What is subtext in literature? Subtext is a special type of information transfer

Human life is unimaginable without constant exchange of information with other people. That's why there is a piggy bank in history famous quotes and statements. The human word is unusually powerful - rhetoricians, generals, statesmen were able to inspire entire nations with their speech. Next, we will talk about it, figure out what it is like, find out what goals it serves, learn how to build sayings that are pleasant to everyone, and also remember some famous sayings.

Scientific definition

From the point of view of science, a statement is a basic (undefined) term from the field of mathematical logic. In more common usage, a statement is any declarative sentence that states something about something. Moreover, from the point of view of specific circumstances and time frames, one can accurately state whether it is true or false under existing conditions. Each such logical statement can thus be classified into one of 2 groups:

True.
Lie.

For example, true statements include the following:

If a girl graduates from school, she receives a certificate of secondary education.
London - Capital of the UK.
Crucian carp is a fish.

False statements, for example, are:

A dog is not an animal.
St. Petersburg was built on the Moscow River.
The number 15 is divisible by 3 and 6.

What is not a statement?

It is necessary to make a reservation that in the area exact sciences Not all sentences belong to the category of statements. It becomes obvious that a phrase that carries neither truth nor falsity falls out of the group of statements, for example:

Long live world peace!
Welcome to the new educational institution!
It is necessary to take boots and an umbrella with you for the walk.

Classification of statements

So, if what a statement is is clarified, then the classification of this category remains still undetermined. Meanwhile, it really exists. Statements are divided into two groups:

A simple or elementary utterance is a sentence that is a single statement.
A complex, or compound, statement, that is, one that is formed from elementary ones, through the use of grammatical connectives “or”, “and”, “neither”, “not”, “if ... then ...”, “then and only then” and etc. An example would be the true sentence: “ If a child is motivated, he/she does well in school.", which is formed from 2 elementary statements: " The child has motivation" And " He does well at school” using the connecting element “if... then...”. All similar structures are built in a similar way.

So, with the statement specifically applied to the field of exact sciences, now everything is clear. For example, in algebra, any statement is considered only in the aspect of its logical meaning, without taking into account any everyday content. Here a statement can be either exclusively true or exclusively false - there is no third option. In this, the logical statement is qualitatively different from what will be discussed below.

In school mathematics (and sometimes also computer science), elementary statements are denoted by Latin letters: a, b, c, ... x, y, z. True meaning judgments are traditionally marked with the number "1", and a false value is marked with the number "0".

Important concepts for determining the truth or falsity of a statement

The main terms that in one way or another come into contact with the field of logical statements include:

"judgment" - some statement that is potentially true or false;
“statement” is a judgment that requires proof or refutation;
“reasoning” is a set of logical and interrelated judgments, facts, conclusions and provisions that can be obtained thanks to other judgments according to certain rules for drawing a conclusion;
“induction” is a way of reasoning from the particular (smaller) to the general (more global);
“deduction” is, on the contrary, a method of reasoning from the general to the particular (it was the deductive method that was predominantly used famous hero stories of Arthur Conan Doyle Sherlock Holmes, which, coupled with a knowledge base, observation and attentiveness, allowed him to find the truth, put it in the form of logical statements, build the correct chains of inferences and, as a result, establish the identity of the criminal).

What is a statement in psychology: “You” statement

Science of human consciousness also assigns a huge role to the category of statements. It is with the help of it that an individual can produce on others positive impression and create a non-conflict microclimate in relationships. Therefore, today psychologists are trying to popularize the topic of the existence of two types of statements: these are “I” statements and “You” statements. Anyone who wants to improve in communication should forget about the last type forever!

Typical examples of “You” statements are:

- You're always wrong!
- Again you interfere with your recommendations!
-Can you not be so clumsy?

They immediately feel open dissatisfaction with the interlocutor, accusation, creation of an uncomfortable situation for the person in which he is forced to defend himself. In this case, he cannot hear, understand and accept the point of view of the “accuser” because he is initially placed in the position of an adversary and enemy.

"I" statements

If the purpose of a statement is to express one’s opinion, feelings, emotions, then one should never forget about finding an approach to the interlocutor. It’s much easier to throw a short accusation on a “you” basis, but in this case you can’t count on a positive reaction from your interlocutor, because the cocoon of reciprocal emotional defense will not allow you to reach him. Therefore, it will still be more effective to try the technique of “I” statements, which is based on certain principles.

The first step is not to blame the interlocutor, but to express your own emotional reaction to what happened. Although the other person does not know what will be discussed next, intuitively he will be predisposed to the problems of his comrade and will be ready to show concern and concern.

For example, you could say:

I'm upset.
I'm indignant.
I'm lost.
I'm ready to burst into tears.

I was late for work and my boss reprimanded me.
I was waiting for you and couldn’t call because the network didn’t pick up well.
I sat in the rain for an hour and got wet.

Finally, an explanation should be given as to why a particular action caused a certain reaction:

For me this event was extremely important.
I'm too tired and can't cope with the responsibilities that have piled up.
I put a lot of effort into this matter and got nothing as a result!

At the penultimate or final (depending on the situation) stage, you need to express a wish or request. The person the interlocutor will turn to after this detailed description feelings, should receive certain recommendations and advice for further behavior. Whether he takes them into account or not is his personal choice, which will demonstrate a real attitude:

I wish you would leave the house earlier.
I propose to come to an agreement: we will do household chores every other day.

An optional, but in some cases necessary, item is a warning about your intentions, namely:

I'm afraid I won't be able to lend you the car for the weekend anymore.
I will remind you of homework, if you forget.

Errors in following the concept of “I” statements

To build a successful dialogue and prevent scandals, you should eliminate the following mistakes from your own communication practice:

Bringing charges. It’s not enough to use just one point of the technique, and then launch into denunciation and commentary on the interlocutor and his actions in the form: “You’re late!”, “You broke it!”, “You scattered things!”. In this case, the plan completely loses its meaning.
Generalizations. Labels and stamps should be disposed of as soon as possible. It's about about unflattering stereotyping of drivers, blondes, single men, etc.
Insults.
Expressing one’s own emotions in a rude manner (“I’m ready to kill you!”, “I’m just furious!”).

Thus, “I” statements imply a rejection of humiliation and reproaches in order not to turn communication into a dangerous invisible weapon.

Famous sayings of philosophers

The completion of the article will be associated with statements that, in contrast to logical judgments and universal psychological techniques, are perceived by each person purely individually:

What you should not do, do not do even in your thoughts (Epictetus).
To reveal someone else's secret is treason; to reveal one's own is stupidity (Voltaire).
If 50 million people say something stupid, it is still stupid (Anatole France).

Help people better understand themselves and others, support them in the most different areas life.

a derivative form of carrying out interpretation, “communicatingly determining showing.” Being derivative, the utterance modifies the interpretation. Tool at hand becomes the subject of utterance, the “with-what” of the matter becomes the “about-what” of the utterance, in the ready-to-hand, a presence is revealed that obscures the ready-to-hand. If in interpretation the structure of references covers the entire world's integrity, then in utterance it is limited to what is immediately available to see.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

STATEMENT

term of modern logic, usually used in the sense of a sentence ( specific language– natural or artificial), considered in connection with certain assessments of its truth (true, false) or modality (probably, possibly, impossible, necessary, etc.). Examples of V. can be: “Mathematics - Science”, “Moscow Big city and the capital of the USSR", "5 > 3". One V. can be part of another; V., including other V., are called complex. Every V. expresses a certain thought, which is its content and is called the meaning of the V., and its truth or falsity is called the truth value [or truth value, see Truth, Meaning (in mathematical logic and semantics)]. With this understanding, the concept "V." refers to logical semantics. A sentence as a syntactic formation, considered only in form, regardless of meaning and assessments of truth or modality, is called. often grammatical sentence. V. belonging to different languages and even the same language can express the same thought. If sentences that have the same meaning, but differ as syntactic formations, are considered as one and the same sentence, then they are often called judgments. It should, however, be borne in mind that the words “V.”, “sentence”, “judgment” are sometimes used simply as synonyms or they are assigned meanings different from those given above. With the distinction between the concepts of “V.”, “sentence” and “judgment” (similar to the one carried out above) in modern logical and philosophical literature A number of discussions are associated, especially between representatives of modern nominalism and their opponents. There are affirmative and non-affirmative uses of V. A statement is used affirmatively if the purpose of its use is to express a true thought. When expressing their thoughts, people usually claim their truth. But V. can be used simply as a syntactic. expression. This happens, for example, during a dictation; dictated by V. do not lose their meaning. character, but the dictator does not at all affirm (and the writers do not perceive) them as true. This use of V. is unassertive. When constructing a logical In calculus, it may be advisable to distinguish a statement as a proposition, which can be true or false, from an assertion of the truth of a statement. This was first noticed by Frege, who proposed putting the sign |– in front of the asserted statement. If U is a s.l. V., then |– U means a statement of its truth. One of the ways to use V. is their indirect use. It is not intended to assert the truth, but only to convey the thought contained in the V. This is exactly how, for example, the V. “the orbits of the planets have the shape of a circle” is used as part of a complex V.: “Kepler believed that the orbits of the planets have the shape of a circle.” By asserting this complex theory, we do not at all want to say that it is true that the orbits of the planets have the indicated form, but we are only reporting what thought Kepler expressed; this thought itself can be either true or false (the latter actually occurs). From various types The use of V. should be distinguished between mentioning (quoting). The mention of V. is intended to convey its exact text (and only through this message to express the thought contained in it). Therefore, the mentioned V. (which are usually included in other V.) are isolated using certain means, for example. using quotes. Indirect use of V. is not found in the most common logical ones. in calculations, because its assumption leads to means. difficulties (see Extensional and non-extensional languages). In mathematics In logic, the mention of V., as a rule, is made with the help of special words. signs denoting V. (usually letters of the alphabet, see Signs). Frege was the first to study the indirect use of linguistic expressions; he explained the logic. the role of quotation marks and signs for V. In natural. languages assessment V. with t.zr. truthfulness often depends on who, when and where applied this V. The expression of this dependence is the indicator words included in V.: “I”, “you”, “now”, “there”, etc.; The meaning of these words varies depending on the situation. When constructing the arts. languages – interpreted calculus mathematics. logic or intermediary languages when translating from one natural language to another (see Formalized languages, Mathematical linguistics) - are abstracted from the dependence of the assessment of V. on the specified circumstances, i.e. exclude the pragmatics of language from consideration (see also Semiotics), which makes it possible to make the concept of “V.” more precise. When constructing the most elementary logical calculus - the two-valued propositional calculus (see Propositional calculus) - one proceeds only from the division of a calculus into its components. Those calculations that are not subject to further division into components of a calculus are called. elementary. Of these, using logical. conjunctions (“and”, “or”, “if... then”, etc.) complex verbs are composed. When constructing the predicate calculus (see Predicate calculus), they proceed from a deeper division of verbs into individual terms (and other linguistic education). The basis of V. analysis (including elementary) is mathematical. logic puts the concept of a predicate, or logical. functions, i.e. functions that assign either truth or false to each object in the domain of objects under consideration. Logical functions are what are in logic. calculus usually corresponds to the concepts of meaningful human thinking (see Concept). For example, logical a function that assigns truth to each of the numbers 1 and 2, and false to each of the numbers 3, 4, 5, ..., corresponds to the concept of “being less than 3” (the domain of objects is integers put. numbers). Expressions representing logical in the language. functions are neither true nor false in themselves, i.e. are not V. Such expressions contain variables (see Variable) and turn into V. when replacing them with the names of objects from a given area (see Name). This is, for example, the expression “x Lit.: Zhegalkin I.I., On the technique of computing sentences in symbolic logic,” Mat. Sat.", 1927, vol. 34, issue 1, pp. 9–26; his, Arithmetization of symbolic logic, ibid. 1928, vol. 35, issue 3–4, pp. 311–69; Gilbert D. and Akkerman V., Fundamentals of Theoretical Logic, translated from German, ed., introductory article and comments by S. A. Yanovskaya, M., 1947; Tarskiy A., Introduction to Logic and Methodology of Deductive Sciences, translated from English, M., 1948, pp. 31–106; Novikov P. S., Elements of mathematical logic, M., 1959, chapters 1–2; Frege G., Funktion und Begriff, Jena, 1891; his, ?ber Sinn und Bedeutung, "Z. Philos, und philosophische Kritik", Lpz., 1892, Bd 100, H. l, S. 25–50; his, Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, begriffschriftlich abgeleitet, Bd l, Jena, 1893, S. 5–10; Stegm? ller W., Das Wahrheitsproblem und die Idee der Semantik, W., 1957; Church A., Introduction to mathematical logic, v. 1, Princeton, 1956 (see Introduction). B. Biryukov. Moscow.

It is known that knowledge of logic increases the general intellectual culture of a person, contributes to the formation of logically correct thinking, the main features of which are clear certainty, consistency, consistency and evidence. Mastering logical science makes it possible to consciously construct correct considerations, distinguish them from incorrect ones, and avoid logical errors, skillfully and effectively substantiate the truth of thoughts, defend one’s views and convincingly refute the erroneous thoughts and incorrect considerations of one’s opponents, helps to improve the spontaneously formed logic of thinking. Thanks to logic, a person becomes familiar with the latest results of logical research.

Concept of utterance

One of the basic concepts of logic is “ statement" Let us establish the meaning of this concept.

Any human activity is somehow connected with different statements. Judgment, remark, note, etc. are statements. In logical algebra, a proposition is a variable that can take on one of two meanings and on which certain actions can be performed. In other words, a statement is a sentence that can be evaluated as true or false.

Similarly, a variable in ordinary propositional algebra is denoted by letters of some alphabet, for example Latin: A, B, X, etc.

Types of statements Simple statement

The structure of a statement can be simple or composed.

By their meaning, statements contain one message or statement about existing world. Such a statement is called simple. For example, “diagnosis of myocardial infarction”; "The patient has a heart rhythm disorder."

Compiled statements (logical functions)

From simple statements using connectives AND, OR and NOT, compound statements are formed, which are called logical functions. Simple statements from which a compound statement is formed are called logical arguments. The sentence “The patient feels severe pain in the jaw area, the mouth does not close on its own, it is difficult to swallow and speak” is a composed statement (logical function “AND”).

Problematic, reliable, conditional statement

The meaning of the statement can be problematic, reliable or conditional

Problematic is a statement in which something is affirmed or denied with a certain degree of assumption. For example, “the cause of the headache is probably high blood pressure.”

Reliable is a statement that contains knowledge, substantiated and verified by practice. For example, “a person breathes air.”

Conditional- this is a statement that displays the dependence of a particular phenomenon on certain circumstances and in which the basis and consequence are connected using the logical conjunction “if ..., this ...” For example, “if the diagnosis is myocardial infarction, then there is a disturbance in the heart rhythm " Thus, in a conditional statement it is necessary to distinguish between a reason and a consequence.

Many meanings of a statement

Any statement may or may not be true. In the first case it is called true in the second - false. A true statement can be denoted by the symbol 1, and an erroneous + by the symbol 0, or vice versa. This designation is conditional. You can also use other designation symbols: a true statement can be designated by the symbol I, and a false statement by L. Thus, regardless of the variety of statements, all of them in the algebra of logic can acquire only two meanings: 1 or 0.

There are statements that are always true. For example, “A person breathes air,” “Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs.” Denoting the above statements by X and Y, respectively, we can write

There are some erroneous statements. For example, “Anemia is heart failure”, “Nicotine is needed for the development of a living organism.” Denoting them by S and P respectively, we can write

Most statements can be true or false. The statement “a person’s skin is pale pink” is true only for a healthy person, in other cases it is an implication;  

The expression of a particular thought or idea occurs through the formation of sentences. Their core is the thought that needs to be expressed. At the same time, in the Russian language there is the concept of “statement”. It is similar to the sentence, but also has a slightly different meaning.

What is a statement

An utterance is a formulated thought. Moreover, such a thought comes from a specific person. That is, the utterance is a repetition of direct speech or directly direct speech.

Therefore, a statement may be the words of a specific person, which he utters in this moment or just said it. In addition, the statement may be the words of a person that were spoken a long time ago and have become publicly known.

For example, these could be quotes from films, “ idioms» famous people. Similar statements are used to refer to a particular situation. At the same time, they very clearly explain the essence of the situation or characterize a person’s attitude towards it.

Many statements have become aphorisms. As a rule, they express a thought very accurately and succinctly. Therefore, a statement is always a thought and it is always a separate sentence.

A humorous tone is also quite possible. After all, a statement is the words that were once spoken by a person regarding a particular situation or event.

What is the difference between a statement and a sentence

Every utterance is a sentence, but not every sentence is a statement. The validity of this statement can be substantiated as follows:

A sentence can only contain one word. Such a word is used in a general context and emphasizes a single idea that the author expresses in the text. Meanwhile, a statement is several words connected by a single thought. There are no one-word statements;
The sentence may be introductory. By itself it does not express a separate thought. But a statement necessarily expresses an idea or thought;
A sentence can only consist of someone else's statement. This is enough to express the essence of the text.

An utterance is a grammatically correct declarative sentence taken together with the meaning it expresses. In logic, several concepts of logic are used, which differ significantly from each other. First of all, this is the concept of descriptive, or descriptive, the main task of which is to describe reality. Such a V. is true or false; sometimes it is assumed that it is capable of taking on some “indefinite” truth values, intermediate between the complete truth and a complete lie. Logics for a long time gravitated towards using the term “V.” only in relation to descriptive sentences. Thus, classical logic treats sentences as a narrative sentence, considered together with its content in the aspect of truth value. A course in modern logic usually begins with the definition of a sentence as a sentence that is true or false. Since assessments, norms, temporary statements that change their truth value over time, meaningless statements, etc. do not have truth value, this definition can be understood as applicable only to descriptive V. It is obvious, however, that the laws of classical logic are valid not only for descriptive V. The next important type of V. is evaluative V., establishing absolute or comparative value some object. Evaluative values include assessments themselves, including the concepts of “good,” “bad,” “better,” “worse,” etc., as well as analytical values, statements about goals, standards, conventions, ideals, etc. A special case of evaluative V. is normative V. An intermediate group between descriptive and evaluative V. is formed by “mixed”, descriptive-evaluative V. They not only describe and record the existing language practice, but also evaluate it and prescribe specific linguistic behavior. Dual, descriptive-evaluative v. in some situations play the role of descriptions and can, as such, be characterized as true or false, in others they perform the function of assessments devoid of truth value. As another non-independent group, indefinite V. types can be identified: “This house is blue,” “A tree grows here,” “Tomorrow there will be solar eclipse", etc. Such V. in themselves are neither true nor false; they acquire a truth value only in a localized situation, in particular when specifying spatio-temporal coordinates. Many V., usually classified as descriptive, are in fact vague. Let's say, B. “London is larger than Rome” is true, but it is true now: there was a time when Rome was larger than London, and perhaps this situation will repeat in the future. Temporal variables that change their truth value over time are dealt with by the logic of time. There have been attempts to construct a special logic of space that describes the logical connections of spatially indefinite concepts. It is important that both descriptive and evaluative concepts can be indefinite. Another group of concepts studied by modern logic consists of concepts that are usually classified as meaningless. For example .: " Prime numbers green." This is a well-formed sentence. So are, obviously, the sentences “It is true that prime numbers are green” and “It must be the case that prime numbers are green” (“Primes must be green”). The first sentence appears to be a description, but is neither true nor false, since colors have no relation to numbers. The second sentence expresses, as it may seem, an assessment, but it cannot be said about it, by analogy with ordinary evaluative statements, that the assessment it gives is effective or appropriate. The situation is similar with V. “The current king of France is bald”, “Pegasus has wings”, etc., talking about the properties of non-existent objects. Meaningless words sometimes also include words with a vague meaning, such as “To exist means to be perceived.” It cannot be said that meaningless V. are not V., although they do not belong to either descriptive or evaluative V. and stand not only “beyond truth and lies,” but also “beyond the expedient and inappropriate.” Meaningless V. may nevertheless be components our reasoning. The study of such V. is carried out by the so-called “logic of meaninglessness” (see: Meaningless). It establishes, in particular, the following laws: the negation of a meaningless V. is a meaningless V.; the consequences of a meaningless V. are also meaningless, etc. The problem of attributing meaningless V. to V. is complicated, however, by the fact that the meaningless itself is heterogeneous. It ranges from relative meaninglessness associated with mixing semantic categories to complete meaninglessness due to violation of the rules of syntax. If the expression “I is a yellow number” can still be classified as V., then this is hardly legitimate in the case of expressions like: “I am walking”, “If it is raining, then the head”, “Khlestakov - a person is a person”, etc. .List different types V., studied by logic, shows that the area of the concept of V. is heterogeneous and does not have clear boundaries. Descriptive V. is only one of many types of V. that cannot be reduced to each other.

Definitions, meanings of words in other dictionaries:

General psychology. Dictionary. Ed. A.V. Petrovsky

An utterance is a unit of verbal communication. In logic, V. correlates with a judgment and is considered only from the standpoint of truth/falsity. In linguistics, the definition of V. depends on the chosen theoretical approach and method of speech analysis, often synonymous with the concept of a phrase. In some...