The police chief was in some way a father and benefactor. Dead Souls

Articulatory classification of speech sounds is necessary for everyone who studies pronunciation; they cannot do without it. pedagogical practice. However, it is quite cumbersome (see. Articulatory classification of speech sounds). It turned out that it is possible to create a more harmonious and economical classification of sounds based on their acoustic nature. This was done when instruments for analysis appeared in phonetic laboratories. acoustic characteristics sounds, i.e. their spectra, are spectrometers.

Acoustic classification is based on the shape of the sound spectrum. It consistently carries out a binary (binary, dichotomous) opposition of speech sounds for each attribute: low - high sounds, sharp - unsharp, etc.

What is the sound spectrum?

All sounds are divided into tones and noises. Sounds with periodic, harmonic vibrations are tones. Sounds resulting from a series of non-periodic vibrations are called noise. In speech, tone sounds are formed with the participation vocal cords. Noises are formed when any obstructions occur in the oral cavity. Vowels are tone sounds, voiceless consonants are noise sounds. Sonorant consonants are tonal consonants with a slight admixture of noise, voiced noisy consonants are noise with the participation of tone.

Every tonal sound of speech consists of many simple vibrations, that is, vibrations of a certain frequency (they are called harmonics). If we plot the frequencies of these harmonics in hertz on the horizontal axis and the intensity values in decibels on the vertical axis, we get the spectrum of this sound.

With different positions of the speech organs, the oral cavity is like a system of acoustic resonators - it is “tuned” to several harmonics at once. The figures show a diagram of the operation of such a system: it can be seen that the resonators are tuned to frequencies of 500 Hz and 1000 Hz.

Complex sound entering a resonator system with such frequency response, is transformed: it amplifies frequencies that coincide with resonant ones, and dampens other frequencies. The sound spectrum takes on this form (see figure).

Regions of increased energy in the sound spectrum are called formants. Since speech sounds extend over time, it is convenient to represent their spectra taking into account three characteristics: frequency, intensity and time. In such spectrograms, duration is plotted along the horizontal axis, and frequency is plotted along the vertical axis. The intensity is indicated by the degree of darkening of various parts of the spectrogram.

What is it in appearance spectrograms to distinguish the spectrum of a tone sound, for example a vowel, from a noise one? The figures show the spectra of the vowel [a] and consonant [w]. Each of them is typical of the class of sounds that they represent.

Spectrogram of the vowel [a].

Spectrogram of the consonant [sh].

The vowel spectrum is distinguished by a significantly higher energy level, as evidenced by the degree of darkening of sections of the spectrogram. In addition, the spectrogram of the vowel clearly shows formants - bands of energy amplification running parallel to the horizontal axis.

On the spectrogram of a consonant, the energy level is incomparably lower, the noise spectral components are located in the high-frequency region of the spectrum. They do not form formants, but are presented in a chaotic disorder.

According to the shape of the spectrum, speech sounds can be:

1. Vocal - non-vocal. To characterize a sound according to this criterion, it is important whether its spectrum has a formant structure, i.e., a clearly expressed regular amplification of certain frequency components.

All vowels and sonorant consonants are vocal, while noisy consonants are non-vocal.

2. Consonant - non-consonant. The sign of consonance is associated with the general level of energy in the spectrum: sounds with a weak level are consonant, sounds with high level energies are non-consonant. The first group includes all consonants, including sonorants, the second group includes vowels.

3. High - low. For these sounds, it is important in which part of the spectrum the components are predominantly located - in the region of low frequencies or high frequencies.

High - front vowels, front and middle lingual consonants, low - all non-front vowels, labial and back lingual consonants.

4. Compact - diffuse. The compactness of the sound is determined by the relative proximity of the amplified components to each other and at the same time to the center of the spectrum (1000 Hz). Diffuse sounds do not have this quality.

Diffuse - high vowels, as well as labial and dental consonants. All other speech sounds are compact.

5. Sharp - unsharp. The sign of sharpness is associated with a higher position in the spectrum of one or more areas of energy amplification.

Sharps are soft consonants, as well as front vowels and those vowels that we pronounce between soft consonants. All hard consonants and non-front vowels are unsharp.

6. Flat - non-flat. Flatness is a decrease in all or several spectral components of sound. Rounded vowels and consonants are flat, the rest are non-flat.

7. Interrupted - continuous. In interrupted sounds, the beginning is characterized by a high energy consumption, which then does not increase. In continuous ones, energy consumption is relatively evenly distributed over time. Interrupted consonants are stop consonants. Continuous - all vowels and non-stop consonants.

8. Sharp - unsharp. Sharp sounds - with a clearly expressed heterogeneity of the spectrum. These are affricates and trembling consonants. All other speech sounds are unsharp.

9. Voiced - deaf. Voiced sounds- vowels and voiced consonants - have the lowest intense component in the spectrum (up to 300 Hz), which corresponds to the fundamental tone of the sound. This tone is created by vibrations of the vocal cords.

It can be seen that the above classification is quite simple and at the same time universal: it covers both vowels and consonants.

All these signs of sounds can be detected using a visible speech device. This is a dynamic spectrograph that transmits on paper a time-varying picture of the spectra of speech sounds.

The analysis of these spectra led R. O. Jacobson (USA), G. Fant (Sweden) and M. Halle (USA) in 1955 to the creation of an acoustic classification of speech sounds.

Sound is the result of the oscillatory movements of any body in any environment, accessible to auditory perception.

Speech sounds are vibrations air environment caused by the speech organs. Sounds are divided into tones ( musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

TONE is periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

NOISE is non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

PITCH is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords.

SOUND STRENGTH (loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

SOUND DURATION, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

The sound has complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

The FUNDAMENTAL tone is the tone generated by the vibrations of the entire physical body.

OVERTONE - a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always higher than the fundamental tone by a multiple number of times,

hence its name.

TIMBRE is a peculiar coloring of sound created by overtones.

Each language usually has about 50 speech sounds. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants there is always some kind of obstacle and specific place education - focus. The set of vowels in a language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As their name suggests, vowels are formed using the voice, i.e. they are always sonorant.

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

Labialization

Nasalization

Diphthongization

There are 4 main articulatory features of consonants:

Noisy voiceless words that are pronounced without voice (p, f, t, s, w).

2. METHOD OF ARTICULATION

The essence of this method is the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

Stop consonants are formed by a stop that forms an obstacle to the air stream. They are divided into three groups:

a) explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b t, d, k, g);

b) affricates. In them, the stop without a burst passes into the gap (ts, h); c) stop nasals, in which the stops without a burst (m, n).

Friction consonants are formed by the friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin “frico” - true) or spirants (Latin “spiro” - blow): (v, f, s, w, x);

Occlusion-frictional sonants, which include the following sonants:

a) lateral (l), in which the bow and cleft are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);

b) trembling (p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

Labials of two types:

a) labiolabial (bilabial) (p, b, m)

b) labiodental (c, f)

Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual;

a) front-lingual are divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):

Dorsal (Latin dorsum - back): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);

Apical (lat. arekh - top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng.);

Cakuminal (lat. cacumen - apex), or bifocal, during the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e.

There are two foci of noise generation.

b) although in middle language consonants middle part the tongue comes closer to the hard palate, they are perceived as soft; this phenomenon is also called palatalization;

c) back-lingual consonants include (k, h).

Language speakers are divided into three groups:

Lingular (uvular), for example, French [r];

Pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German|Ъ];

Laryngeal: they are present as separate sounds in the Arabic language.

4. PASSIVE ORGAN

According to the passive organ, i.e. place of articulation, distinguished between dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds are formed

(th, l, t, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by bringing the tongue closer to the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

The doctrine of the phoneme.

Avanesov - introduced the concept of phoneme.

Phonology(from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “teaching”) - a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in the language system. The main unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is opposition ( opposition) phonemes that together form phonological system language

PHONEME is a sound type, a generalized perfect performance about sound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only the shades of the phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the specific.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. The physical sounds that make up speech are great amount. The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called

DIFFERENTIAL (distinctive) characteristics.

Phonology appeared because sounds and letters were indistinguishable.

PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.

PHONOLOGY OF TRUBETSKOY (NIKOLAY SERGEEVICH TRUBETSKOY (1890-1938) one of the theorists of the Prague Linguistic Circle ( scientific school), which he entered into

emigration after the 1917 revolution,)

On the issue of neutralization of phonemes in words like “meadow”, there are different points of view regarding the phoneme denoted by the letter “g”, but reflecting the unvoiced sound [k].

Linguists belonging to the LENINGRAD SCHOOL (Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and others) believe that in the pair “meadow - meadows” the sounds [k] and [g] refer to two different phonemes /k/ and /g/

However, linguists of the MOSCOW SCHOOL (Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.), based on the morphological principle, believe that in the word “meadow” the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme /g/

They also believe that for the variants [k] and [g] in the words “meadow - meadows” there is a common phoneme /k/g/, which they called a hyperphoneme.

Three aspects of sounds: 1) acoustic (physical). Sound is the vibrational movement of the air produced by the organs of speech.

2) Articulatory (physiological). Sound is a product of the work of the human pronunciation organs (articulatory apparatus).

3) Functional (linguistic). Sound is a material version of the implementation of a phoneme (sound type) in the process of functioning, performing semantic-distinguishing and construction functions.

Acoustic classification of speech sounds.

1) By the ratio of tone and noise (the nature of vibration).

Sounds are divided into vowels (tone), consonants (tone and noise). Consonants are divided into low (divided into voiceless and voiced) and sonorant.

2) Based on strength (amplitude of vibrations), sounds are divided into strong (loud), weak (quiet)

3) According to duration, sounds are divided into long and short

4) By height (number of oscillations per unit of time) the sounds of business. to high, medium and low.

13. Articulatory aspect of speech sounds. Articulatory classifications of sounds.

The speech apparatus conventionally consists of: 1) respiratory organs 2) vocal cords, larynx 3) epiglottic cavities 4) organs of pronunciation 5) brain and nervous system.

The sound of speech is the minimum unit of the speech chain. Articulation is the work of the speech apparatus.

Basic articulatory classifications of sounds: 1) division into vowels and consonants 2) classification of consonants 3) classification of vowels.

Classification of vowels: a) by the degree of elevation of the tongue b) by the degree of advancement of the tongue c) by the position of the lips d) by the position of the soft palate.

Classification of consonants: a) by the presence of catalysis b) by the place of noise formation c) by the method of noise formation.

14. Functional aspect of speech sounds. Phonology. Speech sound (background) and phoneme; phonemic criteria. Functional aspect - establishes what role sound plays in language as a means of communication. Phonology – studies the functioning of sound units, basic. units is a phoneme. Phoneme - unit of language. the cat performs a semantic function (house, volume). Phoneme – sound type cat. stored in the human mind, i.e. This is a certain group of languages that are similar in article and acoustic characteristics.

Phonetic criteria: 1) semantically distinctive (if, under the same conditions, sounds have different sound shells of language units, then they are representatives of different phonemes; if they do not differ, they are allophones of the same phoneme. 2) distributive (if two sounds fundamentally cannot occur in the same conditions, then they are allophones.

15. Differential and integral features of a phoneme. Phonological oppositions, their types. Differential features (acoustics - articulatory) they distinguish the sound shells of significant units of language. Differential features: live – sew. Integral signs – (acoustics – articulatory) signs of a cat. do not distinguish the value of the unit of this language, but only complement the composition of the phoneme. A phoneme is a set of differential features.

Types of phonological oppositions. 1) according to the number of contrasts of differential features: they are divided into correlative (contrasts based on one feature) and non-correlative (contrasts based on two or more). Correlatives are divided into: closed (represented by two members, forming a closed pair) and open (represented by three or more members with sequential strengthening or weakening of a feature) 2) according to the presence of repeated phonological oppositions based on identical features: divided into proportional and isolated.

16. Strong and weak phoneme positions. Neutralization of phonemes. Phoneme systems in different languages. The position of the phoneme is the pronunciation of the conditions for the functioning of the phoneme in coherent speech. Strong – there are differential features of the phoneme cat. issue meaningful function (son, son, san) Weak – pronunciation condition, the phoneme loses its characteristics, even differential ones.

17. Phonetic division of speech. Intonation, its elements and functions. Elements of intonation: 1) melody (movement of the fundamental tone, voice, rise and fall). Function: there are communicative types of statements (narration, motivation, question).

2) intensity (sound enhancement) phenomenon. a formal indicator of the actual part of the sentence.

3) duration (extension in time) phenomenon. means of expressing grammatical meaning.

4) tempo (slowing down or speeding up speech) contributes to output. expressive function of language.

5) rhythm (measured ordering of the sound composition of speech) characterizes the speaker and the communication situation in the communicative act.

6) the tempo of pronunciation (the combination of basic tones and sound coloring) adds color to texts of different genres.

7) pauses (interruptions in sound)

Phonetic division of speech. Speech (a linear sequence of sounds) is divided into a phrase (the largest sound segment combined into a unit). Tact (part of a phrase, one or more syllables united by stress is separated from other bars by small pauses, unstressed syllables tend to be stressed). A syllable (part of a beat, one or more sounds, combined syllabic-forming sounds is separated from other syllables by syllabification). Sound (a part of a syllable united by one articulation (expression, endurance, recursion) is separated by a transition from the recursion of the previous sound to the expursion of the previous one)).

18. Verbal stress, its types and functions. Types of stress and selection criteria: 1) phonetic types a) according to the predominant acoustic feature, del. into dynamic (power based on the high intensity of sound), quantitative (based on the stress of sound), musical (tonic, based on raising or lowering the tone). B) by sound correlation between stresses in one polysyllabic word, case. into main (with more pronounced acoustic properties), secondary (with less pronounced acoustic properties). 2) structural types: a) by the nature of the location of words and deeds in the power structure. into free (different places, can fall on any syllable), connected (fixed (always falls on a syllable of a certain order) and limited (has a specific location zone)). B) by the nature of the location in the morphological structure of the word, deeds. into movable (the stress can fall on both the stem and the ending), fixed (always falls on certain morphemes).

19. Changing speech sounds. Sounds are divided into noises and tones. Tones are produced by vibrations of the vocal cords. Noises are formed as a result of non-periodic vibrations of the air flowing out of the lungs. Most famous character speech signal fundamental tone. Due to their specificity, speech sounds are considered from 3 points of view: 1) acoustic, 2) physiological, 3) linguistic.

20. Morpheme, the problem of its definition. Historical changes in the morphemic composition of a word. Types of change: 1) simplification (combining several into one as a result of the loss of the force connection with the derived root and the close adhesion of physiological morphemes into one whole) 2) re-decomposition (moving the boundaries between morphemes in a new or familiar phrase. As a result, the type of morpheme may change, its function or a new morpheme will appear). 3) complication (division of this morpheme into two as a result of loss of motivation and the action of the law of analogy).

21. Classification of morphemes 1) According to the function performed in the language, morphemes are divided into: word-forming (carry part lexical meaning and serve to form new words) and formative (carry grammatical meaning and serve to form grammatical form words). 2) According to the role and position in the structure of the word, the morphemes of affairs. to: root (the main obligatory morpheme in the word carrier main part its lexical meaning) and affix (service, optional morphemes, in various ways attached to the root in word formation). 3) by the number of phonemes in terms of the expression of morphemes, morphemes of affairs. a) zero, b) single-phoneme, c) two-phoneme, d) multi-phoneme. 4) by the number of semes in terms of the content of the morpheme of affairs. into: monosemous (the content plan consists of one seme) and polysemous (the content plan consists of two or more semes).