Dolinina Pechorin and our time brief summary. Read online “Pechorin and our time”

A grammatical category is a set of language elements (words, significant parts of words and combinations of words), united by grammatical meaning with the obligatory presence of a grammatical method expressing it. For example, in the Russian language, a verb has a G. k. voice, aspect, mood, tense, person, number, gender.

Categories in grammar can be broader, for example, parts of speech, and narrower, for example, phenomena of internal grouping within a particular part of speech: in nouns - categories of number; within the verb – categories of voice, aspect, mood.

If we compare word forms walls, write, then we find that they all have a plural meaning; this unites them as forms of number. These forms, however, have a different syntactic function: word form walls like a form nominative case noun can be used in subject position, personal form of verb write- in the position of the predicate.

Consequently, word forms are combined on a conceptual and syntactic basis, forming homogeneous functional groupings. Groups of word forms united by a common grammatical meaning are called grammatical categories. They are the most common concepts of grammar. The grammatical structure of a language is not just an inventory of grammatical means and forms, but it is an ordered system. Grouping word forms into grammatical categories and parts of speech are two main ways of organizing grammatical system language.

The semantic nature of grammatical categories connects grammar with logic and psychology. However, there is a significant difference between grammatical and conceptual categories. Unlike conceptual categories, which can be expressed differently using specific words and phrases, grammatical categories are concepts that are characteristic of the grammatical structure of a language, its grammatical forms and find one or another means of expressing grammatical meaning.

Each grammatical category has its own structure, that is, a certain inventory of word forms, their relationship to each other, a set of different means of expressing grammatical meaning. The structure of a grammatical category is also called the paradigm of a grammatical category. According to the number of word forms, paradigms are two-, three- and multi-component. Thus, in the Russian language the category of number and aspect has a two-component paradigm, the category of gender, person, tense has a three-component paradigm, and the category of case has a multi-component paradigm.

According to their purpose and connection with language units, grammatical categories are divided into two main types - morphological and syntactic. Morphological categories are divided into inflectional and classification categories. Inflectional categories combine word forms within the same lexeme. (For example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional. The adjective agrees with the noun, taking its grammatical gender: White paper, White spot). Classification categories group lexemes together based on common grammatical meaning. (The category of gender of nouns is classification. Noun table male, wall- female, window- average, and this generic attachment is strictly obligatory).

There are also lexical and grammatical categories (for example, the categories of abstractness, materiality, animation of nouns, mode of action of verbs, relativity and quality of adjectives). The same mixed lexico-grammatical character is found in word-formation categories that connect words with a morphological structure characteristic of a particular part of speech, and at the same time are associated with the formation of new lexemes and lexical groupings of words.

Grammatical meanings and properties.

The grammatical structure of a language is studied by grammar - the science of the formation of words, their modification, classes, combinations and use in sentences and context.

Grammatical properties words are grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.

Grammatical meaning this is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of the word and expresses different relationships(attitude to other words in a phrase or sentence, attitude to the person performing the action or other persons, the attitude of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to what is being communicated, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has meanings female, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective.

The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning. Lexical meaning of words such as tol And table, are different, while their grammatical meaning is the same, since they are nouns of the same gender, number and case. Words like entrance, come in, entrance, having the same root, are united only by a word-formation connection, and their grammatical meaning is different: the noun input denotes objectivity, the verb enter - an action, and the adjective input - a sign of an object.

Grammatical meanings differ from lexical ones in three main properties:

1. Grammatical meanings differ from lexical ones in their relation to the word and the structure of the language. Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language.

2. The second difference between grammatical meanings and lexical ones is the nature of generalization and abstraction. If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words. For example, the shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them). Grammatical meanings are expressed during word formation, inflection and construction of combinations and sentences.

3. The third difference between grammatical meanings is their relationship to thinking and objective reality, that is, to the world of things, phenomena, actions, ideas, ideas. If words are a nominative means of language and, as part of specific phrases, express human knowledge, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organize thought and its design.

Syntax as a branch of linguistics.

2.1. Morphological GCs

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic Civil Codes

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

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General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is constructed either based on form or based on grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammatical category(Greek katē goria‘judgment, definition’) – a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, s. 227; Alefirenko, s. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of civil codes are civil laws. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific concept.

Members (components) of the Civil Code, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1st, 2nd, 3rd person) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialseverity grammatical meaning (GS). Wed. GZ definition: Grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to talk about GC.

The second necessary sign of GC, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposing forms, united by some value:

among the Russians there are nouns GC kind, but the English ones do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (direct and indirect case are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no contrasting grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single civil code that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the civil concept and the way of its expression [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same GP is expressed in different ways:

In language uss(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) are plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'People';

consumption of some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'hands';

wai‘oar’ – lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'Brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal inflection:

gwu la 'cloak' - gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. – 1993). Quote from: Reformatsky, p. 263].

write -on -write,

decideA -th – decide-And -th,

personalAnd army - gather,

incisioná th - cuté shut up,

speak -say .

Types of grammatical categories

There are several classifications of HA.

1. Depending on the number of opposing members the same Civil Code in different languages can be organized in different ways.

Binomial GK:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. sort of in Romance (masculine ↔ feminine) and Iranian languages ​​(according to animate / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in the Slovenian, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the singular and dv forms are contrasted. and many others. For example, Khant.:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n 'two trees', yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

in Papuan languages ​​there is also triple number;

2. Civil codes are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological GCs characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; sort of,numbers And case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are internal to a word and do not depend on its use in a sentence (cf. Russian categories sort of nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal type civil code: GK gender, case, animate-inanimate;

Verb type GC: Civil code of tense, type, voice, mood.

GK language are in close cooperation and show a tendency towards interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. moods, and kind: temporary forms are usually contrasted within indicative mood representing real events; if a language has a lot of “tenses”, then this types temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the vulgar, present continious etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects noun and verb.

Bogatyreva I.I.

Of course, the concept of category is quite complex and abstract, but no more complex and abstract than many mathematical, physical or biological concepts that our school textbooks, designed for high school students in regular secondary schools, use in abundance. It seems that it is no more difficult to understand than the integral, irrational number, logarithm, entropy, dispersion, interference, meiosis or mitosis, etc. And it is extremely important that the concept of category is used by almost all university textbooks and manuals, reference books, and encyclopedias, which today’s high school or first-year students inevitably encounter.

What is this - a grammatical category? According to V.V. Lopatin’s definition, this is “a system of rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings opposed to each other”, this is a certain set of the same type, similar phenomena that have some common feature. And although the concept of category itself, of course, represents a kind of generalization, it does not exist in general, abstractly, but is quite real and concrete, expressed as general in its particular manifestations.

So, every part of speech in any language has its own own set grammatical (morphological) categories that characterize it, highlighting it against the background of other parts of speech. Nouns and adjectives in the Russian language have grammatical categories such as gender, number and case, and in a number of Germanic and Romance languages, adjectives may not have the category of case or number, but nouns in these languages ​​have a special category of definiteness-indeterminacy, which is absent in other nominal parts of speech. Adjectives in many Indo-European languages ​​have a category of degree of comparison that distinguishes them from nouns. But you need to understand that this statement does not apply to all languages. Thus, in ancient Greek and Sanskrit, suffixes forming the form of degree of comparison could sometimes be added to the stems of nouns - in cases where the meanings of the nouns had a qualitative connotation. For example: other-gr. βασιλεύς ‘king’ – βασιλεύτερος ‘in to a greater extent king’ (king in the comparative degree) – βασιλεύτατος ‘the most royal king’ (king in the superlative degree). Skt. kavitara ‘more (better) poet’ is comparative from kavi ‘poet, sage’; and gajatama ‘the best elephant; elephant of elephants (i.e. the elephant that best embodies the most characteristic elephant qualities)’ – superlative from gaja ‘elephant’. We can safely say that one of the important signs of one or another significant part of speech in most languages ​​of the world is the presence of a special composition of grammatical categories inherent only to it.

So, in each category, correlative grammatical meanings are generalized, necessarily united by some common feature, but at the same time they are opposed to each other on this basis and even (which is extremely important) are mutually exclusive. And there is no contradiction here, much less any super-complexity or far-fetchedness. Let's take, for example, the verbal category of person, represented in Russian by three grammatical meanings, or grammemes. The similarity of these grammes is that they all express the general idea of ​​​​delineating the participants in the communication process. But at the same time, the 1st person indicates that the speaker is the producer of the action indicated by the verb; 2nd person indicates an action performed by the interlocutor or addressee; The 3rd person reports that the action is performed by someone who is not directly involved in the act of communication (i.e., is neither the speaker nor the interlocutor). Thus, we see that there are both similarities and, at the same time, opposition of these three grammes to each other. As for the last of the above-mentioned properties - their mutual exclusion - it is manifested in the fact that a specific verbal word form can be the form of either the 1st person, or the 2nd, or the 3rd. All three grammes cannot be combined and simultaneously expressed within the same word form. And this applies to all grammatical categories: the nominal part of speech can be in the form of any one case (either nominative, or genitive, or dative, etc.), one number (either singular or plural), etc.

Should be paid Special attention to the fact that the grammatical category unites two levels - a certain internal content, which was just mentioned, and its external formal expression. This is really very important: a grammatical meaning must certainly have (and often more than one) some kind of external meaning, i.e. the observable way of expressing it in oral or written speech. Thus, the grammatical category of person in the Russian language usually has the opportunity to express itself with the help of special endings in the forms of the present or future tense in both numbers: I say, you speak, says; say, say, say. And in the past tense, personal pronouns are used for this purpose, since it is impossible to indicate its person directly within the verb itself: I spoke, you spoke, he spoke.

In ancient Indo-European languages ​​(Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, etc.), the category of person was usually expressed within the verb form, regardless of tense, mood or voice, and by the special personal ending it was always possible to determine the person and number of the verb. Therefore, nominative case forms from personal pronouns are quite rare in these languages: as a rule, this happens in situations where logical stress falls on them or when one person is contrasted with another. For example, as in the following Latin phrases:

Tempora mutantur et nos mutāmur in illis. – Times change, and we change [along with] them (here there is a pronoun nos ‘we’, although the ending -mur in the verb mutāmur also indicates the 1st person plural).

Tam ego homo sum, quam tu. – I am the same person as you (the pronoun ego ‘I’ is used here, although the corresponding form of the verb to be – sum) also indicates the 1st person singular.

However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, pronouns as subjects turn out to be simply redundant, unnecessary in ancient languages, and you will not find them, for example, in a Latin text, but when translating such Latin (or ancient Indian, ancient Greek) sentences, it is customary to add the corresponding Russian pronouns:

Cogito, ergo sum. – I think, therefore I exist.

Facile omnes, cum valemus, recta consilia aegrotis damus. – When we are healthy, we easily give good advice to the sick.

This is especially important in cases where the form of the Russian verb does not carry information about the grammatical person:

Feci, quod potui, faciant meliora potentes. - I did everything I could; let whoever can do better.

Ab altero expectes, alteri quod feceris. - Expect from another what you yourself did to another.

From these examples it is clear why pronouns are needed in Russian translations: from the Russian word form it is impossible to determine that in the first case the 1st person was assumed, and in the second - the 2nd. In Latin forms, the person of the subject of the action is contained in the endings -i (feci ‘I did’ and potui ‘I could’) and -eris (feceris ‘you did’).

The grammatical category has two more extremely important properties - regularity and obligatoryness. Indeed, if we look at any grammatical category in the Russian language, we will find that it is regularly expressed: almost always we must indicate the case or gender of the name, the mood or tense of the verb, etc. Almost, but not always. And this “not always” should not confuse us: we must understand that regularity does not mean omnipresence. Yes, we do not indicate one or another grammatical meaning in every word usage: for example, in a number of contexts the gender or number of an unchangeable noun may not be clear. In a sentence Until the 14th century, coffee grew wild in Ethiopia. From the form of the verb, you can understand that the word coffee is masculine and is in the singular form. In the following statement, neither the gender nor the number of the noun coffee is shown in any way: According to legend, in the middle of the 17th century, a Muslim pilgrim secretly took coffee to South India.

For certain grammatical categories, in principle, it will be normal to reveal itself only in some, rather rare situations: if we, speaking Russian, want to understand whether the noun in front of us is animate or not, we can do this in only one way - put it in the accusative case form plural. Only in this case form will his true essence be clearly revealed: if this form coincides with genitive case, then before us is an animate name, if with a nominative, then it is inanimate. Unfortunately, even accusative The singular in some cases will not help us: I see a girl, a creature and I see a desk, a window are no different. We do not understand from the forms of words that girl and creature are animate nouns, but desk and window are not (girl = desk, creature = window). And the corresponding case forms The plural (I see girls, creatures and I see desks, windows) accurately points us to this grammatical category: girls ≠ desks and creatures ≠ windows. All the other cases will certainly not allow us to determine the animation of this or that Russian noun.

Grammatical meaning

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.

2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucratism (M.) with a wolf expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (the meaning of the comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.

The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.

The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical one, but the lexical one does not always accompany it. grammatical meaning.

For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots(person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).

With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).

With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].

A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of ​​the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.

1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different techniques highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.

2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, pen point to singular, and tables, books, feathers are plural, big is masculine, large is female, and large is medium, the shape of large does not indicate gender.

3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the contrast between transitional and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].

Significant and functional parts of speech

Parts of speech are the main grammar classes words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.

Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);

2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.

In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Inside independent parts speech is contrasted with fully significant and incompletely significant words. Full nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most of adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.

Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .

Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.

Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor service units speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].

Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.

Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words morphological feature Changeability-immutability is distinguished, on the one hand, by names and a verb, on the other - by an adverb and a category of state.

The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as the predicate of an impersonal sentence: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), and also in the fact that, unlike adverbs, words categories of state are capable of control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is, shod with sharp iron on your feet, to slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!” - P.).

Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of certain verb forms and in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].

A grammatical category is a system of forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning, or opposition. A grammatical category is the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its formal expression. Typology of grammatical categories: 1) by the number of members of the category (for example, singular and plural ; 2) Categories are divided into inflectional and classification. Inflectional - their members are forms of one word (for example, time: read, I’m reading...) 3) Categories are divided into lexico-grammatical and proper grammatical. (for example, number nouns are lexico-grammatical) Languages ​​differ in the set and characteristics of grammatical categories. Grammatical categories are extremely diverse. So, there are two-term categories, for example, in modern Russian number(singular: plural), verb aspect (perfect: imperfect); three-membered, for example, face (first: second: third); polynomial, for example, in Russian and many other languages ​​- case. Grammar is traditionally divided into two large departments - morphology, or word grammar, and syntax, or grammar of connected speech. The division into morphology and syntax is to a certain extent arbitrary, since the grammatical meanings behind changes in word forms are fully revealed only when taking into account the syntactic functions of these forms, that is, their functions within the framework of a phrase and sentence. The “grammar of words” includes an area associated with the formation of words as lexical units of a language, and an area associated with the formation of grammatical forms of words . The first area is called the science of word formation, the second - morphology itself. Modality is a category that expresses the speaker’s attitude to the content of the message. The category of predicativity correlates the content of a sentence with reality.

Question #40

Parts of speech

Speaking about parts of speech, we mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of a language, i.e., the allocation in the vocabulary of a language of certain groups or categories, characterized by certain grammatical features. The grammatical categories that characterize the words of a particular part of speech do not coincide or do not completely coincide in different languages, but in any case they are determined by the general grammatical meaning of this class words In some cases, the main formal feature of a certain part of speech is one or another compatibility of the corresponding words with others. The noun expresses the grammatical meaning of objectivity. The primary syntactic functions of a noun are the functions of subject and object. Typical grammatical categories of a noun are case and number. Of the other grammatical categories of a noun, the category of definiteness/indeterminacy is widespread. The adjective expresses the grammatical meaning of a quality or property called not abstractly, in itself, but as a sign given in something, in some subject: not whiteness, but white something, white. The primary functions of the adjective are the function of the attribute and the predicate. Features denoted by adjectives can in many cases vary in degree of intensity. A verb in most languages ​​consists of two rows of formations: the verb itself, for example read, read, read, read, and the so-called verboids, for example read, reading, read, reading, combining the features of the verb with the features of some other parts of speech. The verb itself expresses the grammatical meaning of an action, i.e. a dynamic feature that occurs in time. The most typical grammatical categories of a predicate verb are tense, mood and voice. A special place among verbal categories is occupied by the grammatical category of aspect, which contrasts each other different types course and distribution of action over time. An adverb, according to its grammatical meaning, is defined as a “sign of a characteristic.” The adverb is characterized by the absence of any grammatical categories, except for the category of degrees of comparison. The name is numeral. The grammatical meaning of the numeral is the meaning of quantity, represented as the amount of something (five tables, five senses) or as an abstract number (five five - twenty five) .Ordinal numbers (fifth, etc.) are a type of adjectives: they name not the number of objects, but place of an object in a row, i.e. one of the characteristics given in the subject, as do all other adjectives. A specific category of personal pronouns, reflected in some other groups, is the category of person. Function words form a separate subsystem of service parts of speech, which varies greatly from language to language. “Morphological” and “syntactic” function words can be distinguished. The former are involved in the formation of analytical forms. These are prepositions (or postpositions), articles, auxiliary verbs, words of degree, particles like Russian. would, etc. Syntactic function words serve phrases and sentences.