The peoples of Southeast, Central and Middle Asia. The most ancient peoples of Central Asia - the historical ancestors of the Uzbek people Ancient peoples of Central Asia

From the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Central Asian nomads are beginning to play an increasingly important role in the life of Europe and Asia. Geographical conditions greatly hampered the development of the tribes inhabiting these areas. From the Danube to the Yellow River stretches a belt of steppes, turning into water-poor spaces of Inner Asia and barren deserts. In such natural conditions and with the level of development of productive forces that characterizes this era, outside the relatively small territory of oases, a nomadic way of life was the only possible one. Driving their numerous herds across vast areas, nomadic herders adapted to the natural conditions that surrounded them.

Particularly valuable for the nomads was the horse, which served them for movement across the vast steppe spaces, and also provided milk and meat. The cattle were kept exclusively for grazing. That is why the nomads were forced to make constant movements - annual transitions from winter to summer pastures and back. The death of livestock, the formation of deeper snow cover or crust in winter were natural disasters for the nomads; they threatened them with the loss of herds, hunger, and often led to armed clashes with their neighbors.

The ancient nomads of Central Asia were not homogeneous in terms of linguistic affiliation. They spoke Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu and Tibeto-Tangut languages. Most of these nomadic tribes of Asia in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e., when information about them first appears in written sources, it was at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system. On the one hand, they still retained their clan organization, on the other, slavery appeared, property stratification began among the free, and tribal nobility emerged. In conditions of nomadic life, tribal ownership of land is formed, primarily for winter and summer pastures.

The nomadic tribes of Central Asia were in constant struggle among themselves. Weaker tribes were forced out of better pastures by stronger and more warlike ones. Often nomads invaded territories with a settled population and subjugated them to their power. During the invasions, large tribal associations arose, sometimes turning into huge “powers” ​​of nomads.

Huns

The first large tribal association in Central Asia took shape at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. among the Huns. Soon after its emergence, it begins to influence neighboring countries - China and Central Asia.

Basic information about the life and socio-political system of the Huns is provided by Chinese sources. Of the archaeological sites, family burial grounds containing burials of both nobles and ordinary warriors are of particular importance for characterizing the life of the Huns. Such burial grounds are known from excavations in Mongolia (Noin-Ula) and Transbaikalia (Ilmovaya Pad, etc.). In recent years, excavations of settlements of the Hunnic period in Transbaikalia have begun (Ivolginskoe settlement, etc.).

The territory occupied by the Huns had a sharply continental climate. The hot summer, during which almost all the vegetation burned out, was accompanied by sandstorms, and the frosty winter - by snowstorms. In these vast areas, the Huns were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. They primarily bred horses, large and small cattle, as well as camels, donkeys and hinnies. Livestock was the main object of barter with the Chinese. Hunting also played a certain role in the Huns' economy. In the north, in the taiga, there lived hunting tribes dependent on the Huns; furs - one of the main products of their hunting - were sent as gifts to the Chinese emperors.

Along with this, in the country of the Huns, although to a very limited extent, there was agriculture associated with the sedentarization of part of the population in Northern Mongolia and Southern Siberia. According to Chinese sources, supported by archaeological data, the only crop that was known to the Huns was millet. It was probably sown by tuna fish near winter camps, and the workers in the fields were probably mostly prisoners of war. In addition, in the country of the Huns there was an agricultural population - immigrants from China; this population was subordinate to the Hunnic leaders and probably supplied them with agricultural products. Nevertheless, in general, agriculture was extremely poorly developed, and hunger strikes constantly occurred; Chinese chroniclers repeatedly report that China supplied the Huns with agricultural products.

Crafts developed well in the country of the Huns. Various household items were made from livestock products - wool, leather, bones, horns. There was also pottery production and metallurgy; In Transbaikalia, iron slags are found in Hunnic settlements. The Huns conducted a fairly lively barter trade with neighboring agricultural peoples, but often obtained what they lacked through robbery or collecting tribute from the vanquished.

The social system of the Huns can be defined as primitive communal at the stage of its decomposition. In the life of the Huns, tribal ties were of great importance, as evidenced by the presence of exogamy. In its structure, the “power of the Huns” was a union of 24 tribes, divided into two parts - eastern and western. Each tribe had its own territory, over which it roamed, making certain movements throughout the year. At the head of the tribes were leaders who gathered three times a year for advice and sacrifices; they exercised the supreme court, decided matters of war and peace, and approved a new common leader after the death of the old one. The head of the entire union, judging by the Chinese reproduction of this word, was called “Zenu”; only later the corresponding Chinese characters began to be pronounced “Shanyu”, as the Hunnic leaders are usually called in historical literature.

In the conditions of constant wars and raids, the process of property stratification was actively underway in the society of the Huns. Among the Hunnic burials, richer and poorer family cemeteries clearly stand out. The burials in Noin-Ula are especially rich; they were located near the headquarters of the Hunnic leaders and, perhaps, belonged to the very clan from which the Zen "u (Shanyu) of the Hunnic union came. In these tombs, large quantities of gold and silver, Chinese silk fabrics and lacquerware were found. Traces of property were observed inequality within family cemeteries (Ilmovaya Pad).

The most important factor in the decomposition of the primitive communal system was slavery. During wars and raids, mass enslavement of prisoners occurred. During the Huns' raids on China, prisoners were taken away each time, sometimes up to 40 thousand people. The tribal nobility, capturing the lion's share of prisoners, gained the opportunity to appropriate their surplus labor and thus continuously grew richer, thereby standing out from among their fellow tribesmen. Along with external sources of slavery, there were also internal ones: families of criminals were forced into slavery. Under the prevailing conditions, the Huns could not use a large number of slaves in their nomadic economy. Therefore, some of the slaves were planted on the ground; a dependent agricultural population gradually formed from them.

The emergence of the “Hun Power”

War played a huge role in the life of the Huns. The art of equestrian combat reached great heights among them. Cavalry detachments of the Huns flew howling at the enemy, usually from all four sides, showered him with clouds of arrows, and when they came close to the enemy, they used spears and swords. Rearmament at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd centuries played a significant role in the military successes of the Huns. BC e. The Hun army turned into heavy cavalry, whose riders wore armor. The military organization of the Huns also contributed to their victories. On the one hand, the presence of clan and tribal ties gave it an extraordinary strength, on the other hand, the Huns already had a division of the army into tens, hundreds and thousands.

The history of the “rise of the house of the Huns,” according to Chinese sources, is depicted in the following terms. In 206 BC. e. Mode, the son of the Hun leader Tuman, who had previously been a hostage of the Yuezhi tribe, killed his father and seized power over the Huns. Within a few years, he subjugated neighboring nomadic tribes and then moved against China. The Chinese army sent against the Huns was defeated. Mode forced the Chinese emperor to pay an annual tribute.

But even after this, the Huns’ raids on China did not stop. The tribes bordering China went over to the side of the Huns. China had to systematically

to pay off the Huns, but this did not always help. The Huns' raids on China were accompanied by terrible devastation.

As a result of the conquests, a huge territory came under the rule of the Hunnic Zen, stretching from Transbaikalia to Tibet and from East Turkestan (Xinjiang) to the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Its borders were uncertain, since individual regions and tribes either fell away from the Huns or were again conquered by them The core of the Hunnic tribal union consisted of Mongolian tribes, but along with this it included nomadic tribes of other origins: in the west - Turkic and even, probably, Iranian, in the north - Tungus-Manchurians. In the south of modern Siberia in the taiga zone, the Huns. as already indicated, a number of primitive agricultural and hunting tribes were subjugated. In the west, the nomadic Yuezhi and Wusun tribes were at one time under the rule of the Huns. The sedentary population of Xinjiang paid tribute to the Huns.

The Hunnic tribal union formed with incredible speed and covered vast areas, but internally it was very fragile. In the 20s of the II century. During the reign of Wu-da, the Chinese went on the offensive against the Huns, inflicted a series of defeats on them and captured Ordos (the area in the bend of the Yellow River). The Chinese create large mounted armies and penetrate far into the territory of the Huns.

The Chinese government used more than just weapons in the fight against the Huns. It organized uprisings of individual Hun leaders, staged court coups at the Shanyu headquarters, and even created a pro-Chinese group among the Hun nobility. China's advance to the northwest and west was accompanied by the consolidation of the territory conquered from the nomads by a chain of military settlements. The Huns were severely defeated in 119. As a result of the Chinese offensive, the settled population of Xinjiang emerged from subordination to the Huns and partially recognized the power of China. At the beginning of the 1st century. The Chinese finally managed to persuade them to break with the Huns and Wusun.

Usuni

The original place of settlement of the Wusun was part of the present Gansu province, where they lived interspersed with the Yuezhi. During one of the clashes with the Yuezhi, the Wusuns were defeated, and the bulk of the tribe retreated to the northwest.

In the 1st century BC e. The Wusun nomads were located between lakes Balkhash and Issyk-Kul, capturing both the grassy plains of Semirechye and the mountain pastures of the Tien Shan. In the country of the Wusun there was also a fairly significant settled agricultural population, consisting of slaves planted on the land. Crafts - weaving, leatherworking, blacksmithing, jewelry - were quite high among the Wusuns. Along with local artisans, there were also immigrants from China. Crafts, however, were not separated from agriculture. On the borders of their territory, the Wusuns exchanged with neighboring countries, and therefore objects from China and Iran are often found in the Wusun mounds.

Having moved to Semirechye, the Usuns mixed with the local population. Therefore, in the culture of the Wusuns, along with the elements they brought from their homeland, there were also those that went back to the ancient inhabitants of Semirechye and the valley of the Talas River (west of Semirechye) - the Sakas. This continuity is especially noticeable in the field of material culture.

In the process of resettlement of the Usun tribes to Semirechye, a union of tribes was formed, the head of which was called gunmo. Family ties continued to be of great importance. Despite the well-known remnants of matriarchy and the relatively free position of women, the patriarchal family dominated among the Wusuns.

The decay of the primitive communal system among the Wusuns has gone quite far. Like the Huns, the Wusuns resorted to the massive capture of slaves during wars. Slaves fell mainly into the hands of the tribal nobility, who, exploiting their labor, did everything; stood out more from the general mass of free people. Among the ordinary free population, the Wusuns had both nomads and farmers, while the nobility led an exclusively nomadic lifestyle. The most important form of wealth was livestock. Rich people had from 4 thousand to 5 thousand horses. Particularly vivid material about property differentiation among the Wusuns is provided by the contents of the Wusun burial mounds. Some of them, the most numerous, are the burials of ordinary free people, others are the burials of the nobility. The latter are located almost exclusively near wintering areas. The burial goods of mounds of this type include gold items, Greco-Bactrian plaques, and Chinese lacquer items.

Simultaneously with the development of elements of class society, the power of the leader of the tribal union was strengthened. It is known that the ruler in the 1st century. BC e. Gunmo Tsilimi ordered that no one dare graze cattle in his pastures. This is how the Wusuns began to develop royal ownership of the land.

The Usun tribal union was a major political force. At the turn of the 2nd and 1st centuries. The Chinese estimated the number of Wusun at 630 thousand people, and the number of their troops at 188,800 people.

In 115, the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian, who had previously visited the West, entered the Wusun country near Issyk-Kul and sent out scouts from there who reached Parthia and brought him numerous information about Western countries. The Usuns by this time had freed themselves from the rule of the Huns due to the weakening of the latter after the loss of East Turkestan. At the end of the 2nd century. There was an exchange of embassies between China and the Wusuns: the Chinese tried to persuade the Wusuns to join the fight against the Huns, but they did not dare to do so and continued to maintain an alliance with the Huns. The Usun ruler married a Chinese princess, but declared her his junior wife, while the eldest continued to be the daughter of the Hun Zen. Only in the 80s of the 1st century did the Wusuns leave the Hun union.

The break with the Huns first led to dire consequences for the Wusuns: in 75, the Huns inflicted a serious defeat on them, seized part of their land and drove away many prisoners. However, under Gunmo Unguymi (died in the late 60s of the 1st century BC), the Usun tribal union, in turn, launched an offensive against the Huns. As a result, the Wusuns extended their power to part of the territory of East Turkestan; depending on them, in particular, the Yarkand oasis turned out to be. In the middle of the 1st century. BC e. The Wusun tribal union, however, collapsed.

Collapse of the “Hun Power”

“Power of the Huns” after the loss of East Turkestan (Xinjiang) at the end of the 2nd century. began to decline. With their conquering successes, the Chinese undermined its economic basis, since the well-being of the Huns largely rested on the exploitation of rich agricultural oases, which they had now lost.

The pro-Chinese group that has emerged among the Hun aristocracy advocates an alliance with China and increased exploitation of the local agricultural population. In this regard, an attempt was made to build a city in the land of the Huns. Such a policy, however, caused discontent on the part of ordinary free people, since there was a threat for them to become dependent, along with the agricultural population, on their tribal aristocracy. Therefore, those of the aristocratic groups that insisted on continuing the raids on China enjoyed support in wide circles of the Hun free population. On the contrary, the pro-Chinese party reflected the interests of the slave-owning nobility and was not popular.

The consequence of this struggle was continuous court coups in the Hun headquarters, as each party sought to introduce its candidate to Zen. In an atmosphere of internal struggle and the Chinese offensive, uprisings of tribes dependent on the Huns began. In 68 BC. e. northern tribes were deposited. The loss of livestock that occurred at the same time, causing famine, reduced, according to Chinese news (possibly exaggerated), in two years (68-67) the number of the Huns by ten times. The beginning of the collapse of the “Hunnic power” led in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. to the split of the Huns, as a result of which two Hunnic tribal unions arose. The Huns, who lived in close proximity to China, recognized themselves as dependent on it. The bulk of the Huns moved to Central Kazakhstan north of the Syr Darya, thus coming into contact with the Kangyu tribes. Later, the Huns also appeared in the area of ​​the Aral and Caspian Seas and pushed the Alans who lived here to the west. This was the first impetus that subsequently set in motion huge masses of people, the beginning of that great process that significantly changed the ethnic and political face of both Central and Western Asia, and Europe - the beginning of the so-called great migration of peoples.

Voetochny urkestan

To the west of China, mainly in the Tarima River basin, the city-states of Eastern Turkestan were located. The time of their emergence is difficult to determine. In the 3rd century. BC e. they were under the rule of the Huns in the 2nd century. BC e. the penetration of the Chinese began, and from these holes the city-states of Eastern Turkestan either fell under the rule of China, then again became independent or temporarily found themselves dependent on the nomads. But the conquests, apparently, did not have a noticeable impact on the internal life of the population of the East Turkestan oases; His dependence was usually expressed in the payment of tribute.

The people of East Turkestan farmed small areas of alluvial soil along the Tarim and further north to the foothills of the Tien Shan in Dzungaria. By its ethnicity, it was associated with the ancient population of Central Asia, primarily Semirechye, i.e. with the Sakas. In the field of culture, numerous threads also connected the inhabitants of East Turkestan with the Sakas. The so-called Saka documents from Khotan, written in the Indian Karoshti script, allow us to conclude that the population of the western part of East Turkestan spoke an Indo-European language of the East Iranian group. Further to the northeast, in the region of Kuchi, Kashgar and Turfan, another language was in use, belonging to the Western group of Indo-European languages.

The city-states of Eastern Turkestan were important due to their mediating role between East and West: it was here, along the southern edge of the Tien Shan and the northern edge of Kunlun and Altyntag, along the foothills, where it was easier to find water, that ancient trade routes connected the Mediterranean, Parthia and Central Asia with China.

Fergata

From the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Chinese military campaigns begin in Central Asia, primarily in Fergana. There is no definite information about the position of Fzrgana during the existence of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. According to Chinese sources, in the second half of the 2nd century. Fergana was independent, its population spoke almost the same language as the population of Tokharistan, and therefore belonged to the Iranian language group.

Most of the population of Fergana lived sedentary and engaged in agriculture, but along with this there were also nomads. In Fergana, barley, rice, alfalfa, and grapes were grown; The Chinese were amazed at the high development of winemaking. Along with agriculture, cattle breeding was also developed. The local breed of horses, which were used in heavily armed cavalry, was especially famous.

The social system of Fergana resembled that of neighboring regions and was characterized, as far as can be judged, by the dominance of early slave-owning relations. The lack of its own minted coin indicates some backwardness of the country. The Chinese numbered about 70 cities in Fergana, but this number apparently included not only cities, but also fortified settlements of rural residents. Archaeological research on the territory of Fergana has revealed two types of settlements: communal settlements and single estates. There were also complexes of estates surrounded by a common wall.

In the second half of the 2nd century. Both peaceful relations and military clashes between Fergana and China begin. Around 128 BC e. Davan (as the Chinese called Fergana) was visited by the Chinese ambassador and traveler Zhang Qian. In 104, the Chinese invaded Fergana, but the campaign was unsuccessful for them. The Chinese unsuccessfully besieged fortified settlements and returned, having lost almost their entire army. In 102, a second campaign was organized. The Chinese besieged the city of Ershi, but this time they could not take it. True, they managed to conclude a beneficial agreement for themselves and install their supporter as ruler, and the residents of Ershi gave them several dozen “heavenly” horses and 3 thousand other horses as a ransom for lifting the siege.

Although the Chinese did not manage to gain a foothold in Fergana, as a result of these campaigns they established strong trade ties with the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean (“Great Silk Road”) and Central Asia. Chinese sources also contain information about the state of Kangyu, “located to the northwest of the Wusuns.”

Khorezm

Some researchers identify the Kangyu state with Khorezm. This point of view arose because Chinese sources until the early Middle Ages did not know Khorezm, known from ancient Persian and ancient sources. It is possible that “Kangyuy” of the Chinese chronicles is the name of the tribes that roamed northeast of Khorezm.

From the end of the 4th to the 2nd centuries. BC e. in Khorezm, fortified house arrays appear to replace old rural settlements. This is due to the beginning of the predominance of agriculture over cattle breeding and the expansion of the irrigation system. Along with such settlements, “cities” also appear, which are clusters of house arrays protected by a common wall. Such are, for example, the settlements of Dzhanbas-kala and Bazar-kala. Crafts are significantly developing, trade is growing, and economic ties between Khorezm and other countries are strengthening.

During this period, significant changes occurred in the military organization and tactics of the Khorezmians. The predominant branch of the army in Khorezm was cavalry. Until the end of the 4th century. BC e. it consisted of heavily armed horsemen, partly spearmen,

partly archers. This army, which successfully repelled the raids of the irregular cavalry of the nomads, turned out to be insufficiently effective when the Macedonian army appeared on the borders of Khorezm, the close formation of which - the Macedonian phalanx - could not be overcome even by the heavily armed cavalry of the Massagetae. In this regard, the two types of cataphracts (heavily armed horsemen) that previously existed separately in Khorezm merge: they become cavalry, armed simultaneously for both long-range and close combat. The tactics of this cavalry were to first disrupt the close formation of the enemy infantry with a hail of arrows, and then complete its defeat with hand-to-hand combat.

After the Macedonian conquest of Central Asia, Khorezm remained the only independent state here. The liberation movements that took place in the Central Asian satrapies of the Seleucid kingdom sought support in it. Thus, during the period of the fall of Parthia, the Arsacids oriented towards Khorezm. Even in the first half of the 2nd century. BC e. Khorezm's attack on Hellenistic Bactria begins. Around 170 BC e. Khorezm conquers Sogdiana, and a little later - Chach, which was not part of Bactria, otherwise Shash (Tashkent oasis).

In the second half of the 2nd century. The Khorezm state bordered on Parthia and Tokharistan in the south, Fergana in the southeast, and the nomadic Usuns in the east. In the north and west lived various nomadic tribes, partially dependent on Khorezm.

After the fall of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, the Khorezmian kings tended to consider themselves the heirs of the Hellenistic kings of Bactria. So, they begin to mint coins based on the model of the coins of Eucratides and with his name. The earliest Khorezmian coins are considered to be two silver coins of a nameless Khorezmian king from the end of the 1st century. BC e. The coins are equipped with the title Eucratis and a characteristic tamga, confirming their Khorezm origin.

Little is known about the social structure of Khorezm during this period (2nd century BC - 1st century AD). The nomadic tribes dependent on Khorezm were at the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system. There were some remnants of matriarchy in their life. The contents of the mounds indicate the presence of wealth inequality in their environment. The significant development of ceramic production suggests that some of these tribes led a semi-sedentary lifestyle. The settled population of Khorezm was apparently characterized by early slave-owning relations.

The most widespread type of religion in Khorezm during this period was the early forms of Zoroastrianism. In the cities there was a so-called “house of fire”, which was the center of the Zoroastrian cult. Intertwined with Zoroastrianism were the archaic cults of the goddess of fertility and waters Ardvisura-Anahita, closer to the peasantry, and her companion, the dying and resurrecting god of vegetation Siyavush. Among the nomadic population, the cults of the sky and celestial bodies, as well as the cult of ancestors, characteristic of almost all Central Asian nomads, were common.

Relations between Central Asian states and China

China's relations with the peoples and states of Central Asia are in many ways reminiscent of the relations of the Roman Empire with its neighbors in Central and Eastern Europe and Western Asia 100-200 years later. In terms of the degree of development of slave relations, China surpassed most of the agricultural regions of Central Asia, not to mention the nomads. The ruling circles of China sought to protect the borders of the empire from the raids of nomads. In addition, they were interested in capturing slaves, trading with Western countries and, to achieve all this, maintaining their influence in Central Asia. China conquered East Turkestan and more or less firmly subjugated the southern Huns to its influence, but it did not have the strength to do more. Therefore, China focused mainly on maintaining its influence through diplomacy.

With the help of gifts, bribery and other means, the Chinese ruling circles tried to win over the nobility of the nomadic tribes, staged palace coups, tried to influence the course of affairs through their ambassadors, with the help of hostages, etc. But China’s weak point in the fight against the nomads was extreme severity of social contradictions within the empire. The nomadic alliances, inferior to the Chinese in the technical equipment of the army, contrasted them with a cohesive military organization, which relied largely on the still strong tribal alliances. Still, the Chinese offensive was relatively successful at first, the lands closest to China were included in the empire, and even the more distant states of Central Asia at times recognized themselves, although for the most part only nominally, as dependent on China. Chinese influence undoubtedly contributed to the development of slave relations and the growth of civilization in the areas with which China came into contact.

Summary

The conquests of Alexander the Great, during which the Persian power, deprived of a strong foundation, collapsed, were the beginning of a wide colonization flow of Macedonians and Greeks to the East.

The “world monarchy,” which in an amazingly short time absorbed many countries and peoples into its borders, just as quickly disintegrated, giving way to new, Hellenistic states. The borders of the latter, in turn, were very unstable, changing depending on the military successes and defeats of the Hellenistic kings and dynasts. Endless wars and predatory weather, palace coups and military rebellions fill the entire three-century history of the Hellenistic states.

Behind the external side of these events were hidden complex, contradictory processes of socio-economic development and class struggle. The Hellenistic states of Western Asia and Egypt arose on the soil prepared by the centuries-old history of the peoples who lived here. Here, two paths of development of a slave-owning society crossed, associated with the difference in economic and political forms: the exploitation of the dependent population (laoi) and ancient slavery, supreme ownership of land and developing private property, the eastern monarchy and the Hellenic polis. On this basis, there is a gradual merging of the Greco-Macedonian and local slave owners and landowners, forming a single, “Hellenized” ruling class, despite the heterogeneity of its composition and origin.

One of the most important historical results of the creation of Hellenistic states was the expansion of the sphere of slave-owning relations of a developed type, and thereby the slave-owning economy designed for the market. Trade ties are strengthening and becoming more extensive. Sea and caravan routes stretch from the Mediterranean basin all the way to India and China. Trade and craft centers are moving to the East. On the periphery of the Hellenistic world (in Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Arabia) a number of new slave states emerged, which over time began to play an increasingly important role in the economic and political life of Western Asia and the Mediterranean.

New features marked the development of ideology and culture. Hellenistic culture is characterized by the further accumulation of knowledge, the rise of a number of branches of science and technology, new achievements of materialistic thought, associated primarily with the name of Epicurus, on the one hand, and the growing features of the general decline of the ancient worldview, the growth of religious and mystical sentiments, idealism in philosophy and individualism in art - on the other.

Following the short-term prosperity, a period of deep decline of the Hellenistic states began. All social contradictions are intensifying, the antagonism between slave owners and slaves, between the Hellenized nobility and the broad masses of the exploited population, between conquerors and parades of conquered countries. Weakened by mutual struggle and the growth of internal contradictions, the Hellenistic states can no longer keep peoples in subjection, are unable to carry out widespread expansion, provide the ruling classes with a trade monopoly and sustainable dominance over other countries.

All this ultimately made the Hellenistic states relatively easy prey for Rome, which, after defeating its main enemy - Carthage - became the hegemon of the Western Mediterranean, and then rushed to the East.

Within the Roman Empire, especially as a result of continuous wars of conquest, slavery reached its maximum development. Latifundia with hundreds and thousands of slaves are a widespread phenomenon both in Italy itself and in many Roman provinces. The exploitation of the slave reaches extreme intensity, and the cruelty of his treatment knows no bounds.

The enormous growth of slavery led in Rome, even on a larger scale than in Greece, to the ruin and pauperization of the broad masses of free producers who filled the ranks of the lumpen proletariat. The Roman Republic, based on the peasantry and with all its institutions adapted to the needs of a relatively small agrarian community, which was Rome at the beginning of its historical development, entered a period of inevitable and protracted political crisis.

The class struggle at this time acquired unprecedented scope and strength. From passive forms of struggle, slaves move on to open mass uprisings, in which free people also participate. Slave uprisings in Sicily and Italy shook the Roman state for half a century. They found a response both on the outskirts of the state (in Pergamon) and beyond. The slave movements were intertwined with the struggle between the aristocracy and the plebs, between Rome and the peoples subject to it. Uprisings of the tribes of Spain and Gaul more than once threatened Rome with the loss of the territories it had conquered.

To maintain their dominance, Roman slave owners were forced to look for new forms of suppressing the exploited masses and managing the huge power that had grown as a result of conquests. This new form was the Augustan Empire that replaced the republic.

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Their cultural identity was preserved in both the Achaemenid and Greco-Macedonian eras

Chronological framework of the history of ancient Central Asia

The wider the study of the past of Central Asia, the clearer the outstanding role of this region in the history of world culture becomes.

Golden bull's head. Altyn-Tepe. III millennium BC

The achievements of scientists, writers, artists, and architects of Central Asia during the Middle Ages have long been recognized, but only recently has it become clear that the foundation on which this brilliant civilization arose was the local cultures of antiquity. Parthia, Margiana, Khorezm, Sogd, Bactria, Chach, Fergana - the culture of all these ancient regions was practically unstudied a few decades ago, and was perceived by many historians as the distant periphery of Iran (“external Iran”), devoid of cultural originality. The discovery of the original cultures of ancient Central Asia raised the question of their origins, and again archeology gave the answer - the Central Asian civilization of the Bronze Age was discovered.

Currently, the periodization of the historical development of ancient Central Asia can be represented as follows:

• end of III - turn of II-I millennium BC - Bronze Age civilizations;
• turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC - the beginning of the Early Iron Age and the formation of a local class (slave-owning) society and statehood;
• VI century BC. - conquest of a significant part of Central Asia by the Achaemenids;
• end of the 4th century BC. - the conquests of Alexander the Great and the beginning of the Hellenistic era, the end of which in different regions falls at different times (in Parthia - the middle of the 3rd century BC, in Bactria - the 130s BC, etc. ). The subsequent period was the time of the formation of local statehood and the flourishing of the culture of the peoples of Central Asia within the framework of the emerging major powers, primarily Parthia and the Kushan kingdom.
• In the IV-V centuries. AD A crisis unfolds, marking the end of the slaveholding era and the beginning of the feudal era in the history of Central Asia.

Geographical conditions of Central Asia in ancient times

The civilizations of Central Asia arise in different historical and geographical regions. The natural conditions here are characterized by significant contrasts. Desert-steppe landscapes, and above all the Karakum and Kyzylkum deserts, are adjacent to fertile oases irrigated by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, a number of their tributaries and less significant water arteries. The high mountain ranges of the Tien Shan and Pamir are very unique. Under these conditions, in different ecological situations, the formation of cultures different in their appearance and methods of farming took place.

• The interaction of diverse cultures is one of the specific features of the ancient history of Central Asia.
• Another feature of the emergence of local civilizations here is the early and close connections with the ancient centers of other civilizations of the East, especially Western Asia.

The most ancient civilizations of Central Asia

Jeitun culture

These two main distinctive features clearly manifested themselves already in the initial stages of the history of the tribes and peoples of Central Asia. In the 6th millennium BC. In the southwest of Central Asia, on a narrow foothill plain between the Kopetdag ridge and the Karakum desert, the Dzheitun Neolithic culture developed. The Dzheitun tribes led a sedentary lifestyle, cultivated wheat and barley, and raised small livestock. The agricultural and pastoral economy ensured the rise of prosperity and the development of culture. The villages of the Dzheitun tribes consisted of durable adobe houses. The center of such a village was a large house - a communal sanctuary with walls decorated with paintings. The best preserved painting is in Pessedgic Depée, which depicts a hunting scene. A number of features in construction, pottery with simple painting and in other areas indicate close ties with the sedentary agricultural cultures of Iran and Mesopotamia, primarily with the Jarmo culture.

Bracelet from the Amudarya treasure. Gold, turquoise. V century BC.

In the V-IV millennium BC. There is further development of Central Asian agricultural and pastoral communities. They master copper smelting, begin to raise cattle, and then camels. Small canals are built to irrigate fields. This was the beginning of irrigation agriculture, which produced high yields.

Culture of Altyn-Depe

The process of economic and cultural development led to the formation of the first cities in the southwest of Central Asia and the formation of a proto-urban civilization. Its most studied monument is called Altyn-Depe (research by V. M. Masson). For the Altyn-Depe civilization, dating from approximately 2300-1900. BC, are characterized by some features inherent in the developed cultures of the ancient East. Its centers were two urban-type settlements - Altyn-Depe and Namazga-Depe. These “cities” were surrounded by fortified walls made of mud brick, and the gates leading into the built-up space were framed by powerful pylon towers.

The center of Altyn-Depe was a monumental religious complex with a four-stage tower. It included numerous vaults, the house of the chief priest and the tomb of the priestly community. During excavations in the tomb, a golden head of a bull was found with a turquoise insert on the forehead in the shape of a lunar disk. The entire temple complex was dedicated to the moon god, who in Mesopotamian mythology is often represented as a fiery bull. Another line of cultural connections leads to the Indus Valley, to cities and settlements. At Altyn-Depe, among the things placed in rich graves, and as part of treasures of valuable objects walled up in the walls, Harappan ivory items were found. Harappan type seals were also discovered there.

Based on excavation materials, three different social groups can be distinguished among the population of the cities of the Altyndepen civilization.

• Ordinary community members, artisans and farmers lived in multi-room houses consisting of cramped closets.
• The houses of the communal nobility are more respectable: in the tombs of wealthy community members, necklaces made of semi-precious stones, silver and bronze rings and seals were discovered.
• Property and social differentiation are more noticeable in the example of the third group of the population - leaders and priests. Their large houses had a regular layout and occupied an area of ​​80-100 square meters. m.

The tombs, located in the “noble quarter,” contained a variety of jewelry, including gold and silver. Ivory items were also found here, obviously imported. Perhaps slave labor was already used in the economy of the nobility. It is possible that the latter belong to burials devoid of any objects and located near rich tombs.

Successors of the Altyn-Depe civilization in the Murghab delta

In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. the suburban settlements of this ancient civilization of Central Asia are declining and the main centers are moving to the east. In the river delta Murgab, along the middle reaches of the Amu Darya, new oases of settled farmers are emerging. A number of fortified settlements of ancient communities have been excavated along the middle reaches of the Amu Darya, but no large settlements have yet been discovered. The settlements are fortified with walls and towers, and military weapons made of bronze are widely distributed. This perhaps indicates constant wars. Many cultural features allow us to conditionally consider the inhabitants of these oases as direct descendants of the creators of the Altyn-Depe civilization, but at the same time, their culture contains a number of new, fundamentally different phenomena.

These are, in particular, flat stone seals, which depict with extraordinary skill dramatic scenes of fights between bulls and dragons, snakes attacking a tiger, and a mythological hero defeating wild beasts. Some of the images depicted on them indicate strengthening ties with and Elam, the cultural influence of which is constantly increasing. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the south of Central Asia was a zone of highly developed cultures of the ancient Eastern type.

Akinaka scabbard with the image of a lion and a deer. Ivory, carving, engraving. VI - early V centuries. BC.

Simultaneously with the creation of new oases in the south of Central Asia, tribes of steppe pastoralists settled in the northern regions. In the peculiar conditions of interaction between the steppe inhabitants of the north and settled farmers of the south, the process of development of class relations and the formation of the state in Central Asia proceeded intensively. Technical progress at this time was primarily associated with the spread of iron. In the X-VII centuries. BC. iron products appear in the south of Central Asia, and from the VI-IV centuries. BC. iron is widely used for the manufacture of tools throughout its territory. Complex irrigation systems are being created in the south-eastern Caspian region and in the Murghab delta. The consequence of this is the gradual complication of the social structure of society, which is expressed in the creation of an oasis settlement system (which presupposes the existence of a clear system for managing the labor efforts of society within the oasis), as well as the emergence of various types of settlements. In particular, the centers of oases were large settlements with citadels located on powerful platforms built of mud brick. The citadels contained monumental palaces of rulers. Such, for example, is the Yaz-Depe settlement excavated by archaeologists in the Murgab delta, in ancient Margiana.

A culture of a similar type was widespread in the territory of Bactria and, as recent archaeological research has shown, also in the valleys of Zeravshan and Kashkadarya, that is, in the territory of the country that in ancient times was called Sogd.

Central Asia as part of the Achaemenid Empire

When Central Asia partially became part of the Achaemenid state, the Achaemenids faced fierce opposition from a powerful alliance of nomadic tribes, which in ancient sources are called Massagetae.

Ultimately, the main areas inhabited by the nomads remained independent, but the main sedentary oases became part of the Achaemenid power and were united into several satrapies. The Bactrian satrapy, probably one of the most important, was often headed by a member of the ruling Achaemenid dynasty. Satrapies paid taxes to the central government and supplied military contingents; the local aristocracy became an intermediary in carrying out such events. This contributed to increased social differentiation and growing class contradictions. Thus, upon the accession of Darius I to the throne in 522 BC. uprisings and separatist movements swept the state, including Central Asia. The clashes were especially fierce in Margiana.

King Darius in the Behistun inscription says: “The country of Margiana has become rebellious. They made one man named Frada, a Margian, (their) leader. After this, I sent (a messenger) to a Persian named Dadarshish, my servant, satrap in Bactria, (and) told him this: “Go, defeat the army that does not call itself mine.” Then Dadarshish went with an army and gave battle to the Margians.".

The decisive battle took place on December 10, 522 BC. In it the Margians were defeated. In the battle, 55,243 people were killed and 6,972 of the rebels were captured. The report on the number of dead and prisoners clearly shows that the uprising in Margiana was truly popular.

Since the 5th century. BC. A period of relative calm ensued. Cities developed, of which Marakanda, the capital of Sogd, located in the Zeravshan valley (on the site of modern Samarkand), became a major center. Crafts are achieving significant development, and regular international trade is being established. One of the most popular was the route through Bactria to India. Although local features remain basic, strengthening ties with other countries leads to the emergence of foreign traditions. Following the canons of the imperial capital - Persepolis, local rulers build monumental palace buildings. Such a palace, for example, was discovered at the Kalalygyr site in Khorezm. The building was almost completely constructed (obviously at the turn of the 5th-4th centuries BC), but was not inhabited because the political situation had changed. Khorezm achieved independence, and the residence in which the representative of the Achaemenid administration was supposed to settle was abandoned.

Conquest of Central Asia by Alexander the Great

Sew-on badge with a woman's head. Silver, casting, chasing. Takhtit-Sangin. II-I century BC.

The weakening Achaemenid Empire suffered a crushing defeat from the army of Alexander the Great, but the successful commander had to defend his conquests by force, and perhaps the greatest difficulties arose in Central Asia. The last Achaemenid satrap of Bactria, Bessus, hastened to declare himself the “king of Asia” and tried to create a new state on the basis of the eastern satrapies. However, when the Greek-Macedonian troops approached, Bess fled and was soon handed over to Alexander by his own comrades. The Greek-Macedonians encountered serious resistance in Sogd, where uprisings of the masses under the leadership of the energetic representative of the Sogdian nobility Spitamen shook the country for almost three years (329-327 BC). Alexander the Great suppressed this popular movement with brutal methods. According to sources, 70 thousand Sogdians were killed.

Alexander included Sogdian and Bactrian contingents in his army, and his marriage to Roxana, daughter of the noble Bactrian Oxyartes, was as much a romantic as it was a political act. Much attention was also paid to urban planning - cities were founded in Bactria, Sogd and Parthia (regions of modern Southern Turkmenistan and northeastern Iran), which received the name Alexandria.

Seleucid rule

Votive altar with a sculpture of Silenus. Stone, bronze. On the altar there is an inscription in ancient Greek. Takhti-Sangin. II century BC.

After the death of Alexander the Great, Central Asia became part of one of the states that emerged on the ruins of a new empire that never had time to strengthen. This was the Seleucid state, which around 305 BC. extended its power to Bactria. The early Seleucid kings viewed the eastern part of their empire as a very important region and sought to increase its economic potential and strengthen their control over it. The son and heir of the founder of the state, Seleucus, Antiochus, had to implement this policy. In 292 BC. he was appointed co-ruler of his father with the transfer to his control of the satrapies lying east of the Euphrates. Baktra (Balkh) became the capital of his governorship. Antiochus energetically set about restoring the economy. In Margiana, he rebuilt the capital of the region, which received the name Antioch of Margiana, and the entire oasis was surrounded by a 250 km long wall in order to protect it from the raids of nomads.

Under Antiochus, silver coins were minted in Bactria. Central Asia has entered a period of relative stabilization. However, as under the Achaemenids and Alexander the Great, political power was alien to the majority of the local population. The trend towards political independence further intensified with the rise of the local economy. And the Seleucids considered the eastern satrapies only as a source of new forces and means for the wars they waged in the west. The combination of the most diverse interests and aspirations led to the creation of independent states in Central Asia. Around 250 BC Bactrian satrap Diodotus declared himself an independent ruler. Almost simultaneously, Parthia fell away from the Seleucids.

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

It occupied a special place among the independent Central Asian states. The typical Hellenistic structure of society was preserved here - power belonged to the conquerors: the Greeks and Macedonians. Until recently, there was almost no archaeological material to judge the culture of this unique state formation. However, in 1964, a large Greco-Bactrian city was discovered - the site of Ai-Khanum (in the territory of modern Afghanistan), the materials of which made it possible to obtain a clear understanding of many features of the Greco-Bactrian culture.

Interesting monuments of Greco-Bactrian culture were also discovered in Tajikistan. This is primarily the site of Saxonhur. In its center there was a large palace complex, a kind of smaller copy of the palace in Ai-Khanum. Even more convincing are the finds made at the site of Takhti-Sangin (Stone Settlement). A temple was discovered here, built according to the canons of “Iranian” sacred architecture: a square cella, surrounded by corridors, with four columns in the cella. A significant number of magnificent works of art were found - believers brought them to the temple as donations. Among them are ceremonial weapons and statues; the first is in most cases of a purely Greek character, with reliefs of exceptional beauty. A small altar was also found here with a bronze figurine of Silenus Marsyas and a Greek inscription on it - a dedication to the god of the Oka River.

Based on all available sources, it can be argued that in the 80s. II century BC. The Greeks of Bactria began to move south - crossed the Hindu Kush and began to conquer the regions of India. But at the same time, another political event occurred that had important consequences - the military leader Eucratides rebelled against the legitimate kings of the Euthydemus dynasty. It is in the interaction of these trends - the gradual expansion of the possessions of the Greco-Bactrians on the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent and the constant fragmentation of the once united state into separate small possessions - that the entire further history of Greco-Bactria unfolds.

Parthian power

Head of a Hellenistic ruler. Clay, alabaster with polychrome coloring. Takhti-Sangin. II century BC.

Unlike the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, the history of Parthia took a different path. Initially, the independence of Parthia from the Seleucids was proclaimed, as was the case in Bactria, by a local satrap named Andragoras. But soon the country was captured by tribes roaming nearby, whose leader Arshak in 247 BC. took the royal title. Based on the name of the founder of the dynasty, subsequent rulers of Parthia adopted the name Arshak as their throne name. Initially, the new state was relatively small and united, in addition to Parthia itself, neighboring Hyrcania, a region in the southeast of the Caspian Sea. But already under Mithridates I (171-138 BC) active expansion to the west began, all the way to Mesopotamia. Parthia becomes a world power. The ancient metropolis, now located in the northeast of the Parthian state, retained its significance only as one of its centers.

In the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Central Asia has experienced serious events. The movement of nomadic tribes led to the death of Greco-Bactria and almost destroyed Parthia. In a difficult struggle with the nomads, two Parthian kings fell, and only under Mithridates II (123-87 BC) this threat was localized, and the invading tribes were given the province of Sakastan (modern Sistan) for settlement. Having become involved in a protracted confrontation with Rome, Parthia often suffered military and political defeats in the fight against an experienced and strong rival, who also laid claim to supremacy in Western Asia.

From the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. AD There is a weakening of the Parthian state, accompanied by an increase in the independence of individual provinces, headed by members of the Arsacid clan or representatives of other noble Parthian families. Hyrcania, striving for independence, sends its ambassadors directly to Rome; A special dynasty is established in Margiana, the first representative of which, named Sanabar, refers to himself on coins with the same title as the ruling Arsacid - “king of kings.” Perhaps the power of the Margian ruler extended to the territory of Parthia proper, or Parthiena. In the 20s Arsacid Parthia completely loses its independence under the blows of the founder of the new powerful dynasty, Artashir Sassanid.

Riton. Ivory. Nisa. II century BC.

Economy and social structure of Parthia

For a number of regions of Central Asia, the Parthian period was a time of intensive development of urban life, the rise of handicraft production and the expansion of the sphere of monetary circulation. In Parthiena itself, the most famous city was Nisa, the ruins of which are located near modern Ashgabat. Near the city proper were the royal residence and tomb of the elder Arsacids. Many years of excavations by Soviet archaeologists have revealed remarkable architectural monuments, sculptures and, as already noted, the Parthian archive - the famous Soviet orientalists V. A. Livshits and I. M. Dyakonov are studying it. About 2 thousand documents of primary economic reporting of the royal economy were discovered. Thanks to the documents found, new data was obtained about the administrative structure of the Parthian kingdom, the taxation system and land use. Of great interest is the analysis of numerous names and the calendar system. One of the shards represents a “memoir” about the king’s accession to the throne. The study of these documents made it possible to reconstruct the “family tree” of the first Arsacids.

The social structure of Parthia was decisively influenced by its conquest by the Parni nomads. The nomads made the local settled population dependent, which, according to ancient evidence, was “between slavery and freedom.” The peasants of Parthia, united in communities, were attached to the land, the cultivation of which was considered by them as a state duty. They had to pay significant taxes. Slave labor played a major role in the economy. The existing management system required clear operation of the administrative and fiscal apparatus, as evidenced, in particular, by the Nisi economic documents. They carefully recorded in-kind income from communal lands, temple and state farms.

Culture of Parthia

The Parthian culture is a most peculiar phenomenon. The synthesis of local and Greek principles is manifested in it much more strongly than in the culture of Greco-Bactria. Excavations carried out in the sacred center of Parthia, at the site of Old Nisa (it was called Mithridatokert, which meant “built by Mithridates”), clearly highlighted this feature of Parthian culture. The buildings erected here typologically reflect either Iranian or even more ancient traditions. A typical example is the so-called square hall, which is a typical Iranian “fire temple” in design.

Silver coin with a portrait of Demetrius. First half of the 2nd century. BC.

The "round temple" dates back to very ancient concepts of funerary architecture. This building has a unique layout, which is a combination of a circle and a square: the interior is round in plan, while the exterior is square. However, all the buildings of Old Nisa bear obvious features of the influence of Hellenic architecture. Their decor constantly contains elements of the Greek order, although they are used not in the same way as was done in the Greek world, but only to enliven the interior. A particularly interesting new feature in the architecture of Parthia is the desire for vertical development of the interior, dividing the internal space of the building into a number of tiers.

The sculpture of Mithridatokert is also striking in its diversity. Small marble sculptures brought from the Mediterranean, most likely from Alexandria, were found here. Particularly famous is the statue depicting Aphrodite (the so-called Rodogune), an example of early Hellenistic sculpture, as well as the majestic statue of a woman, made in an archaic manner. Along with marble sculpture, clay fragments were also found in Old Nisa. Some of them are presented in the generalized manner that is characteristic of the Central Asian school of the first centuries of our era, some were created under Greek influence, and perhaps even by the Greeks themselves.

Buterol with the image of the Hippocampess. Ivory. Takhti-Sangin. II century BC.

Remarkable examples of Hellenistic art are the ivory rhytons found during excavations of the treasury of Mithridathokert. The treasury in its structure resembles the Ai-Khanum treasury (unfortunately, both of them were plundered in ancient times). However, during the excavations, things were found that were not taken by the robbers. Among them are the already mentioned marble statues, rhytons, a number of fragments from state furniture, small silver gilded figurines depicting Athena, Eros and other gods.

One of the most striking features of Parthian culture is the clear gap in the level of culture between the large urban centers and the village (district). Studies of rural settlements in the Kopetdag foothills conducted in recent years have shown that community members lived in very simple, small-sized dwellings made of adobe, devoid of even the slightest decorative elements. In everyday life they used simple ceramics. Not a single work of art has yet been found in any of these settlements.

Thanks to excavations and research of Parthian documents, it is possible to trace the gradual strengthening of the role of Zoroastrian beliefs in the spiritual life of Parthia. As the Nisians have shown, the Zoroastrian calendar was used in Parthia, and there are many names associated with the Zoroastrian tradition. Gradually, Greek inscriptions on coins were replaced by Parthian ones, and Zoroastrian religious symbols began to appear on them. In later tradition, information has been preserved that under King Vologeses (Valarsha) the first codification of the Avesta was carried out.

Scene in the garden. Ivory, carving. Takhti-Sangin. First centuries AD

Culture of Margiana

The culture of Margiana in the first centuries AD was quite different from the culture of Parthiena. The most striking difference is that in Margiana small terracotta figurines were popular, apparently representing the deities of the local pantheon, while in Parthiena there are no such figurines. The most common were images of female deities, and in the first centuries of our era there was a significant transition from types inspired by the pictorial canons of Hellenism (a naked goddess depicted in a free pose) to more hieratic types: a motionless, straight body, clothes richly decorated with stripes, a majestic face . Gradually, however, the quality of reproductions deteriorates, and the figurines degenerate into purely handicraft products.

The second feature of the historical and cultural development of Margiana is the more complex nature of religious life than in Parthiena. Zoroastrianism dominated here (a typically Zoroastrian necropolis was explored by archaeologists near Munon-Depe). Buddhism also began to penetrate here in the first centuries of our era. At the very end of the Parthian period, a Buddhist stupa was built within the city walls of Merv (Gyaur-Kala settlement). The culture of Margiana, as in earlier times, gravitated more toward the culture of Bactria than of Parthiena.

Kushan Kingdom (on the territory of Bactria)

The history of Bactria after the fall of the power of the Greeks and the conquest by nomads (40s of the 2nd century BC) conditionally “breaks up” into two stages. Initially, several small estates existed on its territory, created by the leaders of nomadic tribes. These yesterday's nomads quite soon adopted the traditions of sedentary culture and proved themselves to be zealous owners. They in the 1st century. BC. New canals are being built on the territory of Bactria, agricultural oases are being created, and cities are being built. Soon one of these rulers, named Geray, placed his image in the form of an armed horseman on large silver coins and accompanied it with an inscription written in the Greek alphabet, as if symbolizing the connection of two principles - the traditions of the nomadic steppe and the Hellenistic statehood. Even more indicative is the very name of this ruler - he calls himself a Kushan. The further growth of this small possession of Geray ultimately led to the creation of the Kushan state. This marked the beginning of the second stage in the history of Bactria - already as part of the Kushan kingdom.

Airtam frieze. I-II centuries AD

Its founder was Kadphises I, who subjugated four small principalities located on the territory of Bactria. As a result, all of Bactria found itself united under the rule of a new ruler, who took the pompous title of “king of kings.” These events presumably occurred in the 1st century. n. e. The new power turned its gaze to traditional routes to the south, beyond the Hindu Kush, where Kadphises I managed to establish himself in a number of areas. The issuance of coins with Indian inscriptions shows that his dominion included the Indian population. Under Kadphises I, the center of the Kushan state was Bactria, the capital most likely being the city of Bactras. Further expansion of the Kushan borders occurred under the son and successor of the founder of the state, Kadphises II. He annexed a significant part of northwestern India to the Kushan Empire.

Kanishka received the greatest fame among the Kushan rulers, but there are significant differences among researchers regarding the time of his reign. The main center of the Kushan state moves towards Indian possessions. The capital of the state was the city of Purushapura (modern Peshawer).

Loss of independence

Later, the Kushans were defeated in a clash with the Sasanian state, which replaced Parthia. The events of the mid-4th century were especially important. AD, when Sasanian troops invaded the territory of Bactria, and Sasanian governors in the East bore the titles of “King of the Kushans” or even “Great King of the Kushans.” Such was the decline of the once mighty empire. Individual Kushan possessions remained independent, but a single Kushan state, stretching its borders from the Ganges to the Amu Darya, no longer existed.

Head of a man. Fresco from Fayaz Tepe. II-IV centuries AD

Economics and trade

The Kushans inherited many traditions of Bactrian culture, including material ones. The basis of the economy was irrigated agriculture, the intensive development of trade and crafts contributed to the further rise of urban life, and monetary relations became increasingly important in trade.

Kushan cities formed an entire system connected by roads and caravan routes. One of the first places was occupied by trade relations with Western countries - the Roman Empire, and above all with its eastern provinces. This trade was carried out both by land and by sea - through the western ports of Hindustan. The land road went north through the Fergana Valley to China. A variety of goods were transported along these trade routes. Spices, incense, precious stones, ivory, and sugar were brought to Rome. Trade in rice and cotton products was especially important. Silk, leather and other products were delivered in transit from China. The largest international trade artery of that time was sometimes even called the Great Silk Road. Fabrics and clothing tailored to local tastes, glassware and precious metals, statues and various wines were delivered from Rome. Gold and silver Roman coins were imported in large quantities.

Culture

Perhaps the most significant achievement of the Kushan time was the high level of culture. In the Kushan culture (with all its local and temporal differences), the achievements of the local civilization of the ancient Eastern type, the best traditions of Hellenistic culture, the sophistication of Indian art and a special style brought by nomadic tribes from the vastness of Asia were fused in creative unity. The initial stage of this synthetic Kushan art is well represented by materials from the burials of the nobility discovered by Soviet archaeologists in Southern Bactria at the settlement of Tillya-Tepe (modern Afghanistan).

Part of the sculptural composition. Toprak-Kala. III-IV centuries AD

Several artistic traditions that influenced early Kushan culture can be traced here. Thus, the plots and manner of execution of scenes of fierce confrontation between animals, grappling in a randomly woven ball, animal figures full of intense expression, winged dragons introduce us to the world of artistic culture of the nomadic tribes of Asia, echoing works of Sarmatian art. Another group of subjects represents a purely ancient line. Many of the images are complex and cannot yet be properly interpreted. Perhaps they reproduce local, Bactrian images, appearing in combination with Hellenistic and Indian gaps. Based on the finds of coins, the burials can be dated back to the 1st century. BC. - first half of the 1st century. AD

Apparently, Khalchayan, which was the dynastic center of one of the nomadic possessions in the north of Bactria, dates back to approximately the same time (research by G. A. Pugachenkova). The sculptural decoration of this complex essentially has only one theme - the glorification of the local dynasty. The traditions of Hellenistic art are still extremely strong here, but the theme is completely new, inspired by the ideas of the emerging monarchical concept of power. In individual sculptures, individual portrait features are felt, but without revealing the inner world of the character. Before us is the early stage of cultural integration, the origins of the remarkable Kushan culture. The Kushan cities became carriers of new cultural standards, providing a stable set from household utensils to religious objects. The kind of urbanized culture that is emerging in them penetrates, just like monetary relations, into rural settlements.

Head of the statue. Clay. Gyaur-Kala. II-III centuries AD

Spread of Buddhism

During the Kushan period, Buddhism became widespread in Bactria. Monuments, as a rule, are lavishly decorated with sculptures, reliefs and paintings. The Buddhist cave monastery Kara-Tepe was excavated near Termez (excavations by B. Ya. Stavisky). There were a number of open-type buildings and cave cells. Another monastery, also located in the Termez district, Fayaz-Tepe (research by P.I. Albaum), on the contrary, is completely above ground. Its central part is formed by a courtyard, along the perimeter of which there were cells and chapels, and in the center there was a hall of general meetings. Fayaz Tepe is richly decorated with painted clay sculpture and paintings, in which the figures of donors are clearly influenced by Hellenistic portraiture. A Buddhist shrine with a plaster sculpture has been opened in the suburb of Dalverzin.

Of great interest are the inscriptions from Kara-Tepe and Fayaz-Tepe written in Brahmi and Kharosthi script. They are written in Prakita - the so-called Central Indian language. A study of the inscriptions conducted by Soviet scientists and the Hungarian scientist J. Harmatta showed that they mention the names of various Buddhist schools.

The Kushan rulers, while patronizing Buddhism, also sought to establish the authority of secular power. Such a monument of dynastic cult is the sanctuary of Surkh Kotal, located in Northern Afghanistan south of Puli Khumri. The main temple with the fire altar was located on a high hill, fortified by a fortress wall. A multi-step staircase led upstairs. The inscription found here also gives the name of the entire complex - Temple of Kanishka the Victorious. Perhaps, on the territory of Northern Bactria, Ayrtam was a similar monument, where back in the 30s. XX century stone reliefs similar in style to Gandhara sculpture were accidentally found. During archaeological research, a stone slab with a fragmented inscription was discovered here.

Folk beliefs

Along with official cultures and religions, local folk beliefs also existed in the Kushan state. The most interesting monuments associated with these ideas are the numerous terracotta figurines found both in cities and in rural settlements. Another characteristic feature of mass folk culture is terracotta figurines of horsemen, or even simply saddled horses, as a kind of memory of the founders of the Kushan state and a symbol of one of the foundations of its armed forces.

Sogdiana

Fresco. Penjikent. VI century AD

Kushan cultural standards had a significant influence on neighboring countries and peoples. This, in particular, is observed in another important region of ancient Central Asia - Sogd, which included fertile oases in the valleys of Kashkadarya and Zeravshan. Sogd, apparently, was included in the Seleucid Empire of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. In its capital Marakanda, the ruins of which are known as Afrasiab, located on the outskirts of modern Samarkand, fortress walls and other structures of that distant time have been discovered. The influence of Greek images is visible in the culture.

For judging various aspects of Sogdian life, “old Sogdian letters” are of great interest - documents originating from the Sogdian colonies of East Turkestan. They are written in Sogdian using Aramaic script. Despite the difficulties of reading them, caused by poor preservation, they carry information about the social culture of Sogdian society (mentioned, for example, “free - noble”), about the position of women in society, economic activities, etc. In the 80s. XX century Soviet scientists have done a lot to study the Sogdian culture of the first centuries of our era. At the site of Er-Kurgan, a ruler's palace of very significant size (120×90 m), erected on a powerful platform made of mud brick, was excavated.

Khorezm

Ruler's head. Toprak-Kala. III-IV centuries AD

Khorezm, located in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, occupied a special position in the ancient history of Central Asia. This country dates back to the 4th century. BC. separated from the Achaemenid state, and the Khorezmian king Pharasman in 329-328. BC. came to Alexander the Great for negotiations. Even then, a developed urban culture existed in Khorezm. Soon, perhaps during the advance of nomadic alliances to the south, towards Parthia and Greco-Bactria, Khorezm fell under the rule of nomadic tribes. It is interesting that when in the 1st century. AD The first local coins are issued, on their reverse side there is already an image of the ruler on a horse.

A typical urban center of ancient Khorezm is the site of Toprak-Kala, excavations of which have been carried out by modern scientists for several decades. Its most important part was the citadel on a brick platform many meters high. There was a palace complex with state halls and a number of ancillary buildings here. The halls are richly decorated with paintings and clay sculptures. Along with the influence of the traditions of the Hellenistic art school, one can see here the influence of Kushan standards, and in the reliefs depicting grazing deer - even the influence of direct connections with the culture of nomadic tribes.

The city has a clear layout, longitudinal and transverse streets divide the space inside the rectangle of the city walls into regular blocks, which in turn consist of individual households. In the palace complex, economic documents were found written in Aramaic writing, this time adapted to the Khorezm language. In total, more than a hundred documents on parchment and 18 on wood were discovered. In them, in particular, a record is given of the members of “family houses” (apparently large-family communities) who occupied individual households in the Toprak-Kalina neighborhoods. The number of such communities ranged from 20 to 40 people. There were also domestic slaves here, and their number was quite large - up to 12 people were counted in individual households.

Achievements of the civilizations of Central Asia

Inscription in Brahmi. Kara-Tepe.

The main achievements of ancient Central Asian civilization were associated with the development of specific local cultures - Bactrian, Parthian, Sogdian and Khorezmian. It is possible that within these regions there was a process of consolidation of ancient ethnic groups into separate nationalities - Bactrian, Parthian, Sogdian and Khorezmian. In the IV-V centuries. AD The main urban centers in all areas are falling into disrepair, replaced by fortified manors and castles. Historians believe that these changes were associated not only with the invasion of nomadic tribes - the Chionites and Hephthalites, but also with the internal crisis of ancient urban civilizations.

The cultural heritage of ancient eras had a noticeable impact on the subsequent development of Central Asian civilization. Many achievements in the field of material and spiritual culture have been preserved and developed over the centuries.

The remarkable achievements of medieval Central Asian astronomy apparently had their distant origin in those observations that were made in such structures as the Khorezm Koykrylgan-kala, which served both as a temple for the mortuary cult and as a primitive observatory. The flowering of medieval literature was prepared by ancient epic creativity. In particular, apparently, the plot of the popular cycle “Vis and Ramin” was born in Merv. The epic tales of the Parthian era became the basis of many later cycles. Thousands of threads connect the fine arts of Central Asia of the ancient and early medieval eras. The continuity of tradition despite all the changes caused by new historical conditions is also felt in the work of architects.

The impact of the ancient civilization of Central Asia on other regions of the ancient East and on the ancient world was significant.

Traces of human activity on the territory of Western Asia date back to the most ancient archaeological era - the Early Paleolithic. In Syria and Palestine, tools of the Shellian and Angelic types were found; Acheulian settlements were discovered in the caves of Et-Tabun, on Mount Carmel and Umm Qatafa, to the south-east. from Jerusalem.

The next period, the Mousterian era, includes finds in Iraq and Palestine of the bone remains of Neanderthal man. Thus, on Mount Carmel, in the caves of Et-Tabun and Es-Skhul, the remains of twelve skeletons were discovered. Paleolithic tools have also been discovered in Asia Minor and Upper Mesopotamia.

Excavations of the El Wad Cave (Mount Carmel) in one of the layers yielded remains of flint objects and animal bones that were dated to the late Mesolithic. This is the so-called Natufian culture of hunters and fishermen, in whose economy the beginnings of primitive agriculture are already observed.

Neolithic monuments are even more widespread in Western Asia. In addition to Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine, they are found in Asia Minor and Iran. Here we should mention an agricultural settlement near Persepolis (Iran), the settlements of Tell Hassun and Tell Halaf (Syria), etc., which are characterized by the presence in their inventory of beautiful painted dishes in combination with stone tools.

During the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, Western Asian agricultural cultures found their further development. Painted ceramics still occupy a large place in their inventory; a number of objects are made of flint, but many tools are made of metal (copper or bronze) 2.

Very favorable conditions for the development of sedentary life, agriculture and cattle breeding in ancient times developed in Southern Mesopotamia. The oldest settlements appeared here at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. e., in the late Neolithic and Eneolithic eras. The population, which was still at the stage of primitive communal relations, was engaged in hunting and fishing, but gradually moved on to agriculture and cattle breeding. The first domestic animals were domesticated - sheep, goats, pigs. The population built their villages on islands among swamps, on artificial earthen embankments; By draining the swamps, it created the most ancient system of artificial irrigation. Along with the widespread stone tools, the first copper tools appeared.

Archaic monuments of Southern Mesopotamia dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e., according to the location of the most typical finds, it is customary to divide into three periods that followed one after another: the cultures of El Obeid, Uruka and Jemdet Nasr. During these three periods, the economic and cultural development of the society of Lower Mesopotamia went far ahead. The settlement of the Mesopotamian lowland ended, agriculture achieved significant progress - barley and wheat were mastered, the ox and donkey were tamed, crafts developed, exchanges began with neighboring regions, wheeled and river transport appeared.

The growth of productive forces, division of labor, and accumulation of wealth created the preconditions for the disintegration of the primitive communal system and the emergence of a class slave-owning society. By the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The first slave-holding states arose in Mesopotamia and adjacent areas. Later, due to the same socio-economic processes, class slave-owning societies developed in other regions of Western Asia - Asia Minor, Syria, southern Arabia.

The ancient population of Western Asia was very diverse culturally and linguistically. In the conditions of the eastern slaveholding society, when the tribal associations of the settled population were already largely destroyed, and state borders were highly unstable, ethnic communities were, as a rule, unstable and the boundaries of the distribution of cultural and linguistic characteristics often did not coincide. Linguistic communities were determined primarily by previous tribal settlement, changing as a result of cultural interaction, conquest, forced relocations, etc. As for the less developed tribes of the periphery, who still lived under the conditions of a primitive communal system, for them the main ethnic unit was a tribe or association tribes, characterized by commonality of government, territory and dialect, as well as an endogamous structure and the consciousness of real or imagined consanguinity. Close or related tribes were united by similar features of culture and language.

Solving the problems of ethnogenesis of the modern peoples of Western Asia, based on the ethnic composition of the ancient world, is a very difficult matter. It requires the involvement and integrated use of a variety of materials - anthropological, archaeological, ethnographic, linguistic. When considering the ethnic composition of ancient Western Asia, the linguistic feature is taken as a basis, as it is more clearly distinguishable.

Languageclassification

The linguistic classification of the ancient peoples of Western Asia is complicated by insufficient familiarity with their languages. While some ancient peoples left a large number of written monuments accessible to scientific study, only isolated fragments remained from the languages ​​of other peoples. All that remains of many peoples are their names, often not even self-names, but names given to them by other peoples. All this causes controversy and often makes it impossible to attribute one or another people to a certain linguistic group.

We can speak with sufficient certainty about two large linguistic groups of the ancient world, each of which unites a number of peoples, often very distant from each other both territorially and chronologically - Indo-European and Semitic. However, after distinguishing these two large groups, a significant number of peoples remain, very different not only culturally, but also linguistically and partly anthropologically. The languages ​​of some of these peoples show a known connection with the languages ​​of two or three other peoples, but the existence of this connection is not always convincingly proven and is often denied by one or another researcher. Most of these peoples are the oldest aborigines of various regions of Western Asia.

Long before the beginning of our era, they left the historical arena and lost their language, which was preserved only in written monuments and in borrowings that penetrated into other languages. There were attempts to unite all these peoples into one large group: N. Ya. Marr and his followers mistakenly tried to unite them under the name Japhetic; some other scientists proposed using the purely conventional term “Azianites” for most of these peoples 1 . It is with this group that we will begin our consideration of the ethnic composition of ancient Western Asia.

The most ancient peoples of Western Asia

The formation of the first states in southern Mesopotamia is associated with a people known as the Sumerians, or Sumerians. The same people apparently created the cultures of El Obeid, Uruk and Jemdet Nasr. Sumerian culture was in close interaction with the culture of the Akkadians, a Semitic people in language, established in the middle part of Mesopotamia. The ethnic term “Sumer” is of Akkadian origin; the Sumerians themselves did not have a common self-name. The first Sumerian written monuments date back to the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. They are found in the territory from modern Mosul to the Bahrain Islands. The oldest texts show that Sumerian names were used throughout southern Mesopotamia. By the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in the northern regions, and by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and in the southern regions of Mesopotamia, Sumerian names gave way to Semitic ones. By this time, the Sumerian language had disappeared from everyday life, surviving only in worship and science 2 .

The place of the Sumerian language in the linguistic classification has not been established; no significant similarities with any known language have been found.

The portrait sculpture of Southern Mesopotamia that has come down to us suggests the existence of two anthropological types in ancient times. One of them is represented by round-faced brachycephals with wavy hair, large facial features, a straight nose with almost no bridge and a small chin; the second is brachycephalic of the assyroid or armenoid type with a large aquiline or curved nose and lush curly hair on the head and face. The second type is usually identified with the Semitic-speaking peoples; in the first, researchers tend to see the Sumerians.

In the eastern part of the Mesopotamian lowland and further to the east, in the mountains of the western part of the Iranian Plateau, there lived various peoples who, according to some researchers, were related to each other linguistically. The Elamites lived on the territory of modern Khuzistan. The excavations carried out here yielded a wealth of archaeological material; the oldest finds date back to the 4th millennium BC. e. The oldest Elamite pictographic monuments date back to the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. e. From the middle of the 3rd millennium, the Elamites adopted the Akkadian writing system, adapting it to their language. But the Elamite language existed for a long time: some medieval sources say that in Khuzistan, a language incomprehensible to the Persians and Arabs was preserved until the 10th century. n. e.

Next to the Elamites in the Zagros Mountains, on the territory of modern Luristan, lived the Kassites, who in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. played a significant role in the political, and partly also in the cultural history of Mesopotamia. The Kassites are credited with introducing horse breeding into Babylonia, and the finds of Luristan bronze dating back to the second half of the 2nd millennium are also associated with them. A number of features connect the Kassite language with Elamite; at the same time, some of its lexical elements may be Indo-European in nature.

In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in the river valley The Diala created an independent state, the Lulubei. Later, they founded a number of principalities south of the lake. Rezaie.

Some researchers consider the Elamites, Kassites and Lulubes to be linguistically related and combine them into one Caspian group of languages. This also includes some peoples (Caspians, Gels, Tapurs), known since the 5th century. ancient authors on the coast of the Caspian Sea. It is possible that the peoples who inhabited the territory of Southern Azerbaijan and western Iran in ancient times - the Kutians, Parsuas, Manneis - also belonged to the same group. Some of these peoples played a more or less significant political role at different times. By the end of the 3rd millennium, the Kutii (Gutei) temporarily took possession of Mesopotamia; the Kassites did the same in the 18th century. BC e.; Mannaeans in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. created their own state south of Urmia (it partially included the state of the Lulubei), opposed to Urartu and Assyria, and at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e." merged with Media.

It is difficult to say anything definite about the physical appearance of all these peoples. Apparently, there were several anthropological types here - tall Caucasian dolichocephalians; with a straight nose, representatives of the brachycephalic Armenoid type, as well as Negroids - a short type with thick lips and nose, similar to the type of the Dravidian peoples of southern India.

To the northwest of the Caspian group of peoples, in the territory of the Armenian-Kurdish Highlands, the eastern part of Asia Minor, Northern Mesopotamia and a large part of Syria, lived various peoples, sometimes united under the name “Alarodian”. The newest researchers 1 believe that the languages ​​of these peoples can be classified as languages ​​of the Caucasian group, however, constituting a special branch within it.

North of Lower Mesopotamia in the III-II millennia BC. e. Hurrian, or Subarean, dialects were widespread (the Subir region among the Sumerians, Subartum among the Akkadians). The speakers of these closely related dialects apparently called themselves Hurri. The oldest texts in the Hurrian language date back to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e.; at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the Hurrian texts disappeared. Some researchers consider the Hurrians to be the original population of Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and even the Zagros Mountains, others recognize them only as the original population of Northern Mesopotamia and, possibly, Armenia, and their appearance in Syria and east of the Tigris is explained by later migrations. The Neolithic culture of these areas, dating back at least to the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. e., in its general level higher than the culture of Southern Mesopotamia. Only gradually, from the 3rd millennium, did the cultural and political dominance of the more southern regions begin. In the XVI-XIV centuries. In northern Mesopotamia and northern Syria, the powerful Hurrian power of Mitanni began to take shape. After its fall and the settlement of these regions by Aramaic tribes, separate Hurrian principalities remained until the 7th century. BC e. in the mountains of the Armenian Taurus and in the valley of the upper Euphrates. Judging by the images that have reached us, the entire population of northern Syria and northern Mesopotamia belonged to the Armenoid anthropological type.

Starting from the middle of the millennium BC. e. Hittite and Assyrian texts mention small tribal formations, or “kingdoms,” in the Armenian-Kurdish Highlands. In the 9th century BC e. here arose the rapidly growing state of Urartu with its center near the lake. Wang; from the same time, inscriptions of the Urartian kings appeared. The state of Urartu existed until the 6th century. BC e. The people of Urartu were close in language to the Hurrians. However, it seems unlikely that the territory covered by the state of Urartu was inhabited exclusively by speakers of the Urartian or Hurrian language; Apparently, there were also tribes here who spoke languages ​​much closer to modern Transcaucasian ones - Georgian and Armenian. According to surviving images, the Urartians, like the Hurrians, belonged to the Armenoid type.

Northeastern part of Asia Minor in the 3rd millennium BC. e. was inhabited by a people called the Hutts. The Hutts and the Hutt language disappeared by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The newest researchers 1 classify the Hutt language as belonging to the Hurrian-Urartian group and consider it related to the Caucasian languages. The Hattic language appears to have had a great influence on the later languages ​​of the population of Asia Minor, in particular Hittite.

It is not possible to establish with certainty the ancient ethnic composition of the western part of Asia Minor. Both Greek and eastern sources provide only fragmentary, often contradictory information about the names of the peoples who inhabited it. Consideration of these data in our brief essay could only confuse the already complex picture of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of Western Asia.

• Anatolian peoples (Hittite-Luwian)

• Thracian-Dacian peoples

• Frigo-Armenian branch

• Possibly Indo-European peoples

see also

• The Ancient East
• Disappeared peoples of Western Asia
• Ancient peoples

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• Ouwater, Albert van

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Peoples of Asia: culture and traditions

Asia is the largest part of the world in terms of area and population. More than 4 billion people live on its territory, this amount is about 60% of the total population of our planet. The borders of Asia accommodate many states, so the population here is the most diverse. Each nation has its own history and cultural heritage, which, together with others, creates a rich flavor for this part of the world.

In order to better study Asia and learn the traditions and customs of other peoples, we will analyze the population step by step, dividing it into five geographical areas.

Peoples of Central Asia

(Peoples of the Far East in national costumes)

The territory of Central Asia (or Central Asia) was not conducive to favorable farming, so steppe nomads became the predominant ethnic group here.

The first to think about creating a nomadic state were the Scythians. The Scythians were an ancient Iranian-speaking people who did not have a written language and had an unknown language (it is assumed that their language was transformed into modern Ossetian). However, due to fragmentation, the Scythians failed to create a powerful unified empire, so the first state for nomadic peoples was organized by the Huns (an ancient people living in China).

Along with them, other peoples settled in the territory of Central Asia - the Mongols, Uighurs, Basmals and Ongunts, peoples of the Turkic linguistic group, Karluks. A notable feature for the peoples of Central Asia was the rejection of Chinese values, most of them had their own ideological system or aligned themselves with others, and Chinese ideology was never able to move beyond the borders of the Great Wall of China.

Already during the existence of the Soviet Union, deportations to Central Asia took place. Most of those deported are Chechens, Ingush, Tatars, Karachais, Kalmyks. During the war, Germans and Finns were sent to Asia.

If we talk about cultural heritage, then in the Middle Ages the peoples of Central Asia created a hotbed of Enlightenment. The scientific research area developed here, medicine was studied, astrology was comprehended, and a large number of sculptors, artists and architects appeared.

In early periods, peoples leaned towards paganism - they made sacrifices, prayed for protection, asked for a good harvest and fertile soil. A little later, the population adopted other religions, for example, the Karluks began to profess Islam, and the Tibetans converted to Buddhism.

Peoples of Western Asia

(Navruz holiday among Iraqi Kurds)

The first in Western Asia (or Western Asia) to create a state were the Sumerians - the ancient population of Southern Mesopotamia, who had their own language and stood at the origins of the civilization of the Tigris and Euphrates. Together with him, Semitic peoples, who were the ancestors of the Arabs, Maltese and Jews, lived on the territory of Western Asia. The resettlement of Turkic peoples from Central Asia had a great influence on the formation of modern peoples, thanks to them the Turks and Azerbaijanis appeared. Nomadic peoples were also present, for example, the Amorites, who are descendants of the forefather Seth.

In Western Asia, agriculture predominates, and the industrial component began to develop only during the existence of the USSR. In Asian countries I cultivate various agricultural crops - they plant wheat, grow apples and grapes, grow citrus fruits and dates, plant tobacco and poppy plantations. Cattle breeding is also present - domestic animals are bred to produce milk. Wool and meat, mainly goats, cows, sheep, birds. Due to religious reasons, pigs are practically not bred in Western Asia.

If we talk about cultural values ​​within family relationships, most peoples adhere to religious norms. Polygamy is common practice, but in practice in the modern world it is present only among the Old Believers. The tradition of marriage with the payment of dowry is widespread; among nomads there is a ban on marriage outside the tribe.

Nomadic peoples have developed oral creativity, including a large number of folklore styles (fairy tales, epics, tales, stories about the creation of tribes). Traditional medicine is represented by a complex of many years of healing and the use of natural resources; a small part of peoples introduce magical beliefs with established superstitions into medicine.

Peoples of South Asia

(Sinhala dance, Sri Lanka)

The oldest populations of South Asia include the Veddas (indigenous population of the island of Sri Lanka) and the Andamanese (indigenous inhabitants of the islands of the same name). The first civilization was created by the Dravidians, who are the population of South India. The Dravidians were divided into northern, central and southern, each branch of the classification being subdivided into several peoples. Northern Dravidians - Oraons, Brahuis, Maltos; southern - Telugu, Tamil, Kannara; central - pengo, good, koya. In the 17th century, colonialists came to South Asia in flocks, so the list of peoples was replenished with the British, Dutch, French and Portuguese.

Currently, the population of South Asia includes more than 200 peoples, most of them are small in number (up to 10 thousand people). Most peoples are engaged in agriculture, a minority live in cities, investing in industry and the service sector. Some tribal groups are even engaged in a primitive productive economy; in the mountainous areas, groups with a backward form of culture and economy have survived.

The peoples of South Asia honor centuries-old traditions, ethnic works are widespread - they are read, performances are staged, and they are presented to the public. Puppet theaters are popular. Most tribes believe in magic and transmigration of souls, and make totems and amulets for protection. Traditional medicine mainly consists of magical beliefs and the use of medicinal herbs, and the practice of yoga is widespread.

Peoples of Southeast Asia

(Visit to the Thai monastery)

Initially, the territory of Southeast Asia was inhabited by the Bataks, Niassans and Mentaweans, but the settlers mixed with the ancient population, introducing new peoples. Later, a second wave of settlers formed, bringing the Malays and Javanese to the list of ethnic groups. The peoples of the Thai language group – the Siamese (Thais) and the Lao – moved to Thailand before the beginning of our era. The Viets and Chams lived on the territory of Vietnam.

The main groups of people living in Southeast Asia: Filipinos, Malays, Thais, Vietnamese, Indonesians, Punans, Cubans.

Previously, the main occupation of the population of Southeast Asia was plow farming with rice cultivation; now more and more people give preference to the development of modern sectors of the economy and industry.

Family relationships were greatly influenced by the religious component; polygamy came to this territory with Islam. Many tribes for a long time preserved the traditions of tribal communities, but now most of them gave preference to the usual monogamous marriages.

The cultural heritage here is widely developed in theatrical productions: theater of puppets, shadows, gestures, marionettes, and actors in make-up. The following are successful: ballet, plays on an ethnic theme, productions based on Indian works.

The religion is different - from Islam to Buddhism, some tribes still retain remnants of Hindu beliefs with faith in the elements, the transmigration of souls and gods. Previously, even sacrifices were made using magic spells.

Peoples of East Asia

(Dragon Festival on the streets of China)

The largest people in East Asia are the Han (or Chinese), and there are also Koreans, Tibetans, Japanese peoples, and Thai peoples. The most numerous peoples are the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans.

Agriculture, livestock farming and mining are common in most countries. Some peoples are engaged in textile production and mechanical engineering.

The cultural heritage was formed under the influence of religious teachings; in East Asia, the most widespread are Buddhism, Confucianism and Shinto, and a less widespread religion is Christianity.

A distinctive feature of the cultural heritage in East Asia is mythology; many myths reflect the formation of ancient civilizations, former customs, the formation of tribes, and the origin of folk groups. Another feature is the long existence of writing, which originated at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The oldest system was hieroglyphics, which still exists in China and Japan, having gone through some modifications.

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Ethnographic blog about the peoples and countries of the world, their history and culture

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Countries and peoples of Asia. History, numbers and cultural characteristics of Asian peoples:: SYL.ru

Asia is the largest (both in area and population) part of the world. Today, over 4 billion people live here, or 60% of the inhabitants of our planet. This article will focus on the countries and peoples of Asia, their cultural and linguistic characteristics.

Asia is a motley mosaic of languages, religions and cultures

Asia is located in the northern and eastern hemispheres (with the exception of Chukotka). Together with Europe, it forms a single continent – ​​Eurasia, occupying 4/5 of its territory. Asia is separated from Africa by the Red Sea, and from North America by the narrow Bering Strait. The conditional border between Europe and Asia runs along the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the northern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Kuma-Manych depression and, through the waters of the Azov Sea and the Kerch Strait, into the Black Sea.

The Asian population is characterized by high birth rates and, consequently, significant growth rates. By the way, according to this indicator, Asia is second only to Africa in the world. Over 100 million people currently live in seven Asian countries.

Representatives of three main races live in this part of the world - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid. And they all speak more than 2000 languages! The most ancient civilizations of our planet arose in Asia - Babylonian, Sumerian, Indian, Chinese and others. And it was here that three world religions were formed - Islam, Christianity and Buddhism, which have a record number of followers throughout the world.

Culture and history of the peoples of Asia: general features

The first state formations in Asia arose on the banks of large rivers - the Indus, Yellow River, Tigris and Euphrates. Thanks to natural climatic factors and irrigated agriculture, cities arose here and the number of inhabitants grew.

The first centuries AD were marked by the “great migration of peoples” from the southwestern and southern regions of Asia to the east and Europe. The last and largest of these movements was the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The grandiose campaign to conquer Europe was interrupted only in 1241 near Vienna.

The peoples of Asia first found themselves outside their traditional habitats long before the era of Columbus and Magellan. Thus, on the northern coast of Africa, even before our era, colonies of the Phoenicians were built (the largest of them is Carthage). During the Middle Ages, Arabs from Asia entered the Pyrenees and settled throughout East Africa.

The various modern cultures of the peoples of Asia are completely self-sufficient, although they are closely connected with each other by a common history and traditions. Researchers identify five main subcultures within the borders of this part of the world:

1. Meta-Confucian (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam).
2. Buddhist (Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, etc.).
3. Hindu (India).
4. Islamic (Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Brunei, etc.).
5. Catholic (Philippines).

In general, the main distinguishing feature of Asian culture is that it strives for a harmonious and holistic perception of reality.

The most numerous peoples of Asia

Today in Asia there are at least one thousand different nationalities and ethnic groups. The number of some of them does not exceed a thousand people. The ethnocultural uniqueness of Asia is further enhanced by the fact that many peoples here are separated by state borders. Thus, Bengalis live simultaneously in both India and Bangladesh, Kurds live in Turkey, Iraq and Syria, etc.

The eastern regions of Asia are considered the homeland of the Mongoloids. From here they settled to different parts of the globe, including Alaska and North America. But the population of Western Asia is extremely diverse and belongs to one of the branches of the Caucasian race.

The peoples of Central Asia speak predominantly Turkic languages. The countries of the Arabian Peninsula are populated mainly by Arabs, who communicate in the languages ​​and dialects of the Semitic group.

Among the most numerous peoples of Asia are the Chinese (Han people), Hindustanis, Japanese, Bengalis, Iranians, Indonesians, Syrians, Turks, Kazakhs, Kurds, Afghans and others.

Political map of modern Asia

Today, within this part of the world there are 54 state entities, including Russia, Turkey, as well as five unrecognized or partially recognized countries. The largest countries in Asia by population are China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan and Bangladesh. These five states are home to 45% of all the inhabitants of our planet!

According to the generally accepted UN classification, Asia is divided into five historical and geographical subregions. This:

• Western.
• South.
• South-Eastern.
• Eastern.
• Central (or Central) Asia.

Asian countries are very diverse in their ethnic composition. So, for example, Japan is a single-national country (about 98% are Japanese here). At the same time, in states such as Iran or Thailand, the titular nations barely account for half the population.

Asian countries are also heterogeneous in terms of the density of their inhabitants. For comparison: in Bangladesh there are 1,150 people living per square kilometer of area, and in Mongolia there are only two people.

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Peoples of Southeast, Central and Middle Asia

Asia is the largest part of the world and, together with Europe, forms the continent of Eurasia. It is conventionally separated from Europe by the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains. Asia is washed to the north by the Arctic Ocean and separated from North America by the Bering Strait. It is washed by the Pacific Ocean in the east and the Indian Ocean in the south. And in the southwest, the borders pass along the seas of the Atlantic Ocean, and it is separated from Africa by the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. Due to such a vast territory, Asia is characterized by diversity in nature and climate. And as a result, the peoples of Asian countries are also diverse, speaking different languages, having their own, sometimes very rare, national ethnic roots, professing different religions. Their formation began a very long time ago. It was in Asia that the world's oldest civilizations arose. On its territory to this day there are rare tribes in which only a few hundred people live.

Half of humanity

The peoples of Asia are the most numerous. Most of them are Chinese, Bengalis, Hindustani and Japanese. That's almost three billion people - half the world's population. The first settlements, and then the first states, arose in the basins of the Yellow, Tigris, Euphrates, and Indus rivers. Irrigated lands and a favorable climate for life contributed to an increase in population. The peoples of Asia began to settle and populate other territories favorable for life. During the era of the Great Migration, people migrated to the north, south, east, and also to the west - to Europe. The most populated regions today remain South, East and West Asia.

Homeland of religions

Many religions exist on Earth, but Asia is the homeland of the three most famous in the world. These are Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. Christianity emerged in Southwest Asia in the first millennium AD. As it developed, it split into several directions. The most significant are Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism. Muslims are adherents of Islam, which originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century AD and is now very strong in the Arab countries and the southwest. The ancient religion of Buddhism originated in South Asia in the sixth century BC, and is currently widespread among the peoples of East and Southeast Asia. In Asia there are religions that are followed only by the people of certain countries. These are Japanese Shintoism, Indian and Bangladeshi Hinduism, Chinese Confucianism.

Regions of Asia

In general, throughout Asia there are five broad regions: North, South, Central, East and West. The peoples of Asia also received their general names from the names of the territories. There are two dominant tribes. Mongolian lives in northern and eastern Asia, and Central Asian lives in western and southern Asia. The southeast is mostly inhabited by Malays and Dravidians. These tribes are in second place in number. Linguistically, the peoples of Asia are represented by Hyperboreans and High Asians. Hyperboreans are the inhabitants of the Far North: Koryaks, Chukchi, Chuvash, Yukaghirs, residents of the Kuril Islands, Kotts and Ostyaks living on the Yenisei. For the most part, they are all still pagans or accept Russian Orthodoxy.

Mongolian language group

The High Asian language group is divided, in turn, into subgroups of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages. In the first subgroup are the Urals and Altaians. Altaians are Mongols, Tungus and Turks. The Mongols are divided into Buryats and Kalmyks in the western part and the Mongols proper in the eastern part. The development of the language, literature and culture of the Mongols and Kalmyks occurred under the influence of Buddhists from India. Among the Tungus, Chinese influence was and remains very strong. The peoples of the Turkic linguistic subgroup fall into four more. The first is with its center in the Siberian city of Yakutsk, which got its name - “Yakuts” - from the name of the city.

Eastern Turks

The second is the Eastern Turks, the peoples of Central Asia, speaking the ancient Zhgatai and Yugur languages. The territory of modern Central Asia is inhabited by Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Tajiks and Uzbeks. Modern research shows that here, as in China, the formation of world civilization took place. And at the same time, a century ago these peoples lived in feudal-patriarchal states. And medieval customs and traditions, reverence for elders, isolation in one’s own national groups, and wariness of strangers are still strong here. Traditional clothing, housing, and the entire way of life have been preserved. The hot climate and arid climatic conditions contributed to the development of endurance among the peoples of these countries, adaptability to extreme situations and, at the same time, restraint in emotions and feelings, and reduced socio-political activity. The peoples of Central Asia have very strong tribal and - especially - religious ties. Islam was harshly enforced in Central Asian countries. Its rooting was facilitated by the simplicity of its doctrine and the simplicity of its rituals. Despite the relatively large psychological similarities, the peoples of Central Asia are largely original. Thus, the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, like the Mongols, from ancient times were engaged in breeding sheep and horses, led a nomadic lifestyle, and lived for a long time away from people. Hence their restraint in communication and love for animals. Since ancient times, the Uzbek people have been engaged in trade and agriculture. Therefore, they are a sociable, enterprising people with a caring attitude towards the land and its riches.

Arab-Persian subgroup

The Ural Tatars, residents of Kazan and Astrakhan, and their fellow tribesmen in the North Caucasus constitute the third Turkic subgroup, and the Turks and Ottomans constitute the fourth, southwestern branch of the Turkic tribe. The peoples of the fourth linguistic subgroup developed under Arab and Persian influence. These are the descendants of the Kangls who lived along the banks of the Syr Darya River and founded the Seljuk empire. The empire collapsed under the pressure of the Mongols, and the peoples were forced to move to Armenia, then to Asia Minor, and under Ottoman they founded the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Since the ancient Ottomans led either a completely sedentary or nomadic lifestyle, now they are a mixture of different racial types, which show kinship with other Turkic peoples. The Persian and Transcaucasian Turks of Seljuk origin are very mixed because their numbers were reduced by continuous wars, and they were forced to mix with the Slavs, Greeks, Arabs, Kurds and Ethiopians. Despite all the ethnic heterogeneity, the peoples of the southwestern Turkic branch are united by a strong Muslim religion and culture, which also SUFFERED Byzantine and Arab influence. The Turks and Ottomans are respectable people, serious, not fussy, not talkative, not intrusive. The villagers are hardworking and resilient, and very hospitable. City dwellers love idleness, the pleasures of life and at the same time are fanatically religious.

Monosyllabic language group

The second largest subgroup of the Mongolian language group is the numerous peoples of China, Tibet, ancient Himalayan tribes, wild tribes of Burma, Siam, as well as the primitive peoples of South Asia that remain to this day. They form a monosyllabic language group. The development of peoples in Tibet, Burma and Siam took place under the influence of the ancient culture of India and Buddhism. But the few peoples of East Asia have experienced and are experiencing the strongest influence of China.

People of the Celestial Empire

The Chinese are the oldest people in the world. Ethnogenesis lasted several millennia. There are three teachings in religion - Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The cult of ancestors is still alive among many peoples, permeating all beliefs in China. Hereditary villagers - Achans, who grow different varieties of rice, live in the provinces of Yunnan, Jingpo, and Dachang. The Hsieh swords of the Achan people are very popular in China. Farmers of the Bai ethnicity live on the Yunnan-Guizhui Plateau. People of this nationality have a rich history and ancient culture. On the banks of the Huankhe River, people of the smallest people in China, the Baoan, engage in agriculture and cattle breeding. The Bui people number more than two million and live in the region where Huangguoshu Falls is located. Tea and cotton are grown by farmers of the Bulan ethnicity. Daurs live on the banks of the Nenjang River. For twenty centuries, bamboo plantations in Yunnan and Lingchang provinces have been cultivating denggi. And the Dong settlements are surrounded by fir forests in the Jenyuan, Jinping and Tianzhong regions.

Samurai

The Japanese people and their emergence are viewed from three perspectives. The first is the Japanese in a racial sense as an ethnic group and nationality. It is generally accepted that modern Japanese are descendants of the Mongoloid race. Their ancestors are the ancient peoples of Southeast Asia. Beginning in the third century BC, as a result of the mixing of the Mongoloids of China, Korea and Manchuria, a racial type arose as the foundation of the ethnic Japanese. And under the very term “political Japanese” in the nineteenth century several ethnic groups of the Japanese archipelago were united. And as a nation, the Japanese appeared with the emergence of Japan as a state. The graphic system of the Japanese language consists of the alphabet katakana and hiragana and another four thousand Chinese characters. The language belongs to the Tungus-Altaic group and is considered isolated. Modern Japanese culture is noo opera, kabuki theaters and puppet bunkaru, Japanese poetry and painting, origami, ikebana, tea ceremony, Japanese cuisine, samurai, martial arts.

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Lecture 5. Peoples of Western Asia

1. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history.

2. Economy and material culture.

3. Features of family and marriage relations.

4. Spiritual culture.

1. Western, or Western Asia, occupies part of the Eurasian continent and includes the Arabian Peninsula, Asia Minor, Armenian, Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia, Palestine and a number of areas of the Eastern Mediterranean. Area of ​​about 7.5 million square meters. km.

Western Asia is one of the areas of the world where evidence of the early stages of anthropogeny has been found, dating back at least to the era of paleoanthropes.

The ancient ethnic composition of Western Asia is still largely unclear, as is the case with all other regions of the Earth. It has been established quite accurately that, according to anthropological characteristics, the population of Western Lchia, starting from the Stone Age, was Caucasian.

Only writing, which arose at the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. in Sumer, and somewhat later in other ancient Asian states, provided the first data on the ethnic composition of some regions of Western Asia. The oldest cuneiform written monuments testify to the spread of people speaking the Sumerian language in southern Mesopotamia. Its exact linguistic affiliation has not been established, and together with a number of other dead languages ​​it is sometimes conditionally included in the “Caspian” group. The appearance of the Sumerians is also known from numerous sculptural images. Archaeological sites speak of their high culture. According to the Sumerians, only a small region of Southern Mesopotamia inhabited, while the vast expanses of Western Asia were inhabited by quite numerous peoples of diverse ethnic composition. In relation to the 3rd millennium BC. written and archaeological monuments testify to the widespread settlement of Semitic-speaking peoples in the western regions of the Western Region, who became the successors of the Sumerian civilization. In the 2nd millennium BC. the settlement of Semitic-speaking peoples took place.

In the 2nd millennium BC. In Western Asia, major political and ethnic processes related to the Indo-European peoples unfolded. Powerful despotic states of Persia, Media, Parthia, and Bactria emerged. Scythian-speaking peoples also took part in these processes, penetrating from the north into the territory of Iran and Afghanistan. A number of ethnic groups were formed that spoke Western Iranian languages: Persians, Tajiks, Kurds, Pashtuns. Balochi and many others.

The Arab conquest of the 7th-8th centuries had a huge impact on the cultural traditions of these peoples. The Arabs conquered vast areas of most of Western Asia, and intensive mixing of Arabs with the conquered peoples of Mesopotamia, the Levant and other areas of the Eastern Mediterranean took place, which led to the formation of the modern Arab peoples. There was a lively cultural and economic exchange between the countries of the caliphate. Arabic has become the universal language of science and literature. Significant changes in the ethnic picture of the northwestern regions of Western Asia were brought about by waves of conquerors - the Turks, who moved there from Middle and Central Lzia starting in the 10th century. and in subsequent centuries. In the 11th century The Seljuk Turks conquered Asia Minor and part of Transcaucasia, which marked the beginning of the formation! Turks and Azerbaijanis and some other smaller nationalities (Yuryuks, Qashqais). These processes ended during the Mongol invasion. The Mongols themselves did not have a significant influence on the anthropological composition and culture of the conquered population. At the same time, their troops included representatives of various Turkic-speaking peoples who mixed with local Turks, which ultimately led to the formation of a number of new ethnic communities.

Stormy ethnic processes continued in the post-Mongol period. In the 17th century Some groups of Georgians and Armenians were forcibly resettled to Iran. During the XVII-XIX centuries. Iranian and Turkish authorities have repeatedly resettled groups of Kurds to the south of Turkey, Central Anatolia, and Khorasan for political and military reasons. Beginning around the 17th-18th centuries, there was a movement of Pashtun tribes from the south of Afghanistan to the north, to the fertile plains, where the nomads became sedentary, displacing the local population from the occupied lands. The Turkish government pursued an assimilationist policy towards national minorities. In 1915ᴦ. he committed genocide against the Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians. As a result of the massacre, hundreds of thousands of Armenians were killed: 1.5 million were forced to flee Turkey and look for a new homeland

After the emergence of the State of Israel, a significant number of Jews from North Africa and several regions of Asia moved there. as well as from Europe and America. At the same time, the Arabs were being driven out of their ancestral lands, where the Israelis had settled, which had a particularly hard impact on the expelled Palestinian Arab population.

Anthropologically, the overwhelming majority of the population of Western Asia belongs to various racial types of the large Caucasian race: the Mongoloid Hazaras of Afghanistan, small groups of Kazakhs and Uzbeks. In the south of the Arabian Peninsula, some groups of Arabs show a fairly significant admixture of nsgroidism.

The main languages ​​of the peoples of Western Asia belong to the Indo-European, Afroasiatic, Altaic language families and their groups.

The Indo-European family is represented mainly by the languages ​​of the Western Iranian branch of the Iranian group: Farsi (Persian), Pashto, Tajik, Kurdish, Baluchi, Lur, Bakhtiari, Hazara, Jemshid, Firyuzkukh, Talysh, etc. Posted on ref.rfOn Indo-European languages ​​spoken by Greeks, Armenians and also people from other countries

The Afroasiatic language family is represented by literary Arabic. The languages ​​of the Turkic group of the Altai language family are spoken by Turks, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Afshars, Shahsevens, Qashqais, etc.

A considerable number of people from South Asia also live in Western Asia.

In Western Asia, most of the population belongs to established and emerging nations and nationalities. Nomadic and semi-nomadic nomads retain a tribal organization.

The most established nations in Western Asia can be considered the Turks, Persians, Iranian Azerbaijanis, Arabs of Syria and Iraq, and the Jews of Israel. Peoples such as the Kurds, Baluchis and a number of others are still at the stage of national consolidation as the tribal structure decomposes.

But due to the nature of the national composition, the countries of Western Asia are divided into relatively homogeneous and multinational. The Arab countries, partly Turkey and Israel, are the most homogeneous in national composition, where one nation makes up the overwhelming majority of the population, and national minorities are relatively few in number. But Iran and Afghanistan are multinational, where dozens of peoples live, and the dominant nations - Persians and Pashtuns - do not make up the majority of the population.

2. The population of Western Asia belongs to a small number of economic cultural types; many peoples make up industrial-agrarian nations. In recent decades, many countries have seen rapid growth in industrial production, in particular in the mining industry (oil and other minerals), and manufacturing throughout the world. The majority of the population of Western Asia is employed in agriculture, but as industry and cities grow, the share of the working class and the intelligentsia increases.

The most common economic and cultural types of Western Asia are plow farming and nomadism. Both types include a number of intermediate subtypes.

Forced irrigation requires significant additional costs of labor and money, which greatly increases the cost of production.

In most foothill areas of these countries, water sources are limited to rare streams, insufficient to irrigate any significant areas of land. In this regard, in ancient times, the construction of underground drainage galleries (karizs) began, the network of which, especially in Ioan and Afghanistan, is significant in our time.

In deserts and steppes, where there is no possibility of constructing irrigation systems, small-scale auxiliary agriculture is carried out using well water or small artificial reservoirs filled with rain or snow water. Naturally, this allows only small fields to be irrigated. Much less widespread, in some mountainous areas, is the so-called rainfed farming, designed for natural irrigation by rain. Rainfed farming is unsustainable, since good rains do not fall every year and there must be drought for several years in a row and, as a result, the death of seeds and crop failure. But once every few years, with good rains, losses are not only compensated, but also significantly covered by a large harvest.

Agricultural crops in Western Asia are diverse and include grains, industrial crops, vegetable gardens and melons, as well as various fruits. The most common grains are wheat, barley, some varieties of sorghum, and rice. Among industrial crops, oilseeds are grown everywhere: sesame, etc., and in the Eastern Mediterranean - olives, tobacco, the varieties of which are especially high quality in Turkey, opium poppy, etc. Posted on ref.rf Cotton growing is widespread. Coffee is cultivated in Yemen and other Arab countries. Grapes are grown everywhere. Citrus fruits, apples, and other fruits from Lebanon, Israel and other Mediterranean countries are famous all over the world. In many areas of the Arabian Peninsula, the main agricultural crop is the date palm.

Until now, some part of the population of Western Asia uses the most primitive agricultural tools, many of which were known at the dawn of civilization.

Crops, sheep and small cattle are kept as dairy and meat animals. They use their skins, wool, and horns. Angora goats bred in Turkey are highly prized. Astrakhan sheep are bred in Iran and Afghanistan. Camel farming on a large scale among farmers exists only on the Arabian Peninsula. In other countries of Western Asia, only certain groups of settled populations keep camels. The methods of keeping livestock by farmers in Western Asia are quite diverse. This is primarily transhumance mountain and lowland cattle breeding, belonging to the semi-sedentary economic and cultural type. More sedentary, as well as stall-based animal husbandry is also practiced.

Until now, nomadic HCT has been quite widespread in the desert, steppe and mountainous regions of Western Asia.

Both settled and nomadic populations have ancient traditions of crafts and household production. Western Asia is one of the world's most ancient centers of metallurgical production, which originated there in the Neolithic. The famous weapons-grade Damascus steel, made by medieval craftsmen, is widely known. Jewelers' products made from precious metals and stones are distinguished by their great skill and high artistic merit. Particularly popular are silver jewelry with turquoise and red stones (carnelians, garnets, rubies), which, according to legend, have magical powers over people. Wood, bone, and stone carvings are common. All over the world there are ancient and modern carpets and rugs from Turkey and Iran. Upkmen, Baloch masters.

But already at the beginning of the twentieth century. handicraft and home production began to decline, being replaced by factory products. The quality of carpets decreased, and they began to be made taking into account the tastes of European and American buyers.

Despite the rapid growth of cities and urban populations in recent decades, the bulk of the inhabitants of Western Asia continue to live in rural areas. Ancient cities have a lot in common in their layout and general appearance. Their center is an area where religious and public buildings are located, retail premises and warehouses, and oriental bazaars are concentrated. In the adjacent blocks there are houses of wealthy citizens, nobility, and officials. The further from the center, the streets become more and more winding and narrow, especially in the neighborhoods of artisans and the poor located on the outskirts. The cities were once surrounded by powerful defensive structures, their ruins today attract numerous tourists. In recent decades, significant changes have occurred in the appearance of the cities. Wide straight streets designed for vehicular traffic have appeared, along the sides of which stretch modern luxury residential multi-storey buildings, banks, shops, offices, for example, in the capital of the United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi, as well as in many others. But the outskirts of these modern cities retain their traditional oriental appearance.

Rural settlements vary significantly based on local traditions and geographical conditions. On the Arabian Peninsula they are located on the plains and in the mountains, in Iran, mainly on plateaus, foothills, and river valleys; in Turkey, they gravitate toward the sea coast and stretch along valleys; in Afghanistan, they are concentrated in basins and mountain valleys. Plain settlements are usually large, cumuliform in plan, with disorderly development of neighborhoods. Newly emerging settlements or those founded by immigrants have a more correct layout. Mountain settlements are smaller in size. families or individual families.

The types of dwellings among the agricultural and pastoral populations are varied based on ethnic traditions and local conditions. Traditional, and in our time still widespread, dwellings of farmers of the plains and foothills are usually rectangular, less often square, in plan, built from stones and mud bricks. In the mountains, and sometimes in the foothills, there are houses nestled among fortified towers. The layout of dwellings varies depending on local traditions and property status. Among the Muslim population, each house is divided into two parts: the front, male, also intended for receiving guests, and the back, female, where access to outside men is prohibited. The number of rooms depends on the wealth of the owner, in connection with this the poorest part of the population is content with a dwelling of one room, or, as is often found in Iran, especially on the outskirts of large cities, a hut-booth built from scrap materials. In rural areas, a manor is surrounded by a high fence - a duval. also includes outbuildings, a flower garden, a vineyard, and a vegetable garden.

Nomadic dwellings are represented by Central Asian and Western Asian muds. Among the first is the tent - a collapsible dwelling of the Turkmens, consisting of a light wooden lattice frame covered with noilok. The Western Asian type is represented by tents of various sizes, shapes and materials. traditionally made from wool, and today often from tarpaulin stretched over poles. The size and shape of nomadic dwellings depend not only on ethnic traditions, but to a large extent on the prosperity of their owners.

With all the diversity of traditional clothing of the peoples of Western Asia, there is a lot in common in composition and cut. The greatest differences are observed in headdresses, which are often associated with tribal affiliation, especially in their color and composition of fabrics. The traditional men's costume consists of a wide, knee-length white shirt, wide-legged trousers, narrow among the Turkmen or wide trousers among the Baloch, and shoulder clothing - a robe or cloak, as examples of the Bedouins, Turkmen, and Pashtuns. Traditional clothing, preserved in our time and in large cities, which is often worn abroad even by diplomatic representatives of these peoples, consists of a wide shirt and pants, cloaks with sleeves or slits, a specific headdress made of a scarf and woolen cords. The basis of the Turkmen costume is approximately the same, which is complemented by either a quilted robe made of paper or silk, or for wealthy people, a robe made of camel hair of exceptional strength and almost waterproof. The headdress is a sheepskin or astrakhan hat.

At the same time, in recent decades, traditional costume has been increasingly replaced by purchased clothing, often of a semi-military cut, especially among warlike tribes. Male nomads rarely part with weapons, and traditionally sabers and daggers have now been replaced by an entire arsenal of light and heavy small arms.

Traditional women's clothing, which is universally preserved to a greater extent than men's, usually consists of all the peoples of Western Asia from a long shirt-dress that reaches almost to the heels and narrow ankle-length pants. Dresses are supplemented in different seasons and, based on wealth, with sleeveless caftans, raincoats, and robes. Ethnic and regional differences are manifested mainly in the color of the fabric, details of the costume and headdress. At the same time, there are some exceptions.. With all the variety of women's headdresses, their basis is a scarf or several scarves, sometimes on a rigid frame, decorated with jewelry. Among a number of agricultural peoples in the past, and in Iran, the merchant and petty-bourgeois environment of Arab countries, and in our time, there was a custom of covering a woman’s face with a hair net and a robe with false sleeves draped over her head in a special way.

Traditional food differs among farmers and nomads, ethnic and regional groups. The basis of the food consists of variously prepared unleavened flatbreads, dishes from plant and animal foods. Oil is used both animal and vegetable, although nomads traditionally use oil of animal origin to a greater extent. Meat as a daily food is available only to the wealthy urban and rural population, for the rest, incl. and for nomadic pastoralists, it is mainly a holiday food. Dishes made from rice, emmer, and vegetables are common. A variety of drinks are of great importance in the diet in hot climates: coffee, green and black tea, mint tea. Nomads eat a large variety of fermented milk products made from camel, and in modern times, cow's milk.

3. Family and family relationships among the majority of the peoples of Western Asia today are based mainly on the norms of religion and customary law, and the only exception is part of the urban population of Turkey, who no longer adhere to traditional religious rules. Among Muslim peoples, marriage relations are determined by religious law - Sharia, which allows polygamy and makes a woman completely dependent on a man. In practice, Shariah norms are observed differently in different countries. For example, in Turkey, in the educated strata of society, women have approximately equal rights with men, while in Iran and a number of Arab countries, the position of women often remains degraded, although more and more educated women and employed women are appearing.

As for polygamy (polygamy), permitted by Sharia, it has a relatively limited distribution in life and only among certain strata of society: the clergy, merchants, money changers, moneylenders, wealthy artisans. For the majority of the population, polygamy is impossible for economic reasons.

And today, social relations in Western Asia are characterized by significant diversity and tradition. Israel and Turkey have developed capitalist relations. At the same time, in some countries of the Arabian Peninsula, in Iran, along with capitalist ones, feudal relations and an archaic communal system of land use are still strong. The conservation of pre-capitalist remnants is largely facilitated by the Islamic clergy. The most traditional social relations are preserved among nomads, determined by private ownership of livestock, public ownership and use of pastures, and the absence of monopoly ownership of the means of production by any class or social estate. At the same time, during the formation of the nomadic economic and cultural type, significant property and social differentiation arose among the nomads.

4. The peoples of Western Asia have created enormous spiritual values ​​over the millennia of civilization, which are reflected in written monuments and oral folk art, fine arts, music, singing, and dancing. Folk art in Arab countries is rich, including diverse genres of folklore: epic works, fairy tales, legends, tales of the origin of tribes, their histories, historical legends. There is a rich medieval and modern secular and spiritual literature, an important historical monument of Muslims - the holy book of the Koran. The nomads, who in the past were almost entirely illiterate, as well as the majority of the rural population of Western Asia in the past, have especially developed oral folk art. Due to religious prohibitions, theatrical and visual arts became only slightly widespread. The first was limited to fair performances, persecuted by the clergy and secular authorities, and the second was marked by the amazingly high development of calligraphy, book miniatures, multicolor ornamental decoration with glazed tiles on the external walls and interior of religious and public buildings, palaces, and tombs.

Turkish folk art is diverse. There are the most diverse folklore genres: historical legends, fairy tales, legends

Religiously, the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Western Asia profess Islam of various denominations. The holy book of Muslims is the Koran. A devout Muslim is limited in life by many rules and prohibitions: performing daily prayers, fasting, refusing to eat a number of foods and drinks, the obligation to pay a religious tax, making a pilgrimage to Mecca, and many others. Most Muslims belong to the religious movements of Sunni and Shiism.

Christianity developed in the Eastern Mediterranean in the first centuries of our era and, until the era of the Arab conquest, was widespread in many areas of Western Asia. Moreover, these days the number of Christians is relatively small. These are Lebanese Maronites, Armenian Monophysites and representatives of other Christian denominations. There are Orthodox: Greeks, Assyrians and some other population groups.

Some small nations have syncretic religions that arose on the basis of ancient pagan beliefs, Christianity and Islam. In Israel, the dominant religion is Judaism.

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The peoples of ancient Western Asia are... What are the Peoples of ancient Western Asia?

In ancient times, Western Asia was inhabited by many peoples, most of whom only their names have survived. The following peoples are known:

• Anatolian peoples

• Thracian peoples

Peoples whose linguistic affiliation is unknown

• Iranian Plateau:

see also

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

• Peoples of the Ancient Near East
• Mayan peoples

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