Cyclops brothers in Tartarus and became the king of the gods. The children of Kronos, led by Zeus, won the battle with the Titans and shared power over the world.

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The Olympian gods are the gods of the 3rd generation in the ancient Greek pantheon, the supreme deities who lived on Mount Olympus. The Olympians included the children of Kronos and Rhea Zeus - the supreme god of the ancient Greek pantheon, the god of sky, thunder and lightning Hera (wife of Zeus) - the patroness of marriage and family Poseidon - god of the seas, springs and waters. Hades - god of the underground kingdom of the dead Demeter - goddess of fertility and agriculture Hestia - patroness of the hearth Olympic gods, descendants of Zeus Ares - god of war Athena (appeared from the head of Zeus in a combat helmet and armor) - goddess of military wisdom, patroness of sciences and crafts Aphrodite (born from sea foam on the island of Cyprus) - goddess of love and beauty Artemis - goddess of fertility, the Moon, patroness of animals and hunting, later - patroness of female chastity and women in labor Hephaestus (husband of Aphrodite) - god of fire and blacksmithing Hermes - god of trade, cunning, speed and theft, messenger of the Olympic gods, patron of travelers and trade Apollo - god of light, supreme patron of medicine and art, his companions - 9 muses Dionysus - god of winemaking and fun, dedicated special festivals at the end of the agricultural year - Dionysia Persephone - goddess of spring, queen Realms of the Dead

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In parallel with mythology, cult practice developed - sacrifices and prayers that took place in temples. Each city had a patron god Athena - the patroness of the city of Athens; Olympia is the center of worship of Zeus, to whom the Olympic competitions were dedicated; Delphi is the center of the Earth, the site of the main sanctuary of Apollo, where the Delphic oracle prophesied. The meaning of ancient Greek mythology: the source of the development of ancient Greek art; influence on the formation of the mythology and religion of Ancient Rome; during the Renaissance it was included in the European cultural process; in the modern world has scientific, educational and aesthetic interest. Athena Delphic Oracle

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DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE Scientists of Ancient Hellas tried to give a comprehensive picture of the world, different from the mythological level. There was a process not just of the accumulation of scientific knowledge (by the priests), but of the development of professional science, which for the first time in history stood out as an independent sphere; the emergence of philosophy as a scientific theory that provided an original solution to the main philosophical problems of the origin of the Universe and the nature of manAnaximander Anaximenes Democritus The first Greek philosophers from the list of “7 -mi sages"

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The researcher of social and ethical problems of man was Socrates Plato, the founder of the school of idealism. The most famous philosopher in the history of mankind, Aristotle, made a huge impact on the philosophy of the Middle Ages and Modern times. The greatest philosophers of all times Plato and Aristotle

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The foundations of historical science were laid by Herodotus. During his travels, Herodotus collected various information. The main work - “History” - is dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. Despite the lack of integrity and complete scientific character, he recorded mostly reliable facts. Herodotus gave the first systematic description of the life and everyday life of the Scythians in ancient literature. Map of the world according to Herodotus Herodotus

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In Greece, several scientific medical schools generalized medical knowledge. Achievements in the classical era of the physician Hippocrates had a great influence on the development of medicine: discussions about the causes of diseases, the 4 temperaments, and the role of prognosis in treatment. The Hippocratic Oath is the moral code of doctors around the world.

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EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE A unique system of upbringing and education developed the ideal of the Hellenic man - a harmonious combination of physical and spiritual beauty. For the first time in history, the task of educating the children of the free population (boys) arose. The structure of education was affected by political differences between policies. In the center of education - democratic Athens - the following education system was formed: Lower school (from 7 years old) - didaxaleion, where they taught literacy, literature, music, arithmetic, drawing; The 2nd level of primary schools - grammar schools (from 12 to 15 years old) taught astronomy and philosophy. Physical education training was carried out simultaneously in a special complex - the palaestra; Gymnasiums are state educational monumental buildings, centers of intellectual life of the polis. Boys aged 16-18 improved in rhetoric, ethics, logic, geography and gymnastics. palaestra

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The most famous schools of Ancient Greece are the Platonic Academy, where Plato held conversations with his students; Lyceum of Aristotle. 4. Higher education institution - ephebe (military and civilian education). Circles that were grouped around prominent scientists (the famous conversations of Socrates) can be considered a unique form of higher education. Athens Gymnasium

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In Sparta there was strict state control over the development of the individual. To improve the health of the inhabitants of the kingdom, members of the city council of elders threw sickly newborn children into the abyss. The public school system was mandatory for every boy and girl aged 8-20, while the child was torn away from his family. Children from the age of 12 were divided into groups, headed by a pren (senior authoritative boy). The main elements of training: hunting, religious and military dances, physical exercises. Mental development was a personal matter for the Spartan.

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ANTIQUE is the source from which all later art drew inspiration. This is the cradle of world art Antiquus- ancient

Periods of development of ancient art

Cretan-Mycenaean or Aegean – III–II thousand BC

Gomerovsky - XI -VIII centuries, BC

Archaic - VII–VI centuries, BC

Classic - V – IV centuries BC.

Hellenism - III – I centuries BC .

Classic

Hellenism

XI – VIII century BC e.

III–II thousand years BC e.

VII–VI century BC e.

V–IV century BC e.

III–I century BC e.

Knossos palace

The Palace of Knossos is the most outstanding monument of Cretan architecture.

In Greek myths it was called

L a b i r i n t o m

In the depths of the palace lived a half-man, half-bull - M i n o t a v r

The total area is about 16 thousand square meters. m

Homeric period

Name " Homeric period " was associated with the name of the legendary Homer, to whose pen the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” are attributed, telling about the events of the Trojan War and after its end.

The formation of the famous Greek mythology, one of the most developed mythologies of the ancient world, dates back to this time.

Most of the Homeric period was unwritten and only towards the end of it, i.e. around the 8th century. BC, the Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet, significantly reworking it and adding vowels.

Homeric Greece period

Homer's works were discovered

the most important page in history

antique artistic

culture. It is no coincidence that the philosopher

Plato called the poet

« teacher of Greece."

Approximately at VIII - VII centuries BC. the blind singer-storyteller created

two great poems called

« Illiad and Odyssey

(several poems have been recorded

centuries later)

A single architectural language is the order system: a certain ratio of the carrying and load-bearing parts of the structure and the features of its decoration.

There are three types of Greek orders:

Doric

Ionic

Corinthian

Entrance to the Acropolis from the west through

main entrance - P r o p i l e i

The main building of the Acropolis is Parthenon Temple,

dedicated to Athena Parthenos (virgin).

Built by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates

One of the most beautiful Hellenic temples.

It is huge and powerful, built of golden-pink marble.

View of the Parthenon after the explosion

1687

They erected it opposite the Parthenon Erechtheion , dedicated to Pallas Athena (mother) and her husband Poseidon Erechtheus.

The layout of the Ereikhtheion is very complex and asymmetrical; the temple was built on different levels and divided into two parts.

TO The temple is adjacent to three porticoes, including

And portico of the caryatids (sculptural image

female figures carrying the ceiling).

Lighthouse at the entrance to

Alexandria harbor

on the island of Faros

Nike of Samothrace

The statue was erected on the occasion of the victory of the Macedonian fleet over the Egyptian in 306 BC. e. The goddess was depicted as if on the bow of a ship, announcing victory with the sound of a trumpet.

The pathos of victory is expressed in the swift movement of the goddess, in the wide flap of her wings.

IV V. BC.

Kept in the Louvre

Paris, France

Marble

Marble

Nike untying her sandal

• Goddess depicted
• untying her sandal before entering the temple
• Athens Marble

Venus de Milo

• On April 8, 1820, a Greek peasant from the island of Melos named Iorgos, while digging the ground, felt that his shovel, clinking dully, hit something hard.
• Iorgos dug nearby - the same result. He took a step back, but even here the spade did not want to enter the ground.
• First Iorgos saw a stone niche. It was about four to five meters wide. In the stone crypt, to his surprise, he found a marble statue.
• This was Venus.

• Laocoon*, you didn't save anyone! He is not a savior for either the city or the world. The mind is powerless. Proud Three mouth predetermined; circle of fatal events locked in a suffocating crown snake rings. Horror on the face the prayers and groans of your child; another son was silenced by poison. Your fainting. Your wheeze: “Let me be...” (...Like the bleating of sacrificial lambs Through the darkness both piercingly and subtly!..) And again - reality. And poison. They are stronger! In the snake's mouth, anger blazes powerfully... Laocoon, who heard you?! Here are your boys... They... are not breathing. But every Troy has its own horses.