Methodical manual on the history of the ancient world (Goder G.I.). Representations of the ancient Greeks

Money makes people happy only to a certain extent, and increasing the price of a product often leads to an increase in its sales. Fear of loss makes us act irrationally and shell out $200 for a twenty-dollar bill. Paradoxes? Yes. Economic.

Easterlin's paradox

Easterlin's paradox is that in prosperous countries with fast or not very fast rapid growth economy, when the well-being of people also grows, the level of happiness (well-being) of the population increases, but up to a certain point.

After 10-15 years, even if the economic level and well-being of the population grows, the level of happiness stops increasing. That is, money makes people happy only to a certain extent.

• This pattern was discovered in 1974 by Professor Richard Easterlin from the University of Southern California, as a result of which the paradox received his name.

Veblen's Paradox

Veblen's paradox (snob effect) is a situation where a decrease in the price of a product worsens its quality and prestige in the eyes of buyers, and an increase in price, on the contrary, makes the product more desirable and attractive. This type of purchasing behavior is called a paradox because it contradicts the basic law of demand, according to which an increase in the price of a product leads to a decrease in its consumption.

All Veblen’s products belong to the premium segment, and as their prices rise, so does the target audience’s desire to own them. Veblen's paradox was discovered American sociologist, economist, publicist and futurologist Thorstein Bunde Veblen, author of the books “The Theory of the Leisure Class”, “The Theory of Entrepreneurship” and others. Veblen also introduced the concept of “prestigious and conspicuous consumption” into economics and sociology.

Giffen's paradox

The Giffen Paradox, named after the English economist Robert Giffen, refers to consumer reactions to economic or political situations and applies to consumer goods. The economist drew attention to the fact that during the famine in Ireland in mid-19th century, the volume of demand for potatoes, the price of which has increased, has increased significantly.

Giffen linked this to the fact that in the budget of poor families, expenses for potatoes occupied a significant share. The rise in prices for this product led to the fact that the real incomes of these strata fell. They were forced to reduce purchases of other goods, increasing their consumption of potatoes in order to survive. Because of this, the demand curve for potatoes increased.

• The Giffen effect is observed when the masses feel instability or are subject to manipulation (the threat of an economic crisis, a change in political course, rumors of a crop failure, etc.).

The different behavior of buyers in relation to goods made it possible to formulate the division of goods into two groups: ordinary goods and “Giffen goods”. Typical examples Giffen goods can be considered inexpensive consumer goods: cereals, pasta, bread; a short-term effect is observed when gasoline prices increase.

Bazerman's paradox

The Bazerman Paradox is named after Harvard Business School professor Max Bazerman. Every year Max Bazerman sells his students a twenty dollar bill well above its face value. His record is selling $20 for $204. And he does it like this. He shows the class a bill and says that he will give $20 to the person who gives the most money for it. True, there is a small condition.

The person who will be immediately behind the winner must give the professor the amount that he was willing to give for $20. That is, if the two highest bids were $15 and $16, then the winner gets $20 for $16, and the second person gives the professor $15. Bidding starts at one dollar and quickly reaches $12-16. At this point, most students drop out of the auction, leaving only the two highest bidders.

Slowly but surely the auction is approaching the figure of $20. It is clear that it is no longer possible to win, but the auction continues and quickly reaches $50 and above. Why do people always pay for $20? more money? Because a person has a weak point - fear of loss, and he behaves extremely irrationally when he starts losing money.

So, once the bidding reaches $12-$16, the second person realizes that he is in danger of losing, so he begins to bid more than he intended until the auction reaches $21. At this stage, both participants will lose money, but some will lose only a dollar, and some will lose twenty. To minimize losses, each person tries to win back, and this race leads to even greater losses.

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If prices for any product increase, and all other parameters remain unchanged, then demand will be for less and less of this product.

But in economic theory there is also a description of a situation where a decrease in price leads to a decrease in demand, and an increase in price leads to an increase in demand for a product.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that practically the only exception to law of demand will Giffen paradox, named after the English economist Robert Giffen (1837-1910). This economist drew attention to the fact that during the famine in Ireland in the mid-19th century, the volume of demand for potatoes, the price of which had increased, increased significantly. Giffen associated this with the fact that in the budget of poor families, expenses for potatoes occupied a significant share. An increase in prices for this product led to the fact that the real incomes of these strata fell, and they were forced to reduce purchases of other goods, increasing the consumption of potatoes, in order to survive and not die of hunger. Due to this, the demand curve for potatoes had an “ascending” shape.

There are also "imaginary" exceptions to the law of demand, when an inexperienced market researcher confuses ongoing changes in demand with changes in the quantity of demand. An example is the direct relationship between price and demand volumes that formally appears on the market:

• with so-called inflationary (or deflationary) consumer expectations;
• when price will be a sign of quality for the consumer;
• when price serves as a measure of the prestige of a product.

For all these cases, the demand curve shifts to the right as prices rise, and therefore common law demand remains the same value.

The Giffen effect is rarely observed in industrial applications. developed countries, and the goods on which he will stay are called Giffen goods.

Giffen product- an inferior good, which occupies a significant place in the consumption structure (it accounts for a large share of the budget of all consumer expenditures) The income effect in the case of a Giffen good outweighs the substitution effect, and, therefore, when the price drops for such a product demand on him decreases(additional cash for the purchase of other goods that already have best characteristics), and when the price increases, it increases.

It should be noted that some economists question the existence of a Giffen good. For example, J. Stigler believes that the Giffen effect went down in history with light hand A. Marshall, who attributed the description of this effect to R. Giffen. According to J. Stigler, there is good reason to believe that R. Giffen himself did not observe this phenomenon. But nevertheless, the Giffen effect is still described in any Western economics textbook.

Giffen effect (Giffen effect, Giffen's paradox) - price reduction by individual species goods leads to a decrease in demand for them. The opposite is also true: an increase in the price of certain types of goods leads to an increase in demand for them.

Giffen effect refers to the reaction of buyers to an economic or political situation and applies to essential goods. The different behavior of buyers in relation to goods made it possible to formulate the division of goods into two groups: ordinary goods and “Giffen goods”.

Giffen product- a good, the consumption of which (other things being equal) increases with an increase in price. For most goods, when the price increases, consumption decreases. For Giffen goods, the opposite is true - when the price of a product rises, people begin to buy more of this product. This is the paradoxical Giffen effect. Typical examples of Giffen goods include: rice, pasta, bread; a short-term effect is observed when gasoline prices increase.

Characteristics of Giffen goods:

• goods of low value;
• occupy a significant place in the consumer budget;
• there is no equivalent substitute product;
• consumers of the product are, to a large extent, people with low and middle incomes.

Basic law of supply/demand proclaimed the postulate: “an increase in the price of a product, other things being equal, leads to a decrease in demand for it and vice versa.” However, the Giffen phenomenon is not an exception to the totality of all economic laws. The Giffen effect does not contradict the basic law of supply/demand, since for it to occur, external conditions must change for the worse. The Giffen effect is observed in unfavorable economic conditions, when people buy goods, fearing their further rise in price, but at the same time reducing spending on more expensive products in favor of cheaper ones. For example, they buy more bread and pasta, with a decrease in purchases of meat and fruit. In other words, there is an effect of replacing some goods with others (usually with goods from the consumer basket).

The Giffen effect in history. This phenomenon was first noted and described in the 19th century. Robert Giffen discovered a paradox during the Irish famine of 1845-1849, when the population responded by increasing demand to rising potato prices. While analyzing the consumer budgets of British coal workers, R. Giffen also discovered that with each increase in the price of a relatively cheap, but permanent required product food - bread, the effective demand for it did not decrease, but increased.

Concept " Giffen effect"was entrenched in the minds of economists and marketers thanks to Alfred Marshall, who in 1895 associated the name of R. Giffen with this recurring economic phenomenon.

Giffen goods (Giffen goods)- an item of sale/purchase, the demand for which may increase as their price rises, which is possible in cases where these items occupy too large a share in the consumer budget, which is too small. As a result, the income effect outweighs the substitution effect. For example, an increase in the price of potatoes, which makes up the main share of the budget, will lead to the fact that the family will not be able to afford anything else and will completely switch to consuming potatoes, despite the fact that its price has increased.

Based on Hesiod's poem "Works and Days"

The immortal gods living on bright Olympus created the first human race happy; it was a golden age. God Kron ruled then in heaven. Like blessed gods, people lived in those days, knowing neither care, nor labor, nor sadness. They also did not know frail old age; Their legs and arms were always strong and strong. Painless me happy life theirs was an eternal feast. Death, which came after their long life, was like a calm, quiet sleep. During their lifetime they had everything in abundance. The land itself gave them rich fruits, and they did not have to waste labor on cultivating fields and gardens. Their herds were numerous, and they grazed calmly on rich pastures. The people of the golden age lived serenely. The gods themselves came to them for advice. But the golden age on earth ended, and none of the people of this generation remained. After death, people of the golden age became spirits, patrons of people of new generations. Shrouded in fog, they rush across the earth, defending truth and punishing evil. This is how Zeus rewarded them after their death.

The second human race and the second century were no longer as happy as the first. It was the Silver Age. People were not equal either in strength or in mind silver age people of gold. For a hundred years they grew up foolish in the houses of their mothers, only when they matured did they leave them. Their life was short mature age, and since they were unreasonable, they saw a lot of misfortunes and grief in life. The people of the Silver Age were rebellious. They did not obey the immortal gods and did not want to burn sacrifices to them on the altars, Great son Krona Zeus destroyed their race on earth. He was angry with them because they did not obey the gods living on bright Olympus. Zeus settled them in the underground dark kingdom. There they live, knowing neither joy nor sorrow; people also pay homage to them.

Father Zeus created the third generation and the third age - the Copper Age. It doesn't look like silver. From the shaft of the spear Zeus created people - terrible and powerful. The people of the Copper Age loved pride and war, abundant in groans. They did not know agriculture and did not eat the fruits of the earth that gardens and arable land provide. Zeus gave them enormous growth and indestructible strength. Their hearts were indomitable and courageous and their hands irresistible. Their weapons were forged from copper, their houses were made of copper, and they worked with copper tools. They didn’t know dark iron back in those days. The people of the Copper Age destroyed each other with their own hands. They quickly descended into the dark kingdom of the terrible Hades. No matter how strong they were, yet the black death kidnapped them, and they left the clear light of the sun.

As soon as this race descended into the kingdom of shadows, the great Zeus immediately created on the earth that feeds everyone the fourth century and a new human race, a nobler, more just race of demigod heroes equal to the gods. And they all died in evil wars and terrible bloody battles. Some died at the seven-gate Thebes, in the country of Cadmus, fighting for the legacy of Oedipus. Others fell at Troy, where they came for the beautiful-haired Helen, and sailed across the wide sea in ships. When death snatched them all away, Zeus the Thunderer settled them on the edge of the earth, far from living people. The demigod-heroes live a happy, carefree life on the islands of the blessed near the stormy waters of the Ocean. There, the fertile land gives them fruits three times a year, sweet as honey.

The last, fifth century and the human race is iron. It continues now on earth. Night and day, without ceasing, sorrow and exhausting work destroy people. The gods send people difficult worries. True, gods and good are mixed with evil, but still there is more evil, it reigns everywhere. Children do not honor their parents; a friend is not faithful to a friend; the guest does not find hospitality; there is no love between brothers. People do not observe this oath, they do not value truth and goodness. They are destroying each other's cities. Violence reigns everywhere. Only pride and strength are valued. The goddesses Conscience and Justice left people. In their white robes they took off high Olympus to the immortal gods, but people are left with only grave troubles, and they have no protection from evil

1. Periodization of ancient culture

The history of ancient art includes several stages:

1. Creto-Mycenaean. III-II millennium BC At this stage, the art of the masters reaches perfection. Crete. It is here that one of the palaces is located, known as the palace of King Minos, where the labyrinth of the Minotaur was located (16,000 thousand sq. m.)

2. Gomerovsky. XI-VIII centuries BC. Characterized by the famous epic, the spread of ceramics of fine plasticity of geometric style.

3. Archaic. VII-VI centuries BC. The time of the emergence of city-states (polises) and the rapid development of art. During this period, the Greek religion took shape, which was characterized by polytheism, which resulted in the creation of a rich mythology, the emergence of Olympic Games, Greek theater, the first philosophical system (natural philosophy) arises, it is represented by Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, they tried to comprehend nature and its laws, to identify the fundamental principle of the material world.

4. Classic. Beginning V-IV centuries BC. During this period, Greek democracy received great development, which resulted in the rise of economic and political life, Athens becomes the center, monumentality and architecture develop (the temple of victorious Athena, the Acropolis, the Parthenon), this is the flowering of Greek philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle).

5. Hellenism. III-I century BC. The widespread spread of Hellenistic culture among the cities of the Mediterranean coast, hence Sankritism.

2. Mythology of the ancient Greeks

Greek mythology evolved over several centuries, passed on from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Myths have already come to us in the poetry of Hesiod and Homer, as well as in the works of Greek playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and others. That is why they had to be collected from a variety of sources.

Mythographers appeared in Greece around the 4th century BC. These include the sophist Hippias, as well as Herodotus of Heraclea, Heraclitus of Pontus and many others. For example, Dionysius of Samoia compiled genealogical tables and studied tragic myths.

During the heroic period, mythological images centralized around myths associated with the legendary Mount Olympus.

According to the myths of Ancient Greece, it is possible to recreate a picture of the world as imagined by its ancient inhabitants. Yes, according to Greek mythology, the world was inhabited by monsters and giants: giants, one-eyed Cyclops (Cyclopes) and the mighty Titans - the formidable children of the Earth (Gaia) and Heaven (Uranus). In these images, the Greeks personified the elemental forces of nature, which were subdued by Zeus (Dias) - the Thunderer and Cloudbreaker, who established order in the world and became the ruler of the Universe.

In the beginning, there was only eternal, boundless, dark Chaos, which contained the source of life in the world: everything arose from Chaos - the whole world, the immortal gods, and the goddess Earth - Gaia, who gives life to everything that lives and grows on it; and the mighty force that animates everything is Love - Eros.

Deep under the Earth, the gloomy Tartarus was born - a terrible abyss full of eternal darkness.

Creating the world, Chaos gave birth to the Eternal Darkness - Erebus and the dark Night - Nikta. And from Night and Darkness came eternal Light- Ether and joyful bright Day - Hemera (Imera). The light spread throughout the world, and night and day began to replace each other.

The mighty, blessed Gaia gave birth to the boundless blue Sky - Uranus, which spread over the Earth, reigning over the whole world. The high Mountains born of the Earth proudly rose towards him, and the ever-noisy Sea spread wide.

After the Sky, Mountains and Sea arose from Mother Earth, Uranus took the blessed Gaia as his wife, from whom he had six sons - powerful, formidable titans - and six daughters. The son of Uranus and Gaia is the Titan Ocean, flowing around the entire earth like a boundless river, and the goddess Thetis gave birth to all the rivers that rolled their waves to the sea, as well as sea goddesses - the Oceanids. Titan Hipperion and Theia gave the world the Sun - Helios, the Moon - Selene and the ruddy Dawn - rose-fingered Eos. From Astraeus and Eos came all the stars that burn in the night sky, and all the winds: the northern wind - Boreas (Βορριάς), the eastern - Eurus (Εύρος), the southern Not (Νοτιάς) and the western, gentle wind Zephyr (Ζέφυρος), carrying abundant rain clouds.

In addition to the titans, the mighty Earth gave birth to three giants - Cyclops with one eye in the forehead - and three fifty-headed, hundred-armed giants - Hecatoncheires, against whom nothing could resist, because their elemental power knew no bounds.

Uranus hated his giant children and imprisoned them in the bowels of the Earth, not allowing them to come into the light. Mother Earth suffered from the fact that she was crushed by a terrible burden contained in the depths of her bowels. Then she summoned her children, the Titans, to persuade them to rebel against Uranus. However, the titans were afraid to raise a hand against their father. Only the youngest of them, the treacherous Kronos, overthrew Uranus by cunning, taking away his power.

As punishment for Kronos, the goddess Night gave birth to Tanat - death, Eris - discord, Apata - deception, Ker - destruction, Hypnos - a dream with nightmare visions, Nemesis - revenge for crimes - and many other gods who brought Kronos into the world, who reigned on the throne of his father , horror, strife, deception, struggle and misfortune.

Kronos himself did not have confidence in the strength and durability of his power: he was afraid that his children would rebel against him and he would suffer the fate of his own father Uranus. In this regard, Kronos ordered his wife Rhea to bring him the children that were born, five of whom he mercilessly swallowed: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Poseidon.

KronosZeus (Dias) - ruler of the sky, father of gods and people. Ares (Aris) - god of war

Rhea, in order not to lose her last child, on the advice of her parents, Uranus-Heaven and Gaia-Earth, retired to the island of Crete, where deep cave gave birth to her youngest son, Zeus. Having hidden the newborn in a cave, Rhea allowed the cruel Kronos to swallow a long stone wrapped in swaddling clothes instead of his son. Kronos had no idea that he was deceived by his wife, while Zeus grew up in Crete under the supervision of the nymphs Adrastea and Idea, who fed him the milk of the divine goat Amalthea. The bees brought honey to little Zeus from the slopes of the high mountain Dikty, and at the entrance to the cave the young Kuretes struck their shields with their swords every time little Zeus cried, so that the all-powerful Kronos would not inadvertently hear his cry.

The Titans were replaced by the kingdom of Zeus, who defeated his father Kronos and became the supreme deity of the Olympian pantheon; lord heavenly powers, commanding thunder, lightning, clouds and downpours. Dominating the universe, Zeus gave people laws and maintained order.

In the minds of the ancient Greeks, the Olympian gods were like people and the relationships between them resembled the relationships between people: they quarreled and made peace, envied and interfered in people’s lives, were offended, took part in wars, rejoiced, had fun and fell in love. Each of the gods had a specific occupation, being responsible for a specific area of ​​life:

Zeus (Dias) is the ruler of the sky, the father of gods and people.

Hera (Ira) is the wife of Zeus, the patroness of the family.

Poseidon is the ruler of the seas.

Hestia (Estia) is the protector of the family hearth.

Demeter (Dimitra) – goddess of agriculture.

Apollo is the god of light and music.

Athena is the goddess of wisdom.

Hermes (Ermis) is the god of trade and messenger of the gods.

Hephaestus (Ifestos) – god of fire.

Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty.

Ares (Aris) – god of war.

Artemis is the goddess of the hunt.

People on earth turned to the gods - to each according to his “specialty”, erected temples for them and, in order to appease them, brought gifts as sacrifices.

According to Greek mythology, in addition to the children of Chaos, the Titans and the Olympian gods, the earth was inhabited by many other deities who personified the forces of nature.

Poseidon - ruler of the seas HerculesNymphs

So, the nymphs Naiads lived in rivers and streams, the Nereids lived in the sea, Dryads and Satyrs lived in the forests, and the nymph Echo lived in the mountains.

Human life was controlled by three goddesses of Fate - the Moiras (Lachesis, Clotho, Atropos). They were the ones who spun the thread human life from birth to death and could cut it off whenever they wanted...

According to Karl Marx, the myths of Ancient Greece capture the “childhood of human society,” which in Hellas “developed most beautifully and has an eternal charm for us.”