How do you imagine the people of ancient Rus'? Good people of ancient Rus'

In 1227, the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan, died, bequeathing to his descendants to continue his work and conquer the entire land, right up to the “Sea of the Franks” known to the Mongols in the west. The huge power of Genghis Khan was divided, as already noted, into uluses. The ulus of Jochi's eldest son, who died in the same year as his father, went to the conqueror's grandson Batu Khan (Batu). It was this ulus, located west of the Irtysh, that was supposed to become the main springboard for the conquest to the West. In 1235, at the kurultai of the Mongol nobility in Karakorum, a decision was made on an all-Mongol campaign against Europe. The strength of the Jochi ulus alone was clearly not enough. In this regard, troops of other Chingizids were sent to help Batu. Batu himself was placed at the head of the campaign, and the experienced commander Subedei was appointed as an adviser.

The offensive began in the fall of 1236, and a year later the Mongol conquerors conquered Volga Bulgaria, the lands of the Burtases and Mordovians in the Middle Volga, as well as the Polovtsian hordes roaming between the Volga and Don rivers. In the late autumn of 1237, Batu's main forces concentrated in the upper reaches of the Voronezh River (the left tributary of the Don) to invade northeastern Rus'. In addition to the significant numerical superiority of the Mongol Tumeis, the fragmentation of the Russian principalities, which resisted the enemy invasion one by one, played a negative role. The first principality to be mercilessly devastated was the Ryazan land. In the winter of 1237, Batu's hordes invaded its borders, destroying everything in their path. After a six-day siege, without receiving help, Ryazan fell on December 21. The city was burned and all the inhabitants were exterminated.

Having ravaged the Ryazan land, in January 1238, the Mongol invaders defeated the Grand Duke's guard regiment of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich, near Kolomna. Then moving along frozen rivers, the Mongols captured Moscow, Suzdal and a number of other cities. On February 7, after the siege, the capital of the principality, Vladimir, fell, where the family of the Grand Duke also died. After the capture of Vladimir, the hordes of conquerors scattered throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal land, plundering and destroying it (14 cities were destroyed).

On March 4, 1238, across the Volga, a battle took place on the City River between the main forces of northeastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich and the Mongol invaders. Russian army in this battle was defeated, and he Grand Duke died. After the capture of the “suburb” of the Novgorod land - Torzhok, the road to northwestern Rus' opened before the conquerors. However, the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the Mongols, not reaching about 100 versts to Veliky Novgorod, to turn back to the Polovtsian steppes. On the way, they defeated Kursk and the small town of Kozelsk on the Zhizdra River. The defenders of Kozelsk offered fierce resistance to the enemy; they defended for seven weeks. After its capture in May 1238, Batu ordered this “evil city” to be wiped off the face of the earth, and the remaining inhabitants to be exterminated without exception.

Batu spent the summer of 1238 in the Don steppes, restoring the strength of his army. In the fall, his troops again devastated the Ryazan land, which had not yet recovered from the defeat, capturing Gorokhovets, Murom and several other cities. In the spring of 1239, Batu’s troops defeated the Pereyaslav principality, and in the fall the Chernigov-Seversk land was devastated.

In the fall of 1240, the Mongol army moved through southern Rus' to conquer Western Europe. In September they crossed the Dnieper and surrounded Kyiv. After a long siege, the city fell on December 6, 1240. In the winter of 1240/41, the Mongols captured almost all the cities of southern Rus'. In the spring of 1241, Mongol troops, having passed “with fire and sword” through Galicia-Volyn Rus' and captured Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich, attacked Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Moravia, and by the summer of 1242 they reached the borders of Northern Italy and Germany. However, without receiving reinforcements and carrying heavy losses In an unusual mountainous area, the conquerors, drained of blood by the protracted campaign, were forced to turn from Central Europe back to the steppes of the Lower Volga region. Another, and perhaps the most significant reason for the rollback of the Mongol hordes from Europe was the news of the death of the great Khan Ogedei in Karakorum, and Batu hastened to take part in the elections of the new ruler of the Mongol Empire.

The results of the Mongol conquest for Rus' were extremely difficult.

In terms of scale, the destruction and casualties resulting from the invasion could not be compared with the losses caused by the raids of nomads and princely feuds. First of all, the Mongol invasion caused enormous damage to all lands at the same time. According to archaeologists, out of 74 cities that existed in Rus' in the pre-Mongol era, 49 were completely destroyed by Batu’s hordes. At the same time, a third of them were depopulated forever, and 15 former cities turned into villages. Only Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Polotsk and the Turovo-Pinsk principality were not affected, because the Mongol hordes bypassed them. The population of the Russian lands also decreased sharply. Most of the townspeople either died in battles or were taken by the conquerors into “full” (slavery). Handicraft production was particularly affected. After the invasion in Rus', some craft specialties disappeared, the construction of stone buildings stopped, the secrets of making glassware, cloisonne enamel, multi-colored ceramics, etc. were lost. Huge losses occurred among professional Russian warriors - princely warriors; many princes died in battles with the enemy. Only half a century later in Rus' the service class began to be revived and, accordingly, the structure of the patrimonial and nascent landowner economy was recreated. Apparently, only the most massive category - the rural population - suffered somewhat less from the invasion, but they suffered severe trials.

However, the main consequence of the Mongol invasion of Rus' and the establishment of Horde rule from the middle of the 13th century. was the strengthening of the isolation of the Russian lands, the disappearance of the old political-legal system and power structure that was once characteristic of Old Russian state. A conglomerate of Russian principalities of different sizes found itself under the influence of centrifugal geopolitical processes that became irreversible as a result of Mongol expansion. The collapse of the political unity of Ancient Rus' also marked the beginning of the disappearance of the Old Russian people, which became the progenitor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples: from the 14th century. in the north-east and north-west of Rus' the Russian (Great Russian) nationality is formed, and in the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

After Batu's invasion, the so-called Mongol-Tatar rule was established over Russia - a set of economic and political methods that ensured the dominance of the Golden Horde over that part of the territory of Rus' that came under the control (suzerainty) of its khans. The main one among these methods was the collection of various tributes and duties: “service”, trade duty “tamga”, food for Tatar ambassadors - “honor”, etc. The heaviest of them was the Horde “exit” - tribute in silver, which began to be collected in 1240- e years Beginning in 1257, on the orders of Khan Berke, the Mongols carried out a census of the population of northeastern Rus' (“recording the number”), establishing fixed rates of collection. Only the clergy were exempt from paying the “exit” (before the Horde adopted Islam at the beginning of the 14th century, the Mongols were distinguished by religious tolerance). To control the collection of tribute, representatives of the khan - the Baskaks - were sent to Rus'. The tribute was collected by tax farmers - besermens (Central Asian merchants). This is where it came from Russian word"busurman". By the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. The institution of Baskaism due to the active opposition of the Russian population (constant unrest of the rural population and urban protests) was abolished. From that time on, the princes of the Russian lands themselves began to collect Horde tribute. In case of disobedience, punitive Horde raids followed. As the dominance of the Golden Horde consolidated, punitive expeditions were replaced by repressions against individual princes.

The Russian principalities that became dependent on the Horde lost their sovereignty. Obtaining the princely throne depended on the will of the khan, who issued labels (letters) for reign. The dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia was expressed, among other things, in the issuance of labels (letters) for the great reign of Vladimir. The one who received such a label annexed the Principality of Vladimir to his possessions and became the most powerful among the Russian princes. He had to maintain order, stop strife and ensure the uninterrupted flow of tribute. The Horde rulers did not allow a significant increase in the power of any of the Russian princes and, consequently, a long stay on the grand-ducal throne. In addition, having taken away the label from the next Grand Duke, they gave it to a rival prince, which led to princely strife and the struggle for obtaining the Vladimir reign at the Khai court. A well-thought-out system of measures provided the Horde with strong control over the Russian lands.

Separation of Southern Rus'. In the second half of the 13th century. the division of Ancient Rus' into the northeastern and southwestern parts was actually completed. In southwestern Rus', the process of state fragmentation reached its apogee at the time of the Horde conquest. The Grand Duchy of Kiev lost its political significance. The Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities weakened and fragmented.

The first principality to be mercilessly devastated was the Ryazan land. In the winter of 1237, Batu's hordes invaded its borders, ruining and destroying everything in their path. The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan. The Mongols besieged Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded submission and one-tenth “part in everything.” Karamzin also points out other details: “Yuri of Ryazan, abandoned by the Grand Duke, sent his son Theodore with gifts to Batu, who, having learned about the beauty of Theodore’s wife Eupraxia, wanted to see her, but this young prince answered him that Christians do not show their wives wicked pagans. Batu ordered to kill him; and the unfortunate Eupraxia, having learned of the death of her beloved husband, together with her baby, John, rushed from the high tower to the ground and lost her life.” The point is that Batu began to demand from the Ryazan princes and nobles “daughters and sisters on his bed.”

The Ryazantsev’s courageous answer to everything followed: “If we are all gone, then everything will be yours.” On the sixth day of the siege, December 21, 1237, the city was taken, the princely family and surviving residents were killed. In its old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is new town, located 60 km from old Ryazan, it was previously called Pereyaslavl Ryazan).

The grateful people's memory preserves the story of the feat of the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, who entered into an unequal battle with the invaders and earned the respect of Batu himself for his valor and courage.

Having ravaged the Ryazan land in January 1238, the Mongol invaders defeated the Grand Duke's guard regiment of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich, near Kolomna. Actually it was the entire Vladimir army. This defeat predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Rus'. During the battle for Kolomna, the last son of Genghis Khan, Kulkan, was killed. The Chingizids, as usual, did not take direct part in the battle. Therefore, the death of Kulkan near Kolomna suggests that the Russians; Probably, it was possible to deliver a strong blow to the Mongol rear in some place.

Then moving along frozen rivers (Oka and others), the Mongols captured Moscow, where the entire population put up strong resistance for 5 days under the leadership of governor Philip Nyanka. Moscow was completely burned, and all its inhabitants were killed.

On February 4, 1238, Batu besieged Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich left Vladimir in advance to organize a rebuff to uninvited guests in the northern forests on the Sit River. He took two nephews with him, and left the Grand Duchess and two sons in the city.

The Mongols prepared for the assault on Vladimir according to all the rules of military science that they had learned in China. They built siege towers near the walls of the city in order to be on the same level with the besieged and at the right moment throw “crossbars” over the walls; they installed “vices” - battering and throwing machines. At night, a “tyn” was erected around the city - an external fortification to protect against attacks by the besieged and to cut off all their escape routes.

Before the storming of the city at the Golden Gate, in front of the besieged Vladimir residents, the Mongols killed the younger prince Vladimir Yuryevich, who had recently defended Moscow. Mstislav Yurievich soon died on the defensive line. The last son of the Grand Duke, Vsevolod, who fought the horde in Kolomna, during the assault on Vladimir, decided to enter into negotiations with Batu. With a small squad and large gifts, he left the besieged city, but the khan did not want to talk to the prince and “like a ferocious beast did not spare his youth, he ordered him to be slaughtered before him.”

After this, the horde launched a final assault. The Grand Duchess, Bishop Mitrofan, other princely wives, boyars and part of the common people, the last defenders of Vladimir, took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. On February 7, 1238, the invaders broke into the city through breaks in the fortress wall and set it on fire. Many people died from fire and suffocation, not excluding those who took refuge in the cathedral. Died in fire and ruins most valuable monuments literature, art and architecture.

After the capture and devastation of Vladimir, the horde spread throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, ravaging and burning cities, towns and villages. During February, 14 cities were plundered between the Klyazma and Volga rivers: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev and others.

On March 4, 1238, across the Volga on the City River, a battle took place between the main forces of North-Eastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich and the Mongol invaders. 49-year-old Yuri Vsevolodovich was a brave fighter and quite an experienced military leader. Behind him were victories over the Germans, Lithuanians, Mordovians, Kama Bulgarians and those Russian princes who laid claim to his grand-ducal throne. However, in organizing and preparing Russian troops for the battle on the City River, he made a number of serious miscalculations: he showed carelessness in the defense of his military camp, did not pay due attention to reconnaissance, allowed his commanders to disperse the army over several villages and did not establish reliable communications between disparate detachments.

And when a large Mongol formation under the command of Barendey completely unexpectedly appeared in the Russian camp, the result of the battle was obvious. Chronicles and archaeological excavations in the City indicate that the Russians were defeated piecemeal, fled, and the horde cut people like grass. Yuri Vsevolodovich himself also died in this unequal battle. The circumstances of his death remain unknown. Only the following testimony has reached us about the prince of Novgorod, a contemporary of that sad event: “God knows how he died, for others say a lot about him.”

From this time on in Rus' it began Mongol yoke: Rus' became obliged to pay tribute to the Mongols, and the princes had to receive the title of Grand Duke from the hands of the khan. The term “yoke” itself in the meaning of oppression was first used in 1275 by Metropolitan Kirill.

The Mongol hordes moved to the north-west of Rus'. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the Novgorod suburb of Torzhok was defended. However, the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the Mongols, before reaching Veliky Novgorod about 100 versts, to turn south from the stone Ignach Cross to the Polovtsian steppes. The withdrawal was in the nature of a “round-up”. Divided into separate detachments, the invaders “combed” Russian cities from north to south. Smolensk managed to fight back. Kursk was destroyed, like other centers. The greatest resistance to the Mongols was provided by the small city of Kozelsk, which held out for seven (!) weeks. The town stood on a steep slope, washed by two rivers - Zhizdra and Druchusnaya. In addition to these natural barriers, it was reliably covered by wooden fortress walls with towers and a ditch about 25 meters deep.

Before the horde arrived, the Kozelites managed to freeze a layer of ice on the floor wall and the entrance gate, which made it much more difficult for the enemy to storm the city. Residents of the town wrote a heroic page in Russian history with their blood. It’s not for nothing that the Mongols called it “the evil city.” The Mongols stormed Ryazan for six days, Moscow for five days, Vladimir a little longer, Torzhok for fourteen days, and little Kozelsk fell on the 50th day, probably only because the Mongols - for the umpteenth time! They used their favorite trick - after another unsuccessful assault, they imitated a stampede. The besieged Kozelites, in order to complete their victory, made a general sortie, but were surrounded superior forces the enemy and everyone was killed. The Horde finally burst into the city and drowned the remaining residents there in blood, including the 4-year-old Prince Kozelsk.

Having devastated North-Eastern Rus', Batu Khan and Subedey-Baghatur withdrew their troops to the Don steppes to rest. Here the horde spent the entire summer of 1238. In the fall, Batu’s troops repeated raids on Ryazan and other Russian cities and towns that had so far escaped devastation. Murom, Gorokhovets, Yaropolch (modern Vyazniki), and Nizhny Novgorod were defeated.

And in 1239, Batu’s hordes invaded Southern Rus'. They took and burned Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other settlements.

On September 5, 1240, the troops of Batu, Subedei and Barendey crossed the Dnieper and surrounded Kyiv on all sides. At that time, Kyiv was compared to Constantinople (Constantinople) in terms of wealth and large population. The city's population was close to 50 thousand people. Shortly before the arrival of the horde, the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich took possession of the throne of Kyiv. When she appeared, he went west to defend his ancestral possessions, and entrusted the defense of Kyiv to Dmitry Tysyatsky.

The city was defended by artisans, suburban peasants, and merchants. There were few professional warriors. Therefore, the defense of Kyiv, like Kozelsk, can rightfully be considered a people’s defense.

Kyiv was well fortified. The thickness of its earthen ramparts reached 20 meters at the base. The walls were oak, with earthen backfill. There were stone defensive towers with gateways in the walls. Along the ramparts there was a ditch filled with water, 18 meters wide.

Subedei, of course, was well aware of the difficulties of the upcoming assault. Therefore, he first sent his ambassadors to Kyiv demanding its immediate and complete surrender. But the Kievans did not negotiate and killed the ambassadors, and we know what this meant for the Mongols. Then a systematic siege of the most ancient city in Rus' began.

The Russian medieval chronicler described it this way: “... Tsar Batu came to the city of Kyiv with many soldiers and surrounded the city... and it was impossible for anyone to leave the city or enter the city. And it was impossible to hear each other in the city from the creaking of carts, the roar of camels, from the sounds of trumpets... from the neighing of horse herds and from the screams and screams of countless people... Many vices beat (on the walls) incessantly, day and night, and the townspeople fought hard, and there were many dead... the Tatars broke through the city walls and entered the city, and the townspeople rushed towards them. And one could see and hear the terrible cracking of spears and the knocking of shields; the arrows darkened the light, so that the sky could not be seen behind the arrows, but there was darkness from the multitude of Tatar arrows, and the dead lay everywhere, and blood flowed everywhere like water... and the townspeople were defeated, and the Tatars climbed the walls, but from great fatigue they settled on walls of the city. And night came. That night the townspeople created another city, near the Church of the Holy Virgin. The next morning the Tatars came against them, and there was a vicious slaughter. And the people began to be exhausted, and they ran with their belongings into the church vaults and the church walls fell down from the weight, and the Tatars took the city of Kyiv on the month of December, the 6th day...”

In the works of the pre-revolutionary years, the fact is cited that the courageous organizer of the defense of Kyiv, Dimitar, was captured by the Mongols and brought to Batu.

“This formidable conqueror, having no idea about the virtues of philanthropy, knew how to appreciate extraordinary courage and with a look of proud pleasure said to the Russian governor: “I will give you life!” Dmitry accepted the gift, because he could still be useful for the fatherland and was left with Batu.”

Thus ended the heroic defense of Kyiv, which lasted 93 days. The invaders plundered the church of St. Sofia, all other monasteries, and the surviving Kievites killed every last one, regardless of age.

The following year, 1241, the Galicia-Volyn Principality. On the territory of Rus', the Mongol yoke was established, which lasted 240 years (1240-1480). This is the point of view of historians at the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov.

In the spring of 1241, the horde rushed to the West to conquer all the “evening countries” and extend its power to all of Europe, right down to the last sea, as Genghis Khan bequeathed.

Western Europe, like Rus', was experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation at that time. Torn apart by internal strife and rivalry between small and large rulers, it could not unite to stop the invasion of the steppes through common efforts. Alone at that time, not a single European state was able to withstand the military onslaught of the horde, especially its fast and hardy cavalry, which played a role in military operations decisive role. Therefore, despite the courageous resistance of the European peoples, in 1241 the hordes of Batu and Subedey invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Moldova, and in 1242 they reached Croatia and Dalmatia - the Balkan countries. A critical moment has arrived for Western Europe. However, at the end of 1242, Batu turned his troops to the east. What's the matter? The Mongols had to reckon with ongoing resistance in the rear of their troops. At the same time, they suffered a series of, albeit minor, failures in the Czech Republic and Hungary. But most importantly, their army was exhausted by battles with the Russians. And then from distant Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia, news came of the death of the Great Khan. During the subsequent division of the empire, Batu must be on his own. This was a very convenient excuse to stop a difficult hike.

About the world-historical significance of the struggle of Rus' with the Horde conquerors, A.S. Pushkin wrote:

“Russia was destined for a high destiny...its vast plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe; The barbarians did not dare to leave enslaved Rus' in their rear and returned to the steppes of their east. The resulting enlightenment was saved by a torn and dying Russia...”

Reasons for the Mongols' success.

The question is why the nomads, who were significantly inferior to the conquered peoples of Asia and Europe in economic and culturally, subjugated them to their power for almost three centuries, has always been the center of attention of both domestic and foreign historians. No textbook teaching aid; a historical monograph, to one degree or another, considering the problems of the formation of the Mongol Empire and its conquests, which would not reflect this problem. To imagine this in such a way that if Rus' were united, it would show the Mongols is not a historically justified thought, although it is clear that the level of resistance would be an order of magnitude higher. But the example of a united China, as indicated earlier, destroys this scheme, although it is present in historical literature. The quantity and quality of military force on each side and other military factors can be considered more reasonable. In other words, the Mongols were superior to their opponents in military power. As already noted, the Steppe was always militarily superior to the Forest in ancient times. After this short introduction to the “problem,” we list the factors for the victory of the steppe inhabitants cited in the historical literature.

The feudal fragmentation of Rus', Europe and weak interstate relations between the countries of Asia and Europe, which did not allow them to unite their forces and repel the conquerors.

Numerical superiority of the conquerors. There was a lot of debate among historians about how many Batu brought to Rus'. N.M. Karamzin indicated the figure of 300 thousand soldiers. However, serious analysis does not allow us to even come close to this figure. Each Mongol horseman (and they were all horsemen) had at least 2, and most likely 3 horses. Where can 1 million horses be fed in winter in forested Rus'? Not a single chronicle even raises this topic. Therefore, modern historians call the figure a maximum of 150 thousand Mughals who came to Rus'; more cautious ones settle on the figure of 120-130 thousand. And all of Rus', even if it united, could put up 50 thousand, although there are figures up to 100 thousand. So in reality the Russians could field 10-15 thousand soldiers for battle. Here the following circumstance should be taken into account. The striking force of the Russian squads - the princely armies were in no way inferior to the Mughals, but the bulk of the Russian squads are militia warriors, not professional warriors, but those who took up arms simple people, no match for the professional Mongol warriors. The tactics of the warring parties also differed.

The Russians were forced to adhere to defensive tactics designed to starve the enemy. Why? The fact is that in a direct military clash in the field, the Mongol cavalry had clear advantages. Therefore, the Russians tried to sit out behind the fortress walls of their cities. However, the wooden fortresses could not withstand the pressure of the Mongol troops. In addition, the conquerors used continuous assault tactics and successfully used siege weapons and equipment that were perfect for their time, borrowed from the peoples of China, Central Asia and the Caucasus they conquered.

The Mongols conducted good reconnaissance before the start of hostilities. They had informants even among the Russians. In addition, the Mongol military leaders did not personally participate in the battles, but led the battle from their headquarters, which, as a rule, was located in a high place. Russian princes up to Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462) themselves directly participated in the battles. Therefore, very often, in the event of even the heroic death of a prince, his soldiers, deprived of professional leadership, found themselves in a very difficult situation.

It is important to note that Batu’s attack on Rus' in 1237 was a complete surprise for the Russians. The Mongol hordes undertook it in winter, attacking the Ryazan principality. Ryazan residents were accustomed only to summer and autumn raids by enemies, mainly Polovtsians. Therefore, no one expected a winter blow. What were the steppe people pursuing with their winter attack? The fact is that the rivers, which were a natural barrier for enemy cavalry in summer period, were covered with ice in winter and lost their protective functions.

In addition, food supplies and feed for livestock were prepared in Rus' for the winter. Thus, the conquerors were already provided with food for their cavalry before the attack.

These, according to most historians, were the main and tactical reasons for the Mongol victories.

Consequences of Batu's invasion.

The results of the Mongol conquest for the Russian lands were extremely difficult. In terms of scale, the destruction and casualties suffered as a result of the invasion could not be compared with the damage caused by the raids of nomads and princely feuds. First of all, the invasion caused enormous damage to all lands at the same time. According to archaeologists, of the 74 cities that existed in Rus' in the pre-Mongol period, 49 were completely destroyed by Batu’s hordes. At the same time, a third of them were depopulated forever and were never restored, and 15 former cities became villages. Only Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Polotsk and the Turov-Pinsk principality were not affected, primarily due to the fact that the Mongol hordes bypassed them. The population of Russian lands also decreased sharply. Most of the townspeople either died in battles or were taken by the conquerors into “full” (slavery). Handicraft production was particularly affected. After the invasion in Rus', some craft industries and specialties disappeared, stone construction stopped, the secrets of making glassware, cloisonne enamel, multi-colored ceramics, etc. were lost. Professional Russian warriors - princely warriors, and many princes who died in battles with enemy.. Only half a century later in Rus' the service class begins to be restored, and accordingly the structure of the patrimonial and nascent landowner economy begins to be recreated.

However, the main consequence of the Mongol invasion of Rus' and the establishment of Horde rule from the middle of the 13th century was a sharp increase in the isolation of Russian lands, the disappearance of the old political and legal system and the organization of the power structure that was once characteristic of the Old Russian state. For Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries, located between Europe and Asia, it was extremely important which way it would turn - to the East or to the West. Kievan Rus managed to maintain a neutral position between them, it was open to both the West and the East.

But the new political situation of the 13th century, the invasion of the Mongols and crusade European Catholic knights, who questioned the continued existence of Rus' and its Orthodox culture, forced the political elite of Rus' to make a certain choice. The fate of the country for many centuries, including modern times, depended on this choice.

The collapse of the political unity of Ancient Rus' also marked the beginning of the disappearance of the Old Russian people, which became the progenitor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples. Since the 14th century, the Russian (Great Russian) nationality has been formed in the northeast and northwest of Rus'; on the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

The “Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” has been preserved, possibly written by one of the eyewitnesses of the events. She talks about the exploits of the Ryazan princes and their warriors who fell in an unequal battle with their enemies. One of the heroes of the story is the brave Ryazan governor Evpatiy Kolovrat. Having accidentally avoided the common fate, he gathered the remnants of the Ryazan forces and rushed after the departing horde. With a sudden blow, Evpatiy threw the Tatar governors into confusion. Only after a long battle did they manage to destroy Evpatiy’s detachment and kill him himself. Admiring the courage of the governor, Batu ordered to release the Russian prisoners and give them the hero’s body for a dignified burial.

Siege of Moscow

The siege of Moscow by Batu's troops took place on January 20, 1238. Moscow defended itself staunchly - a strong fortress on the southwestern borders of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Here the son of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich led the defense Vladimir. Shortly before the final assault, one of the noble Muscovites decided to save family valuables - several dozen silver jewelry, burying them in the ground on the city rampart. However, there was no one left to dig up the treasure... This treasure was accidentally discovered only seven and a half centuries later during construction work in the Moscow Kremlin.

Defense of Vladimir

Soon after Moscow it was the turn of capital Vladimir. The defense of Vladimir began on January 3, 1238, and on February 7, after a fierce battle, the city was taken by Batu’s troops. The last surviving townspeople locked themselves in the Assumption Cathedral. But even there they did not find salvation. The Tatars broke down the doors of the temple and rushed inside. Some townspeople managed to climb up to the choir inside the temple and shut themselves up there. Then the “filthy” dragged fallen trees, logs and boards into the cathedral and set them on fire. People who took refuge in the choirs - among them was the wife of Grand Duke Yuri Agafya, her younger children and grandchildren, as well as the Vladimir bishop Mitrofan— died in the fire or suffocated from smoke.

Battle of the Sit River

Batu's campaign against Novgorod

Batu's retreat

In 1239, the Mongols had to resume military operations against seemingly already conquered Rus'.

Siege of Kyiv

Batu was able to continue his great offensive to the West only in the fall of 1240. Having crossed the Dnieper, he besieged Kyiv. According to the chronicler, the horde of thousands gathered near the walls of Kyiv made a terrible noise. Even in the city, the sounds of the creaking of cart wheels, the roar of camels, and the neighing of horses drowned out the voices of the people.

The decisive assault on the city continued for a whole day. On November 19, 1240, the Mongols took Kyiv. All its inhabitants were either killed or taken prisoner.

Conquest of the Galicia-Volyn principality

What were the main reasons for the conquest of Russian lands? The main one is political fragmentation, disunity of the fighting forces of the Russian princes. However, Batu’s army surpassed the Russian regiments not only in its numbers. It was distinguished by iron discipline and extraordinary mobility. Born horsemen, the Mongols masterfully mastered all types of weapons used in equestrian combat. At the same time, they also had the best battering machines from China for that time. Following the precepts of Chinggis Khan, the Mongol commanders attached great importance to reconnaissance. In preparation for war, they sent their observers (under the guise of merchants or ambassadors) to a foreign land and collected information about the cities and roads, weapons and fighting spirit of the future enemy. Finally, the conquerors well understood the importance of the psychological factor. In an effort to sow panic among the population, they not only spread alarming rumors, but also sent special detachments ahead of the troops, who were ordered not to take prisoners, not to capture booty, but only to destroy everything and destroy everyone in their path. It seemed that it was not people who were coming, but some fiends of hell, against which a person is powerless...

“Torn to pieces and dying” Rus' from the middle of the 13th century. becomes a “Russian ulus”, a province of the Mongol Empire. In 1243, the Russian princes who survived the pogrom were summoned to Batu's headquarters. There they learned that from now on they would receive their power only from the hands of the Great Khan in Mongolia and his confidant - the ruler of the “Ulus Jochi”. Thus began the 240-year rule of the steppe “kings” over Russia.

Invasion of Batu

Genghis Khan

Jochi Khan

Ogedei

Batu's father Jochi Khan, the son of the great conqueror Genghis Khan, received the land holdings of the Mongols under his father's division from Aral Sea to the west and northwest.

Genghisid Batu became an appanage khan in 1227, when the new supreme ruler of the huge Mongol state Ogedei (the third son of Genghis Khan) transferred to him the lands of Jochi’s father, which included the Caucasus and Khorezm (the possessions of the Mongols in Central Asia). The lands of Batu Khan bordered those countries in the West that the Mongol army was to conquer - as his grandfather, the greatest conqueror in world history, ordered.

At the age of 19, Batu Khan was already a fully established Mongol ruler, having thoroughly studied the tactics and strategy of warfare by his illustrious grandfather, who had mastered the military art of the Mongol mounted army. He himself was an excellent horseman, shot accurately with a bow at full gallop, skillfully cut with a saber and wielded a spear. But the main thing is that the experienced commander and ruler Jochi taught his son to command troops, command people and avoid strife in the growing house of the Chingizids.

It was obvious that young Batu, who received the outlying, eastern possessions of the Mongol state along with the khan’s throne, would continue the conquests of his great grandfather. Historically, steppe nomadic peoples moved along a path trodden over many centuries - from East to West. The founder of the Mongolian state for his long life he never managed to conquer the entire Universe, which he so dreamed of. Genghis Khan bequeathed this to his descendants - his children and grandchildren. In the meantime, the Mongols were accumulating strength.

Finally, at the kurultai (congress) of the Chingizids, convened on the initiative of the second son of the Great Khan Oktay in 1229, it was decided to carry out the plan of the “shaker of the Universe” and conquer China, Korea, India and Europe.

The main blow was again directed to the West from sunrise. To conquer the Kipchaks (Polovtsians), Russian principalities and Volga Bulgars, a huge cavalry army was assembled, which was to be led by Batu.

Batu

His brothers Urda, Sheiban and Tangut, his cousins, among whom were the future great khans (Mongol emperors) - Kuyuk, son of Ogedei, and Menke, son of Tuluy, along with their troops, also came under his command. Not only the Mongol troops went on a campaign, but also the troops of the nomadic peoples under their control.

Batu was also accompanied by outstanding commanders of the Mongol state - Subedei and Burundai.

Subedey

Subedey had already fought in the Kipchak steppes and in Volga Bulgaria. He was also one of the winners in the battle of the Mongols with the united army of Russian princes and Polovtsians on the Kalka River in 1223.

In February 1236, a huge Mongol army, gathered in the upper reaches of the Irtysh, set out on a campaign. Khan Batu led 120-140 thousand people under his banners, but many researchers call the figure much higher. Within a year, the Mongols conquered the Middle Volga region, the Polovtsian steppe and the lands of the Kama Bulgars. Any resistance was severely punished. Cities and villages were burned, their defenders were completely exterminated. Tens of thousands of people became slaves of the steppe khans and in the families of ordinary Mongol warriors.

Having given his numerous cavalry a rest in the free steppes, Batu Khan began his first campaign against Rus' in 1237. First, he attacked the Ryazan principality, which bordered the Wild Field. The residents of Ryazan decided to meet the enemy in the border area - near the Voronezh forests. The squads sent there all died in an unequal battle. The Ryazan prince turned to other appanage neighboring princes for help, but they turned out to be indifferent to the fate of the Ryazan region, although a common misfortune came to Rus'.

Ryazan Prince Yuri Igorevich, his squad and ordinary Ryazan residents did not even think of surrendering to the mercy of the enemy. To the mocking demand that the wives and daughters of the townspeople be brought to his camp, Batu received the answer: “When we are gone, you will take everything.” Addressing his warriors, the prince said “It is better for us to gain eternal glory by death than to be in the power of the filthy.” Ryazan closed the fortress gates and prepared for defense. All townspeople capable of holding weapons in their hands climbed the fortress walls.

Consequences

The city's fortifications were destroyed and Old Ryazan after some time it was abandoned by the residents, the capital of the Ryazan principality was moved to Pereslavl-Ryazansky. Some of the Ryazan residents managed to hide in the forests or retreat to the north, unite with the Vladimir troops and again fight the Mongols in Battle of Kolomna, and also under the command of those who returned from Chernigov Evpatiya Kolovrata- in Suzdal land

Evpatiy Kolovrat(1200 - January 11, 1238) - Ryazan boyar , voivode and Russian hero, hero Ryazan folk legends XIII century, times of invasion Batu(published in the "Vremennik of the Moscow Society of History and Antiquity", book XV and Sreznevsky, “Information and Notes”, 1867). Epic responses and parallels to the legend Khalansky, “Great Russian epics of the Kyiv cycle”, 1885. Evpatiy’s feat is described in the ancient Russian “ ».

Story

Born, according to legend, in the village of Frolovo Shilovskaya volost. Being in Chernigov(according to " The story of the destruction of Ryazan by Batu» with Ryazan prince Ingvar Ingvarevich), according to one version, with the embassy asking for help Ryazan Principality against Mongols and having learned about their invasion of the Ryazan principality, Evpatiy Kolovrat with a “small squad” hastily moved to Ryazan. But I found the city already ruined" ...the rulers were killed and many people were killed: some were killed and flogged, others were burned, and others were drowned". Here the survivors joined him " ...whom God has preserved outside the city", and with a detachment of 1,700 people, Evpatiy set off in pursuit of the Mongols. Having overtaken them in Suzdal lands, with a surprise attack completely destroyed them rearguard . « And Evpatiy beat them so mercilessly that their swords became dull, and he took Tatar swords and cut them with them" Amazed Batu sent the hero Khostovrul against Evpatiy, “ ...and with him strong Tatar regiments", who promised Batu to bring Evpatiy Kolovrat alive, but died in a duel with him. Despite the huge numerical superiority of the Tatars, during the fierce battle Evpatiy Kolovrat " ...began to flog the Tatar force, and beat many of the famous heroes of the Batyevs..." There is a legend that Batu’s envoy, sent to negotiate, asked Evpatiy, “What do you want?” And I received the answer - “Die!” According to some legends, the Mongols managed to destroy Evpatiy’s detachment only with the help stone throwing weapons designed to destroy fortifications: And she attacked him with many vices, and began to beat him with countless vices, and barely killed him. The main thing in this parable is that, amazed by the desperate courage, courage and military skill of the Ryazan hero, Batu gave the body of the murdered Evpatiy Kolovrat to the surviving Russian soldiers and, as a sign of respect for their courage, ordered them to be released without causing them any harm.

In some ancient sources Evpatiy Kolovrat is called Evpatiy Furious.

In some editions of the Tale, the patronymic name Evpatiya is indicated - Lvovich and tells about his solemn funeral in the Ryazan Cathedral on January 11, 1238. The first city of Suzdal land, which lay on the way of the Mongols after Battle of Kolomna — Moscow- was taken on January 20, 1238 after a 6-day siege.

The Mongol-Tatars, having quickly devastated the Ryazan land, killing most of its inhabitants and taking numerous captives, moved against the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Khan Batu led his army not directly to the capital city of Vladimir, but in a detour through Kolomna and Moscow in order to bypass the dense Meshchersky forests, which the steppe inhabitants were afraid of. They already knew that the forests in Rus' were the best shelter for Russian soldiers, and the fight with the governor Evpatiy Kolovrat taught the conquerors a lot.

A princely army came out from Vladimir to meet the enemy, many times inferior in number to Batu’s forces. In a stubborn and unequal battle near Kolomna, the princely army was defeated, and most of Russian soldiers died on the battlefield. Then the Mongol-Tatars burned Moscow, then a small wooden fortress, taking it by storm. The same fate befell all other small Russian towns, protected by wooden walls, that were encountered along the path of the Khan’s army.

Yuri Vsevolodovich

On February 3, 1238, Batu approached Vladimir and besieged him. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich was not in the city; he was gathering squads in the north of his possessions. Having met decisive resistance from the people of Vladimir and not hoping for a quick victorious assault, Batu with part of his army moved to Suzdal, one of the largest cities in Rus', took it and burned it, exterminating all the inhabitants.

After this, Batu Khan returned to the besieged Vladimir and began installing battering machines around him. In order to prevent the defenders of Vladimir from escaping from it, the city was surrounded with a strong fence overnight. On February 7, the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was taken by storm from three sides (from the Golden Gate, from the north and from the Klyazma River) and burned. The same fate befell all other cities in the Vladimirov region, taken from battle by the conquerors. In place of flourishing urban settlements, only ashes and ruins remained.

Meanwhile, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich managed to gather a small army on the banks of the City River, where the roads from Novgorod and the Russian North, from Beloozero, converged. The prince did not have accurate information about the enemy. He expected new troops to arrive, but the Mongol-Tatars launched a pre-emptive strike. The Mongol army moved to the battle site from different directions - from the burned Vladimir, Tver and Yaroslavl.

Battle of the City River- the battle that took place March 4, 1238 between the army of the Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and the Tatar-Mongol army.
After the Mongol invasion of the Principality of Vladimir, Yuri left the capital of the principality and went into the forests near the City River (northwest of modern Yaroslavl region Russia), where scattered remnants of troops gathered. The Mongol army under the command of Temnik Burundai approached the City from the direction of Uglich, which they had ravaged.
The outcome of the stubborn battle was decided by the approach of fresh Mongol forces led by Batu. The Vladimir army was surrounded and almost completely killed. Prince Yuri died along with the army, his head was cut off and presented as a gift to Batu Khan. The defeat in the Battle of the Sit River predetermined the fall of North-Eastern Rus' under the rule of the Golden Horde.

After the death of Grand Duke Yuri, his brother, Prince of Pereyaslav Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, came to the grand-ducal throne, under whose direct control were the two largest principalities of North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir and Pereyaslav).
Burundai's army turned out to be weakened after the battle, which was one of the reasons for Batu's refusal to go to Novgorod.

Then the khan's troops moved to the possessions of Free Novgorod, but did not reach it. The spring thaw began, the ice on the rivers cracked under the hooves of horses, and the swamps turned into an impassable quagmire. During the tiring winter campaign, the steppe horses lost their former strength. In addition, the rich trading city had considerable military forces, and one could not count on an easy victory over the Novgorodians.

The Mongols besieged the city of Torzhok for two weeks and were able to take it only after several assaults. At the beginning of April, Batya’s army, not having reached Novgorod 200 kilometers, near the Ignach Krest tract, turned back to the southern steppes.

The Mongol-Tatars burned and plundered everything on their way back to the Wild Field. The Khan's tumens marched south in a corral, as if on a hunting raid, so that no prey could slip out of their hands, trying to capture as many captives as possible. Slaves in the Mongol state ensured its material well-being.

Not a single Russian city surrendered to the conquerors without a fight. But Rus', fragmented into numerous appanage principalities, was never able to unite against a common enemy. Each prince fearlessly and bravely, at the head of his squad, defended his own inheritance and died in unequal battles. None of them then sought to jointly defend Rus'.

On the way back, Khan Batu completely unexpectedly stayed for 7 weeks under the walls of the small Russian town of Kozelsk.

According to the Nikon Chronicle in 1238. Kozelsk (first mentioned in 1146) had its own young prince Vasily. When Batu’s troops approached the city and demanded its surrender, the Kozel residents at the council decided to defend the city and "lay down your life for the Christian faith". A siege began and lasted seven weeks. With the help of battering guns, the enemy managed to destroy part of the fortress walls and climb onto the rampart, where “there was a great battle and a slaughter of evil.”

Some of the defenders left the city and entered into an unequal battle. All of them died, killing up to 4 thousand Tatar-Mongol warriors. Having taken Kozelsk, Batu, being enraged, ordered to destroy all the inhabitants, including “the youth sucking milk.” Among the victims was Prince Vasily of Kozel, who was said to have drowned in blood. This was the Khan's revenge for the resistance shown. In addition, Batu ordered to call Kozelsk the Evil City, since his troops fought for seven weeks at the “city” and three of the Horde princes were killed, whose bodies could not be found.

The heroic defense of Kozelsk amazed contemporaries and remained in the memory of posterity. Despite some obvious exaggerations (the number of enemy losses, streams of blood in which one could drown, etc.), the chronicle conveyed a bright picture the feat of the Kozel residents, who, without fear of death, entered into an unequal struggle with the strongest enemy. The duration of the confrontation is especially impressive, while Ryazan, for example, was taken in 10 days, Vladimir in 5.
Having destroyed the city to the ground, the conquerors left for the Volga steppes.

Having rested and gathered their strength, the Chingizids, led by Khan Batu, in 1239 made a new campaign against Rus', now on its southern and western territories.

The steppe conquerors' hopes for an easy victory again did not come true. Russian cities had to be taken by storm. First, the border Pereyaslavl fell, and then the big cities, the princely capitals of Chernigov and Kyiv.

Prince Mikhail of Chernigov at Batu's headquarters

The capital city of Kyiv (its defense after the flight of the princes was led by the fearless thousand-year-old Dmitry).

In December 1240, Batu approached Kyiv. Khan did not want to destroy the beautiful city and invited the townspeople to surrender without a fight. However, the people of Kiev decided to fight to the death.

The siege of Kyiv lasted a long time. All its inhabitants, young and old, came out to defend the city. According to the chronicler “One fought against a thousand, and two fought against darkness.” The Tatars had to use battering rams. The Mongols broke into the city through gaps in the walls.

The enraged Tatar-Mongols killed more than half of the civilian population.
Of the 50 thousand people after Batu’s pogrom, no more than two thousand residents remained in the city. The Assumption and St. Sophia Cathedrals and the Trinity Gate Church (now the main entrance to the Lavra) were destroyed. The invaders wiped off the face of the earth the Church of the Savior on Berestov, the Irininskaya Church and almost all the Kyiv gates.

After capturing Kiev, Batu’s hordes continued their campaign of conquest across the Russian land. South-Western Rus' - Volyn and Galician lands - were devastated. Here, as in North-Eastern Rus', the population took refuge in dense forests.

Thus, from 1237 to 1240, Rus' underwent a devastation unprecedented in its history, most of its cities turned into ashes, and many tens of thousands of people were carried away. Russian lands have lost their defenders. The princely squads fearlessly fought in battles and died.

Troops from different parts of the country gathered in the city. The soldiers of Greater and Lesser Poland were commanded by Sulislaw, the brother of the Krakow voivode, the Upper Silesian army was commanded by Mieszko, the Lower Silesian army was commanded by the prince himself Henry the Pious. Boleslav, son of the Moravian margrave Dipold, led a foreign detachment, which included, among others, French Templars, miners from Zlota Gozha, German knights. Henry also hoped for help from the Czech king Wenceslas I who promised to join him. Henry, deciding to try his luck in a field battle, did not defend Wroclaw, but the townspeople managed to repel the Mongol attack. The Mongols, leaving the city behind, April 9 attacked the prince's army under Legnica. The Czech army was a day's journey from the battle site.

Battle of Legnica

Progress of the battle

First there was mutual remote fire, in which the Mongol troops used a smoke screen, thereby confusing the European shooters, and attacked from the flanks with horse archers. The knights launched a blind attack, hitting the vanguard, consisting of light cavalry, and crushed it. However, after some time, the main forces of the Mongols were sent into battle - heavily armed horsemen, who struck from the right flank, shouting in Polish: “Save yourself, save yourself!”. The combined troops of the Poles, Templars and Teutons were in confusion and began to retreat, and then completely turned into a stampede.

Henry's army was defeated by the Mongols, and he himself died in battle. Heinrich's corpse was identified by his leg, which had six toes. His head was placed on a spear and brought to the gates of Legnica.

Aftermath of the battle

Despite the victory, the Mongols did not clash with the Czech army Wenceslas I, who was only a day late for Legnica, fearing the strengthening of the enemy due to the enemy forces defeated the day before and the risk of a possible unfavorable outcome of the next battle, and did not move further to the west, but turned south, through Moravia to Hungary to join the forces of Batu, Kadan and Subudaya.

It seemed that even to the west of the incinerated Russian land, the Khan’s army was awaiting, albeit difficult, but still successful conquests.

But soon in Moravia near Olomouc, Khan Batu faced strong resistance from Czech and German heavily armed knightly troops. Here one of the detachments under the command of the Bohemian military leader Yaroslav defeated the Mongol-Tatar detachment of the Temnik Peta. In the Czech Republic itself, the conquerors encountered the troops of the Czech king himself, in alliance with the Austrian and Carinthian dukes. Now Batu Khan had to take not Russian cities with wooden fortress walls, but well-fortified stone castles and fortresses, the defenders of which did not even think of fighting Batu’s cavalry in an open field.

Genghisid's army encountered strong resistance in Hungary, where it entered through the Carpathian passes. Having learned about the danger, the Hungarian king began to concentrate his troops in Pest. Having stood under the walls of the fortress city for about two months and devastated the surrounding area, Batu Khan did not storm Pest and left it, trying to lure the royal troops out from behind the fortress walls, which he succeeded in doing.

A major battle between the Mongols and the Hungarians took place on the Sayo River in March 1241.

The Hungarian king ordered his and allied troops to set up a fortified camp on the opposite bank of the river, surrounding it with baggage carts, and to heavily guard the bridge over the Sayo. At night, the Mongols captured the bridge and river fords and, crossing them, stood on the hills adjacent to the royal camp. The knights tried to attack them, but were repulsed by the khan's archers and stone-throwing machines.

When the second knightly detachment left the fortified camp to attack, the Mongols surrounded it and destroyed it. Batu Khan ordered the passage to the Danube to be left free, into which the retreating Hungarians and their allies rushed. The Mongol horse archers pursued, cutting off the “tail” part of the royal army with sudden attacks and destroying it. Within six days it was almost completely destroyed. On the shoulders of the fleeing Hungarians, the Mongol-Tatars burst into their capital, the city of Pest.

After the capture of the Hungarian capital, the Khan's troops under the command of Subedey and Kadan ravaged many cities of Hungary and pursued its king, who retreated to Dalmatia. At the same time, Kadan's large detachment passed through Slavonia, Croatia and Serbia, plundering and burning everything in its path.

The Mongol-Tatars reached the shores of the Adriatic and, to relieve the whole of Europe, turned their horses back to the East, to the steppes. This happened in the spring of 1242. Khan Batu, whose troops suffered significant losses in two campaigns against the Russian land, did not dare to leave the conquered, but not conquered, country in his rear.

The return journey through the southern Russian lands was no longer accompanied by fierce battles. Rus' lay in ruins and ashes. In 1243, Batu created a huge state on the occupied lands - Golden Horde, whose possessions extended from the Irtysh to the Danube. The conqueror made the city of Sarai-Batu in the lower reaches of the Volga, near the modern city of Astrakhan, his capital.

The Russian land became a tributary of the Golden Horde for several centuries. Now the Russian princes received labels for ownership of their ancestral appanage principalities in Sarai from the Golden Horde ruler, who only wanted to see conquered Rus' weak. The entire population was subject to a heavy annual tribute. Any resistance of the Russian princes or popular indignation was severely punished.

The Pope's envoy to the Mongols, Giovanni del Plano Carpini, an Italian by birth, one of the founders of the monastic order of the Franciscans, wrote after a solemn and humiliating audience for a European with the ruler of the Golden Horde

“...Batu lives in complete splendor, having gatekeepers and all officials like their Emperor. He also sits on a more elevated place, as on a throne, with one of his wives; others, both brothers and sons and other younger ones, sit lower in the middle on a bench, while other people sit behind them on the ground, with men sitting to the right, women to the left.”

Saray-Batu

In Sarai, Batu lived in large tents made of linen fabric, which previously belonged to the Hungarian king.

Batu Khan maintained his power in the Golden Horde military force, bribery and treachery. In 1251, he participated in a coup d'etat in the Mongol Empire, during which, with his support, Möngke became Great Khan. However, Khan Batu even under him felt like a completely independent ruler.

Batu developed the military art of his predecessors, especially his great grandfather and father. It was characterized by surprise attacks, swift action by large masses of cavalry, avoidance of major battles, which always threatened with large losses of soldiers and horses, and exhaustion of the enemy by the actions of light cavalry.

At the same time, Batu Khan became famous for his cruelty. The population of the conquered lands was subjected to mass extermination, which was a measure of intimidation of the enemy. With the name of Khan Batu in Russian history associated with the beginning of the Golden Horde yoke in Rus'.

Chronological table

1209 - Birth of Batu, son of Jochi and Uki-Khatun

August - death of Genghis Khan

1228-1229 - Participation of Batu in the kurultai, at which Ogedei, the third son of Genghis Khan, was approved as the Great Khan

1229 - First invasion of the troops of Ulus Jochi into Volga Bulgaria

1230 - Batu accompanies Ogedei on a campaign against the Jin Empire

1232 - Invasion of the troops of Ulus Jochi deep into the territory of Volga Bulgaria

1234 - At the kurultai Batu was entrusted with the conquest of Volga Bulgaria and Desht-i Kipchak

1235 - At the kurultai, the campaign to the West was declared the general cause of the family of Genghis Khan

1236 - Batu's campaign in Volga Bulgaria

1237 - Summer-autumn - conquest of Volga Bulgaria, defeat of the Kipchak hordes

December - attack on the Ryazan principality

April-May - siege and capture of Kozelsk

Summer autumn - fighting against the Kipchaks, the peoples of the North Caucasus

Actions against the Kipchak leader Bachman

October - siege and capture of Chernigov

Autumn - Mongol invasion of Crimea

1240 Spring - advanced detachments of the Mongols under the command of Munke approach Kyiv, murder of the Mongol ambassadors

1241 Winter - devastation of Galician-Volynsk Rus

March - invasion of Poland, Hungary and Transylvania

1242 May 5 - death of Chagatai, last son Genghis Khan. Batu becomes “aka” - the head of the Borjigin clan.

Autumn - the end of the campaign to the West

1243 - First negotiations with the Russian princes, Grand Duke Yaroslav recognizes dependence on the Great Khan and his representative in the West - Batu

1244 - Seljuk Sultan Kay-Khosrow II recognizes dependence on Batu

1244-1245 — Batu’s troops fight in the North Caucasus

1245 - Georgian Queen Rusudan recognizes dependence on Batu

Murder of princes Mikhail of Chernigov and his relative Andrei at Batu headquarters (possibly by agreement with Yaroslav of Vladimir)

Daniil Galitsky admitted dependence on Batu

Summer - election of Guyuk, son of Ogedei, as great khan

1248 - Summer - death of Guyuk Khan during a campaign against Batu

1249-1250 - Attempts by Batu supporters to assemble a great kurultai to enthronement Munke, son of Tuluy

1251 - “Election” of Munke as Great Khan

1252 - The conspiracy against Munke is revealed. Reprisals by Munke and Batu against their opponents. "Nevryuev's army" in North-Eastern Rus'

1253 - Summer - arrival of William de Rubruck, envoy of Louis IX, to Batu

1254 - Daniil Galitsky begins military operations against the Mongols in Ponizia

1255 - Batu resolves the conflict between the Seljuk sultans Kay-Kavus II and Kilic-Arslan IV

1256 - Death of Batu. Death of Sartak. Munke appoints Ulagchi as ruler of Ulus Jochi

The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' began in 1237, when Batu’s cavalry invaded the territory of the Ryazan lands. As a result of this attack, Rus' found itself under the yoke of two centuries. This interpretation is set out in most history textbooks, but in reality the relationship between Russia and the Horde was much more complicated. In the article, the yoke of the Golden Horde will be considered not only in the usual interpretation, but also taking into account its controversial issues.

Beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

For the first time the squads of Rus' and Mongol hordes began fighting at the end of May 1223 on the Kalka River. The Russian army was led by the Prince of Kiev Mstislav, and the Horde was commanded by Jebe-noyon and Subedei-bagatur. Mstislav's army was not only defeated, but practically completely destroyed.

In 1236, the Tatars began another invasion of the Polovtsians. In this campaign they won many victories and by the end of 1237 they came close to the lands of the Ryazan principality.

Mongol conquest Rus', which took place from 1237 to 1242, is divided into two stages:

1237 – 1238 – invasion of the northern and eastern territories of Rus'.
1239 – 1242 – campaign in the southern territories, which led to further yoke.

Chronology of events up to 1238

The Horde cavalry was commanded by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of the famous Genghis Khan, who had about 150 thousand soldiers under his command. Together with Batu, Subedei-Baghatur, who fought with the Russians earlier, took part in the invasion. The invasion began in the winter of 1237, its exact date is unknown. Some historians claim that the attack occurred in late autumn of the same year. Batu's cavalry moved at high speed across the territory of Rus' and conquered cities one after another.

The chronology of Batu’s campaign against Rus' is as follows:

Ryazan was defeated in December 1237 after a six-day siege.
Before the conquest of Moscow, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir tried to stop the Horde near Kolomna, but was defeated.
Moscow was conquered in January 1238, the siege lasted four days.
Vladimir. After an eight-day siege, it was conquered in February 1238.

Capture of Ryazan - 1237

At the end of the autumn of 1237, an army of about 150 thousand under the leadership of Batu Khan invaded the territory of the Ryazan principality. Arriving at Prince Yuri Igorevich, the ambassadors demanded tribute from him - a tenth of what he owns. They were refused, and the Ryazan residents began to prepare for defense. Yuri turned to Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir for support, but received no help.

At the same time, Batu defeated the vanguard of the Ryazan squad and in mid-December 1237 besieged the capital of the principality. The first attacks were repulsed, but after the invaders used battering rams, the fortress, which held out for 9 days, was defeated. The Horde invaded the city, carrying out a massacre.

Despite the fact that the prince and almost all the inhabitants of the fortress were killed, the resistance of the Ryazan residents did not stop. Boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat gathered an army of about 1,700 people and set off in pursuit of Batu’s army. Having caught up with her, Kolovrat’s warriors defeated the rearguard of the nomads, but later they themselves fell in an unequal battle.

Battle of Kolomna, capture of Moscow and Vladimir - 1238

After the fall of Ryazan, the Tatars attacked Kolomna, a city that at that time was an important strategic center. Here was the vanguard of the troops of Prince Vladimir, commanded by Vsevolod. Having entered into an unequal battle with Batu’s troops, the Russians suffered a crushing defeat. Most of them died, and Vsevolod Yuryevich with the surviving squad retreated to Vladimir.

Batu reached Moscow in the third decade of 1237. At this time, there was no one to defend Moscow, since the base of the Russian army was destroyed near Kolomna. At the beginning of 1238, the Horde burst into the city, completely destroyed it and killed everyone, young and old. Prince Vladimir was taken prisoner. After the defeat of Moscow, the invading troops set off on a campaign against Vladimir.

At the beginning of February 1238, an army of nomads approached the walls of Vladimir. The Horde attacked him from three sides. Having destroyed the walls using battering devices, they burst into the city. Most of the residents were killed, including Prince Vsevolod. And the eminent townspeople were locked in the Church of the Virgin Mary and burned . Vladimir was plundered and destroyed.

How did the first invasion end?

After the conquest of Vladimir, almost the entire territory of the northern and eastern lands came under the power of Batu Khan. He took cities one after another: Dmitrov, Suzdal, Tver, Pereslavl, Yuryev. In March 1238, Torzhok was taken, which opened the way for the Tatar-Mongols to Novgorod. But Batu Khan decided not to go there, but sent his army to storm Kozelsk.

The siege of the city lasted seven weeks and ended only when Batu offered to surrender to the defenders of Kozelsk in exchange for saving their lives. They accepted the conditions of the Tatar-Mongols and surrendered. Khan Batu did not fulfill his word and gave the order to kill everyone, which was done. Thus ended the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongols on the lands of Rus'.

Invasion of 1239 - 1242

A year and a half later, in 1239, a new campaign of troops under the command of Batu against Rus' began. This year the main events take place in Chernigov and Pereyaslav. Batu did not advance as quickly as in 1237, due to the fact that he was actively fighting against the Polovtsians in the Crimean lands.

In the fall of 1240, Batu leads the army directly to Kyiv. Ancient capital Rus' was unable to hold out resistance for long, and in early December 1240 the city fell under the onslaught of the Horde. There was nothing left of him; Kyiv was actually “wiped off the face of the earth.” Historians speak of particularly brutal atrocities committed by the invaders. The Kyiv that has survived to this day, has absolutely nothing in common with the city destroyed by the Horde.

After the destruction of Kyiv, the Tatar troops were divided into two armies, one headed for Galich, and the other for Vladimir-Volynsky. After capturing these cities, the Tatar-Mongols set off on a European campaign.

Consequences of the invasion of Rus'

All historians give an unambiguous description of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion:

The country was divided and was completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
Rus' paid tribute to the Khanate every year (in people, silver, gold and furs).
The state stopped its development due to the difficult situation.

The list can go on and on, but big picture what is happening is already clear.

In short, this is exactly how the period of the Horde yoke in Rus' is presented in the official historical interpretation found in textbooks. Next, we will consider the arguments given by L.N. Gumilyov, a historian-ethnologist and orientalist. A number of important issues will also be touched upon, giving an understanding of how much more complex the relationship between Russia and the Horde was than is commonly believed.

How did nomads conquer half the world?

Scientists often raise the question of, how nomadic people, who just a few decades ago lived in a tribal system, was able to create a huge empire and conquer almost half the world. What goals did the Horde pursue in its campaign against Rus'? Historians claim that the purpose of the invasion was to plunder the lands and subjugate Rus', and they also say that the Tatar-Mongols achieved this.

But in reality this is not entirely true, because in Rus' there were three very rich cities:

Kyiv is one of the largest European cities, the capital of ancient Rus', captured and destroyed by the Horde.
Novgorod is the largest trading city and, at that time, the richest. It did not suffer at all from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.
Smolensk, like Novgorod, was a trading city, and in terms of wealth it was compared with Kiev. He also did not suffer from the Horde.

It turns out that two of the three largest cities of ancient Rus' did not suffer in any way from the Golden Horde.

Explanations of historians

If we consider the version of historians - to destroy and rob as the main goal of the Horde’s campaign against Rus', then logical explanation absent. Batu captures Torzhok, the siege of which takes two weeks. This is a poor city, its main task was the protection and defense of Novgorod. After the capture of Torzhok, Batu he is going not to Novgorod, but to Kozelsk. Why do you need to waste time and energy besieging an unnecessary city, instead of just going to Kozelsk?

Historians give two explanations:

Heavy losses during the capture of Torzhok did not allow Batu to go to Novgorod.
The move to Novgorod was prevented by spring floods.

The first version seems logical only at first glance. If the Mongols suffered heavy losses, then it was advisable to leave Rus' to replenish the army. But Batu goes to besiege Kozelsk. There he suffers colossal losses and quickly leaves the lands of Rus'. The second version is also difficult to accept, since in the Middle Ages, according to climatologists, in the northern regions of Rus' it was even colder than it is now.

Paradox with Kozelsk

An inexplicable and paradoxical situation has developed with Smolensk. As described above, Khan Batu, after the conquest of Torzhok, goes to besiege Kozelsk, which at its core was a simple fortress, a poor and small town. The Horde tried to capture it for seven weeks, suffering thousands of losses. There was absolutely no strategic or commercial benefit from the capture of Kozelsk. Why such sacrifices?

Just a day of riding on horseback and you could find yourself at the walls of Smolensk, one of the richest cities of ancient Rus', but Batu for some reason does not go in this direction. It is strange that all the above logical questions are ignored by historians.

Nomads do not fight in winter

There is another one interesting fact, which orthodox history simply ignores because it cannot explain it. Both one and the other Tatar-Mongol invasions of Ancient Rus' were committed in winter or late autumn. Let's not forget that Batu Khan's army consisted of nomads, and they, as you know, began their military campaigns only in the spring and tried to finish the battle before the onset of winter.

This is due to the fact that the nomads rode horses, which needed food every day. How was it possible to feed tens of thousands of Mongolian horses in the snowy winter conditions of Rus'? Many historians call this fact insignificant, but it cannot be denied that the success of a long campaign directly depends on the supply of troops.

How many horses did Batu have?

Historians say that the army of nomads ranged from 50 to 400 thousand cavalry. What kind of support should such an army have?

As far as we know When going on a military campaign, each warrior took with him three horses:

a sled on which the rider constantly moved during the campaign;
a pack on which weapons, ammunition and warrior’s belongings were transported;
combat, which went without any load, so that at any time the horse with fresh strength could enter the battle.

It turns out that 300 thousand horsemen equal 900 thousand horses. Plus horses used in transporting rams and other weapons and provisions. That's over one million. How in the snowy winter, during the small ice age Is it possible to feed such a herd?

What was the number of nomads?

There is conflicting information about this. They talk about 15, 30, 200 and 400 thousand people. If you take small number, then it is difficult to conquer a principality with such numbers, the squad of which includes 30 - 50 thousand people. Moreover, the Russians resisted desperately, and many nomads died. If we talk about large numbers, then the question of provision of food arises.

Thus, apparently, things happened differently. The main document used to study the invasion is the Laurentian Chronicle. But she is not without flaws, which was recognized official history. Three pages of the chronicle describing the beginning of the invasion were changed, which means they are not original.

This article examined conflicting facts, and suggested that you draw your own conclusions.