Haplogroups in ethnic definition are a myth. Haplogroups: description of ancient genera and famous representatives of haplogroups

SNPs M184, M193, M272 are believed to be phylogenetically equivalent.

Origin

T(K1b) is a descendant of the LT(K1) subclade derived from haplogroup K. Formed about 42.6 thousand years ago, the last common ancestor modern media haplogroup T lived 26.9 thousand years ago.

Haplogroup T is tentatively associated with such ancient peoples as the Sumerians, Elamites and Phoenicians. [ ]

Ethnogeographical distribution

Rarely seen. It was found among Fulani (18%), Somalis (10.4%), Omanis (8.3%), Egyptians (8.2%), Iraqis (7.2%).

Other regions include southern India (5.9%), UAE (4.9%), Ethiopia (4.8%), Lebanon (4.7%), Iraq from Tanzania (4.7%), eastern India (3.8%), southern Iran (3.4%), Turkey (2.5%) and the Iberian Peninsula (2.5%). T in 3.9% of Italians, of Jews - in 3% of Sephardim and 2% of Ashkenazim.

The T2-PH110 subclade is found in three very different geographic regions: the North European Plain, the Kura-Araks Basin of the Caucasus, and Bhutan. Subclade T1-M206 is distributed among modern populations of Europe, Asia and Africa. It appears to have originated in Western Asia, perhaps somewhere between northeastern Anatolia and the Zagros Mountains. T1* may have expanded with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) culture. Most males from haplogroup T1-M184 belong to the TT1a-M70 subclade.

Palaeogenetics

Notes

1. T YTree
2. Middle Eastern haplogroups J1, J2, E1b1b1, G2a, T, etc. Description and connection with archaeological cultures
3. J. R. Luis et al.: The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations Archived February 16, 2012. (Errata Archived February 16, 2012) en:American Journal of Human Genetics, 74: 532-544.
4. Juan J Sanchez, Charlotte Hallenberg, Claus Børsting, Alexis Hernandez and Niels Morling, "High frequencies of Y chromosome lineages characterized by E3b1, DYS19-11, DYS392-12 in Somali males," (2005) 13 , 856-866
5. N. Al-Zahery, O. Semino, G. Benuzzi, C. Magri, G. Passarino, A. Torroni, and A.S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, "Y-chromosome and mtDNA polymorphisms in Iraq, a crossroad of the early human dispersal and of post-Neolithic migrations," Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution (2003)
6. Alicia M Cadenas, Lev A Zhivotovsky, Luca L Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A Underhill and Rene J Herrera, "Y-chromosome diversity characterizes the Gulf of Oman," European Journal of Human Genetics (2007), 1 - 13
7. M. Regueiro et al.: "Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration," Human Heredity, 2006, vol. 61, pp. 132-43.
8. Cinnioglu, Cengiz, et al., "Excavating Y-Chromosome Haplotype Strata in Anatolia," Human Genetics, 2004, vol. 114, pp. 127-48.
9. Carlos Flores, Nicole Maca-Meyer, Ana M González, Peter J Oefner, Peidong Shen, Jose A Pérez, Antonio Rojas, Jose M Larruga and Peter A Underhill, "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography, " European Journal of Human Genetics(2004) 12, 855-863 & 2004 Nature Publishing Group
10. Sanghamitra Sahoo, Anamika Singh, G. Himabindu, Jheelam Banerjee, T. Sitalaximi, Sonali Gaikwad, R. Trivedi, Phillip Endicott, Toomas Kivisild, Mait Metspalu, Richard Villems, and V. K. Kashyap, "A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Published online on January 13, 2006, 10.1073/pnas.0507714103. (cf. Supporting Figure 3 in online data supplement)
11. Pierre A. Zalloua, Yali Xue, Jade Khalife, Nadine Makhoul, Labib Debiane, Daniel E. Platt, Ajay K. Royyuru, Rene J. Herrera, David F. Soria Hernanz, Jason Blue-Smith, R. Spencer Wells, David Comas , Jaume Bertranpetit, Chris Tyler-Smith, and The Genographic Consortium, "Y-Chromosomal Diversity in Lebanon Is Structured by Recent Historical Events," The American Journal of Human Genetics 82, 873-882, April 2008.
12. Italy DNA Project blog, “What a difference a year makes” (posted Tuesday, September 04, 2007), based on data from the Italy DNA Project at Family Tree DNA
13. Nicholas Wade, "Study Raises the Possibility of Jewish Tie for Jefferson," The New York Times(February 28, 2007)

“For some reason, it seems to me that you are looking for this item,” the stranger took a flash drive from his pocket and shook it in the air.

“I think we’ve made your search easier,” the stranger grinned and immediately introduced himself: “And I’m FSB Colonel Kuzmin from the Internal Security Service.” And this,” he turned to the tall elderly man, “is Colonel Kryachko from the Ministry of Internal Affairs.” And we, gentlemen, have serious questions for both of you, which we will ask, although within completely different walls.

The next moment, armed submachine gunners in black uniforms began to enter the office, with “FSB Special Forces” written on their backs. When the handcuffs snapped onto Vikulov’s wrists, Kuzmin approached him and stated:

– And you, Edik, spoke beautifully about state interests. I like it. And if there had been some less seasoned cop in Lev Ivanovich’s place, he would have bought it too. Only Gurov, for his service, sent more than one businessman in uniform like you to jail.

- Listen, Kuzmin, do you even understand that all this is useless? – Vikulov asked with a tired smile on his lips. “There,” he nodded at the ceiling, “up there, everything will be decided not in your favor.”

“We’ll see,” Kuzmin shrugged. – If anything, we’re not used to it.

He took his mobile phone out of his pocket and, making a call, told someone:

And at that moment, Gurov watched at the window as several cars stopped on the street near the van where he was sitting, and the machine gunners who ran out of them burst inside. A few seconds later they were already leading Vikulov’s handcuffed assistants out, and a minute later Gurov himself came out of the car, stepping carefully.

“Yes,” Kryachko drawled, “they patted Levka, it seems.”

“But it was his decision,” Kuzmin, who was standing next to him at the window, answered him. - Gurov is a strong man. I promised to take him fishing. Let's heal his nerves there...

Gurov slowly sat down on the sofa in Smirnov’s office, wincing from the pain in his back. He continued to feel weak and dizzy. Mechanically, he reached for the package of medicine.

- How are you feeling? – Stas asked him, who, as usual, settled down at the banker’s desk.

“They gave me a good time, the bastards.” They didn't spare the charge.

- Eh, Leva! – still cheerful, exclaimed Kuzmin with a smile, who, standing at the window, watched as the special forces “packed” Poroshin and Vikulov into the car. - Considering the group we contacted, we can say that you got off with a slight fright. To be honest,” Kuzmin turned away from the window and looked at Gurov, “your chances of surviving were fifty-fifty.” Even after we got involved in the matter.

“Thank you, friend,” Gurov grinned. “Thank you for telling me about this now and not before.”

– No, you just don’t understand what the MKK company is! During his service, General Pivovarov, who heads it, took over several semi-criminal and even criminal companies that supplied him with cash. And then, when he went into reserve, they simply came under his command. Gambling networks, illegal transportation of goods - all this brought good income. The company laundered and transferred huge amounts of cash abroad, buying assets there. Gradually they expanded their illegal business, becoming stronger. In some ways, they even crossed the path of the banking mafia, beginning to compete with them in the field of money laundering. This was precisely the interest of Shulman, who wanted to spoil MKK with your help. I am sure that he largely supplied information to the late Smirnov.

– What about Smirnov? Was he in on it too? – asked Kryachko.

- No. Smirnov is a truly honest banker who received carte blanche from the government elite to restore order in the banking sector. Being an uncompromising person, he actively took up this matter, confident that those at the top would insure him and cover him.

- It turns out that the higher-ups ditched him?

Kuzmin hesitated to answer, choosing his words. Then, shrugging his shoulders, he said:

– It turns out that this is so... Tell me, Leva, how did you discover that Poroshin and Vikulov work for MKK?

– As for Vikulov, I have long suspected. By the way information about the investigation was leaking, by how quickly we were moving along the wrong trail, someone must have been working within our brigade. For example, the gun was clearly planted on this fake gang of killers. And the way Vikulov drove slowly with his brother on the day of Alekseev’s arrest, allowing the killers to get there before him, also suggested something. A lot became clear to me when I received this flash drive. I realized that the MKK company decided to transfer huge sums money. These transactions did not go unnoticed by competitors and Smirnov. And he clung to them with a death grip, thus sealing his fate. The owners of MKK had no other choice. The banker's activities threatened with huge losses, and therefore they decided to take an extreme measure - murder. But they are experienced people, and they decided to do this carefully. They invited an experienced, proven specialist - Georgy Tregubov, who, I believe, was also a former employee of General Pivovarov. And I also realized that it was impossible to launder such money without the knowledge of someone from the Central Bank. And on the flash drive, Smirnov apparently pointed this out on the last day, mentioning the name Poroshina. Perhaps he did not fully believe in his guilt and just wanted to talk to him in order to clarify some sensitive points.

– It was after you caught Tregubov in a trap that this plan came into your head involving involving our service in the case and setting up yourself as bait? – Kuzmin asked, grinning.

- Yes. The calculation was that after the arrest of Tregubov, with whom we were largely lucky, they would act hastily, take risks and make mistakes. As you can see, that's exactly what happened.

“You took the risk yourself, Leva,” Kuzmin grinned. – What if I, too, turned out to be a werewolf in uniform? Or my boss?

“I’m still taking risks,” Gurov grumbled. – In fact, it is not completely clear how those whom you call “the top” will behave in this story. In the case of Smirnov, everything turned out tragically.

A new book on DNA genealogy shows the pattern of mutations on the Y chromosome of ancient human ancestors over hundreds of thousands of years, and shows how this pattern of mutations relates to human history. It is shown how these mutation patterns can be converted into chronological indicators, and dating ancient and relatively recent historical events in years, centuries, millennia. At the same time, the chronometer that allows dating is not “external”; it is built into our DNA. Therefore, calculations in DNA genealogy are fundamentally protected from manipulation “from the outside,” just as, for example, the half-transformation times of radioactive elements in physics and chemistry are protected. No matter what you do, radioactive decay “ticks” in time, as it should. physical laws. It’s the same in DNA genealogy – mutations “tick” according to the same laws, the fundamental patterns are the same. These are the laws - methodological basis DNA genealogy, and it, this basis, allows us to build the history of human development on all continents.

So, the book shows DNA genealogy in haplogroups from A to T. In other words, the DNA genealogy of every male reader, without exception, is described, some almost literally, some from a bird’s eye view, and so that it turns out to be literal - you just need to do a test for haplogroups-subclades and haplotypes. Who is this book for? For those who want to understand their history and their ancestors, and how this personal story built into the history of its ethnic group, country, and all of humanity.

A somewhat abbreviated diagram of the subclades of haplogroup T is shown in the figure below.

Abbreviated diagram of subclades of haplogroup T, according to the ISOGG-2016 classification. Subclades of Jews in Slavic countries - Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Serbia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, as well as Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Germany - are obscured. On the right are the formation times of some subclades according to the data of the YFull team (calculations based on snips).

The following figure shows a tree of 111-marker haplotypes of haplogroup T.

As usual, the tree of haplotypes of modern haplogroup carriers does not converge at the time of formation of the haplogroup, in in this case to about 42 thousand years ago. It converges around 7,200 years ago.

Tree of 164 haplotypes of haplogroup T in 111-marker format. All tree haplotypes have common ancestor, who lived 7200 ± 725 years ago (almost the same dating for 67-marker haplotypes, 7340 ± 740 years ago). If we subtract the flat, relatively young Jewish branch at the bottom of the tree, the remaining 135 haplotypes share a common ancestor who lived 6180 ± 620 years ago. Haplotypes taken from the project.

In order to get a more complete picture of who is included in the carriers of haplogroup T in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, we will use the Haplogroup T Project mentioned above. It turned out that all of them are almost exclusively Jews, and related haplotypes, again Jews, go beyond the borders of these three countries, and are observed in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, the Czech Republic, Germany and other countries. This is clear from the names and surnames of their closest ancestors (who are entered into the databases). The names are, offhand - Leib, Srul, Ephraim, Herschel, Saul, Boruch, Mordechai, Shlomo, Israel, Reuven, Shimon, Yankel, Chaim, Abraham, Eliezer, Shmul, Gershon, Moses, Jeremiah, Yufim, Ber, Salomon, Hirsch , Ezekiel, Lazarus, Menachem, Isaac, Aaron. Haplotypes from these countries were combined, leaving only those available in the 37-marker format, and from them the haplotype tree was built, shown in the figure below.

This somewhat reveals the picture of the appearance of carriers of haplogroup T (and its subclades) in Eastern Europe. Millennia ago, subclades T-L131 and/or T-L208 (formed approximately 15,900 and 14,800 years ago, respectively, according to calculations by the YFull team) came from the Middle East to the Jews or their ancestors, who brought it or the lower subclades P77 and CTS6507 during the Dispersion to Europe, and in the interval 800-1400 years ago, that is, in the 1st–2nd millennium AD, they dispersed throughout Eastern Europe. Since Jews usually kept to themselves in their communities, the haplogroup did not disperse to non-Jewish residents, and remained surrounded by Jews. IN last time the situation with the isolation of Jews in Europe changed, but the transmitted haplotypes remained in the corresponding branches. For example, haplotype number 624 in ancient branch belongs to a person who called himself Erzya in the database, and 648 - a Szekler from Bukovina (Szeklers were a military class in medieval Hungary), but their haplotypes sit in the branches between the Jews of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. This is how hereditary secrets are revealed, which, as it seemed in early times, will go irrevocably to the grave.

In various kinds of pseudo-historical reasoning concerning the historical origin of Russians exclusively from the Slavs, it is now fashionable to weave in “haplogroups”. WITH light hand a certain “scientist” (not a biologist at all) Klesov, who lives (like “academician” Levashov) in the USA (hence the ridiculously familiar trick - an appeal to the authority of “Western science” - “American scientists have proven that Russians are 4500 years old!”) this is quite The scientific method of determining paternity and dynasticity began to be used for constructions for which it was not at all intended. As a result, many posts contain monstrously distorted results of its use. The purpose of this post was to clarify the obvious points, so that the numerous references to the fact that “haplogroups have been proven”, given by the authors in place and out of place, would not be perceived uncritically when reading some texts.

Let me clear some things up common places in the form of popularly given answers to questions.

Question 1 Can a specific haplogroup indicate a specific nationality? In other words, is there a Russian or German (without quotes) haplogroup?

Answer: No. Why? Because any currently existing ethnic group consists of people with at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups. In other words, you can be Russian with haplogroup I1, R1a1, R1b, N3, I2, J2 and even E. The same applies to other peoples. for example, among Ashkenazi Jews - about 12% are carriers of the supposedly "marker" haplogroup R1a1 for Russians - and it is emphasized that not among "half-breeds" and "goyim", but among the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group. And so on.

Thus, the correlation of a certain haplogroup with modern nationalities and individual representatives of ethnic groups can only be of a statistical, relative nature. “Measuring skulls” by haplogroups won’t work - it’s quite likely that you’ll classify a Jew as a Russian, and a Russian as a Jew. The presence of R1a among Poles - 56.4%, and... Kyrgyz - as much as 63.5% speaks about whether peoples can be defined as “Aryans” by only one criterion - the presence of a statistical marker haplogroup. And the Volga Tatars are no different from the Russians in terms of the set of haplogroups. I hope that conclusions have been drawn? In other words, no ethnic community will emerge that unites people from the conventionally “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1. At the same time, there is no objective difference between the classical Russians living in the same region, but with the conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N, and the same classical Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a. The entire rest of the gene pool (and in many ways more significant than the haplomarker) of the descendants of the “ancestral Finnish men” and the “ancestral Aryan men” was mixed a long time ago.

Question 2. What do haplogroups actually talk about and what can’t they talk about?

Answer: As follows from answer 1 and as correctly noted by the author of another detailed post dedicated to haplogroups: “Those sections of the Y chromosome that serve as markers for identifying haplogroups themselves do not encode anything and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their pure form "They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the film "Kin-dza-dza", which were used to identify Chatlans and Patsaks, and there was no other difference between these "races" except the color of the light bulb."

By haplogroup one can judge - statistically(!!! this is important - precisely statistically, i.e. with inevitable errors, but still possible) about the difference, dissimilarity in the origin of certain large ethnolinguistic massifs and the degree of proximity of their contacts (sexual ones). For example, everyone Turkic peoples are carriers of specific haplogroups. Even if some of the Turks do not have or have very few of their “markers” and C, O and Q, which are absent among the Slavs, then D, R1b1b1 or N1b, which are less common among the Turks, are still statistically absent among Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. We can conclude, therefore, that contacts with the Turks throughout history have Eastern Slavs- are statistically insignificant, and the statement that “we are Asians” is incorrect. Such conclusions are quite scientific. It can also be argued that the typical “Mongoloid” haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all, and if so, the contacts of the population of Rus' with the Mongols during the period of the yoke were minimal. This, however, is clearly evidenced by all historical sources - 20 years after 1240, all Mongol military formations were withdrawn from the territory of Rus' and the Russian princes carried the tribute collected in Rus' to the Horde themselves. Thus, most likely the average Russian peasant of the late 13th and 14th-15th centuries never saw a single living “Mongol” (Horde) in his life. And this is not a “discovery” at all - haplogroups only confirm what we already know (another thing is that in “popular” ahistorical literature, including in textbooks, the content of which is now practically not controlled by scientists, about little is written about this).

Further, from answer 1 it is clear that if representatives of a certain ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, then this DOES NOT MEAN that this ethnic group represents a kind of mechanical connection of populations with different gene pools. The rest of their gene pool, except for the Y chromosomes, will be mixed without any practical possibility of differentiation. 16% of haplogroup N among Russians in the regions north of Moscow does not mean that 16% of them are supposedly “more Finns than Slavs” - both for the reason stated above (mixing the rest of the, much more important, gene pool to the point of unrecognizability) and for reasons statistical - because Among the population of Finland, only 60% of the population have this haplogroup, and among Estonians in general there are 40%.

I will quote again - “The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is passed from father to son almost unchanged and does not experience “mixing” or “dilution” by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal origin. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then it is precisely the inheritance of the Y chromosome. a specific mutation has occurred on the Y chromosome."

Modern science is inclined to believe that these mutations could have occurred between 50 and 10 thousand years ago, and the creationist version, which seems more truthful to me, speaks of the complete uncertainty of the results of using the “biological clock” methods (they give absolutely different meanings) and speaks of the probable practical simultaneity of the appearance of these mutations associated with the legend of Tower of Babel and the dispersion of nations. Whether one or the other is right is, in principle, not very important for us living today.

What matters is that Y - chromosome does not determine the gene pool. It is not a carrier of some “ethnically specific” information in the genome. From more than 20,000 genes human genome, the Y chromosome contains only about 100 pieces. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, mental and thinking characteristics are spelled out on other chromosomes which, during inheritance, go through recombination (the paternal and maternal sections of the chromosomes are randomly mixed). The carrier of the “Aryan chromosome” after hundreds of generations can be a typical black man (if, say, his black mother got pregnant in the 16th century from a Portuguese father). And vice versa.

Thus. people who talk about “Aryan”, “Semitic”, “Russian”, “Finnish”, “Celtic” haplogroups not in their conventional marker meaning tied to MODERNITY, but in a literally understood one, and even transfer these definitions to the distant past - are mistaken and confuse others. The phrase “4500 years ago in the Voronezh region they found a skeleton identified by haplogroup as Russian, Russians began to exist 4500 years ago” does not make any sense. Russians have several haplogroups, - once. The skeleton does not represent a statistically significant sample - that's two(maybe this is the same Ashkenazi Jew from the 12% of carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1? Or Kyrgyz?). Three: Why on earth was it concluded that the mutation arose (and continued) exactly 4500 years ago? Were the skeletons of his father and grandfather, as well as the skeletons of his offspring, examined? Why didn't it arise 10 thousand years ago? And so on.

Question 3: is R1a1, a Russian haplogroup, an “unconditional enic marker”? Is it true that Russians, in terms of their purity (i.e., the frequency of occurrence of this haplogroup), are the most stable and pure among Europeans?

Answer: No. And it's not true. The stability of Russians as a people, their ethnic uniqueness is not determined by haplogroups, and neither is haplogroup R1a1. Let's look at the data: if we take an average sample from several different studies with a 100% fit. then (remember that haplogroups are named according to MODERN distribution among peoples):

47% of Russians have the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1, which they inherited from the Proto-Slavs and other autochthons of Eastern Europe.

16% of Russians- conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N3.

7% of Russians- conditionally “Celtic” haplogroup R1b, which dominates among many peoples Western Europe. This is a legacy of the presence of the Proto-Slavs in Central Europe.

5% of Russians– “Northern European” haplogroup I1 (I1a according to the old classification), common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. Apparently, these are the descendants of the notorious “Varangians”.

15% of Russians– “Balkan” haplogroup I2 (formerly I1b), characteristic of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. This is an indirect consequence of Slavic expansion in the Balkans in the 6th-9th centuries, when Slavic newcomers actively mixed with the local autochthonous population. Some of the Slavs subsequently left the Balkans to the north and northeast (see “The Tale of Bygone Years”).

4%- “Eastern Mediterranean” haplogroup J2, typical of the ancient Greeks and even more ancient representatives of the Minoan civilization. For Russians this is most likely component“Balkan heritage”, and maybe even earlier Hellenic colonization of the Northern Black Sea region.

6% Russians are represented by the “Afrasian” haplogroup E, the frequency of which among Jews, Greeks, Balkan Slavs and southern Italians reaches 20% or more. This is the “Balkan trace” again. In total, the descendants of “Byzantine refugees” (settlers from the Balkans and the Black Sea region) make up more than 25% of Russians.

We see, therefore (as expected from the answer to the second question) that haplogroups DO NOT determine “Russianness”. The purely statistical “predominance” of R1a1 is 47 percent. 53 percent of Russians DO NOT HAVE this haplogroup and are still Russian. Consequently, if we do not fall into Russophobia and do not say that 53 percent of modern Russians are “unclean” (which we will not do), we will inevitably be forced to once again draw the same conclusion that was made above - the haplogroup does not have any specific characteristics ethnically defining features, and ethnicity is indefinable through haplogroups.

Question 4: is the reconstruction of ethnic migrations and processes based on the analysis of modern haplogroups justified?

Answer: No. There are several problems here.

With great skepticism and rather negatively, one can perceive reports about the “correspondence of the distribution of haplogroups to historical migrations,” and all “haplogroup” conclusions about the time of the emergence of a particular people - with high probability to be considered at least unverifiable and strained. Why? Because you need to not uncritically quote the “Klesovs” (“a scientist wrote!”) but THINK. First of all, with your own head, using logic and the education you have received.

Firstly, the historical migrations of certain peoples in preliterate times are not an axiom. but the subject of scientific debate and discussion - both in terms of whether the bearers of a particular archaeological culture were representatives of a certain ethno-linguistic unity (we will never be able to say this with accuracy - pots and axes do not speak), and in terms of accuracy of correspondence of archaeological culture to a specific ethnic group or ethnocultural unity. Archaeological cultures are a complex of objects of material culture, things, their remains, or rather. From the point of view of an archaeologist of the 30th century, throughout Russia and Europe. In the United States in the 21st century, there will be a single, with local variations, archaeological culture of “tires, plastic bags, bottles, cans and computers”, in which the differences between nations in their material culture will not be visible. Although there is little reason to imply such globalization in antiquity, it is worth remembering. that the older the archaeological culture, the more blurred its ethnicity. Thus, the thesis “such and such a skeleton is undoubtedly Indo-European... has such and such a haplogroup” is immediately called into question. The fact that he is “undoubtedly” Indo-European, and not a foreigner who slipped in here and adopted the way of life of this tribe, still needs to be proven. And with an extremely unrepresentative sample(agree, a dozen or a hundred burials over a huge area is not a sample, or at least a sample incomparable in terms of representativeness with a modern sample among living people) this is made almost equally probable, that is, uncertain.

Secondly, tracing such migrations by haplogroups is extremely problematic due to the fact that (in the case of the Indo-Europeans, for example) among the many archaeological cultures Bronze Age- "cuisines of ancestral ethnic groups", common funeral rite corpse burning in its various variations, the same in some territories in the Iron Age. The DNA material of the carriers of these cultures is irretrievably lost and we can say absolutely nothing about their haplogroups. Thus, the “haplogroup” approach does not work here - vast territories and entire millennia fall out of its scope completely, depriving us of the opportunity to build any kind of succession chain of already extremely scarce and essentially unrepresentative material.

Third, mutations occur on the Y chromosome randomly and can both increase and “decrease” (or return to the original, source code). This indicates that you cannot determine the time and place of the emergence of this or that “group” due to constant migrations, which could be by land or sea, and mutations that occur throughout the life of a particular historical human community.

Fourthly, theoretically, the very accuracy of the study of the modern distribution of haplogroups can be questioned - i.e. that initial material extrapolated to the past (difficulty in determining the ethnicity of persons taking the test - who is stopping you from calling yourself Russian or Belarusian?). With relatively small samples and controversial issues like “Russian-Ukrainian” (in fact, a free question of self-designation), this is extremely important and can decide everything.

In other words, transferring the modern distribution of sets of haplogroups into the past is unjustified, and if so, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the ethnicity of certain human remains, passing them off as someone’s ancestors only on this basis. It's forced and superficial.

To summarize everything described.

References to haplogroups as an “unconditional indicator of ethnicity” are untenable.
- Haplogroups are research tools, statistically significant markers. Real, objectively observed Y chromosomes do not carry significant ethnic information in the gene code.
- Russians (like Germans, Finns and Turks, etc.) exist and are unique not due to haplogroups.
- Any nation has not one, but two, three or more haplogroups in its set, and there is no reason to make some “less pure” and others “more pure”, for the reason described in the thesis above.
- We a priori cannot reconstruct reliable migrations based on haplogroups. and even more so - the date of origin (emergence) of this or that modern ethnic group.

Thus, you can safely throw Klesov’s works and fairy tales into the same trash bin where we have Fomenko, Levashov and Chudinov.