home-Cloth-Are Finno-Ugric tribes the ancestors of Russians? The Great Migration of Peoples or the history of the Finno-Ugric tribes.

Are Finno-Ugric tribes the ancestors of Russians? The Great Migration of Peoples or the history of the Finno-Ugric tribes.

Inhabited the Volga-Oka and Kama basins in the 1st millennium BC. e., is distinguished by significant originality. According to Herodotus, the Boudins, Tissagets and Irki lived in this part of the forest line. Noting the difference between these tribes from the Scythians and Sauromatians, he points out that their main occupation was hunting, which supplied not only food, but also furs for clothing. Herodotus especially notes the horse hunting of the hirks with the help of dogs. The information of the ancient historian is confirmed by archaeological sources indicating that hunting really occupied a large place in the life of the studied tribes.

However, the population of the Volga-Oka and Kama basins was not limited only to those tribes mentioned by Herodotus. The names he gives can only be attributed to the southern tribes of this group - the immediate neighbors of the Scythians and Sauromatians. More detailed information about these tribes began to penetrate into ancient historiography only at the turn of our era. Tacitus probably relied on them when he described the life of the tribes in question, calling them Fenians (Finns).

The main occupation of the Finno-Ugric tribes in the vast territory of their settlement should be considered cattle breeding and hunting. Swidden farming played a minor role. A characteristic feature of production among these tribes was that, along with iron tools, which came into use around the 7th century. BC e., bone tools were used here for a very long time. These features are typical of the so-called Dyakovo (interfluve of the Oka and Volga), Gorodets (southeast of the Oka) and Ananyin (Prikamye) archaeological cultures.

The southwestern neighbors of the Finno-Ugric tribes, the Slavs, throughout the 1st millennium AD. e. significantly advanced into the area of ​​settlement of Finnish tribes. This movement caused the displacement of part of the Finno-Ugric tribes, as an analysis of numerous Finnish names of rivers in the central part of European Russia shows. The processes under consideration occurred slowly and did not violate the cultural traditions of the Finnish tribes. This makes it possible to connect a number of local archaeological cultures with Finno-Ugric tribes, already known from Russian chronicles and other written sources. The descendants of the tribes of the Dyakovo archaeological culture were probably the Merya and Muroma tribes, the descendants of the tribes of the Gorodets culture - the Mordovians, and the origin of the chronicle Cheremis and Chud goes back to the tribes that created the Ananyin archaeological culture.

Many interesting features of the life of the Finnish tribes have been studied in detail by archaeologists. The most ancient method of obtaining iron in the Volga-Oka basin is indicative: iron ore was smelted in clay vessels standing in the middle of open fires. This process, noted in settlements of the 9th-8th centuries, is characteristic of the initial stage of the development of metallurgy; later ovens appeared. Numerous bronze and iron products and the quality of their manufacture suggest that already in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Among the Finno-Ugric tribes of Eastern Europe, the transformation of domestic production industries into crafts, such as foundry and blacksmithing, began. Among other industries, the high development of weaving should be noted. The development of cattle breeding and the beginning emphasis on crafts, primarily metallurgy and metalworking, led to an increase in labor productivity, which in turn contributed to the emergence of property inequality. Nevertheless, the accumulation of property within the clan communities of the Volga-Oka basin occurred rather slowly; because of this, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the ancestral villages were relatively weakly fortified. Only in subsequent centuries did the settlements of the Dyakovo culture become stronger with powerful ramparts and ditches.

The picture of the social structure of the inhabitants of the Kama region is more complex. The burial inventory clearly indicates the presence of wealth stratification among local residents. Some burials dating back to the end of the 1st millennium allowed archaeologists to suggest the emergence of some kind of disadvantaged category of the population, possibly slaves from among prisoners of war. On the position of the tribal aristocracy in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. evidenced by one of the striking monuments of the Ananyinsky burial ground (near Yelabuga) - a stone tombstone with a relief image of a warrior armed with a dagger and a war hammer and decorated with a mane. The rich grave goods in the grave under this slab contained a dagger and a hammer made of iron, and a silver hryvnia. The buried warrior was undoubtedly one of the clan leaders. The isolation of the clan nobility especially intensified by the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. It should be noted, however, that at this time the clan nobility was probably relatively few in number, since low labor productivity still greatly limited the number of members of society who lived off the labor of others.

The population of the Volga-Oka and Kama basins was associated with the Northern Baltic, Western Siberia, the Caucasus, and Scythia. From the Scythians and Sarmatians, many objects came here, sometimes even from very distant places, such as the Egyptian figurine of the god Amun, found in a settlement excavated at the spout of the Chusovaya and Kama rivers. The shapes of some iron knives, bone arrowheads and a number of vessels among the Finns are very similar to similar Scythian and Sarmatian products. Connections of the Upper and Middle Volga region with the Scythian and Sarmatian world can be traced back to the 6th-4th centuries, and by the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. are made permanent.

The origin and early history of the Finno-Ugric peoples remain the subject of scientific debate to this day. The most common opinion among researchers is that in ancient times there was a single group of people who spoke a common Finno-Ugric proto-language. The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians until the end of the third millennium BC. e. maintained relative unity. They were settled in the Urals and the western Urals, and possibly also in some adjacent areas.

In that era, called Finno-Ugric, their tribes came into contact with the Indo-Iranians, which was reflected in myths and languages. Between the third and second millennia BC. e. separated from each other Ugric And Finno-Permian branches. Among the peoples of the latter, who settled in a western direction, independent subgroups of languages ​​gradually emerged and became isolated:

  • Baltic-Finnish,
  • Volga-Finnish,
  • Permian

As a result of the transition of the population of the Far North to one of the Finno-Ugric dialects, the Sami were formed. The Ugric group of languages ​​disintegrated by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Baltic-Finnish division occurred at the beginning of our era. Perm lasted a little longer - until the eighth century.

Contacts of Finno-Ugric tribes with Baltic, Iranian, Slavic, Turkic, and Germanic peoples played a major role in the separate development of these languages.

Territory of settlement

Finno-Ugric peoples today mainly live in Northwestern Europe. Geographically, they are settled over a vast territory from Scandinavia to the Urals, Volga-Kama, lower and middle Tobol region.

The Hungarians are the only people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group who formed their own state away from other related tribes - in the Carpathian-Danube region.

The total number of peoples speaking Uralic languages ​​(these include Finno-Ugric and Samoyed) is 23-24 million people. The most numerous representatives are Hungarians. There are more than 15 million of them in the world. They are followed by Finns and Estonians (5 and 1 million people, respectively). Most other Finno-Ugric ethnic groups live in modern Russia.

Finno-Ugric ethnic groups in Russia

Russian settlers flocked en masse to the lands of the Finno-Ugrians in the 16th-18th centuries. Most often, the process of their settlement in these areas occurred peacefully, but some indigenous peoples (for example, the Mari) for a long time and fiercely resisted the annexation of their region to the Russian state.

The Christian religion, writing, and urban culture, introduced by the Russians, over time began to displace local beliefs and dialects. People moved to cities, moved to Siberian and Altai lands - where Russian was the main and common language. However, he (especially his northern dialect) absorbed many Finno-Ugric words - this is most noticeable in the field of toponyms and names of natural phenomena.

In some places, the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia mixed with the Turks, converting to Islam. However, a significant part of them were still assimilated by the Russians. Therefore, these peoples do not constitute a majority anywhere, even in those republics that bear their name. However, according to the 2002 population census, there are very significant Finno-Ugric groups in Russia.

  • Mordovians (843 thousand people),
  • Udmurts (almost 637 thousand),
  • Mari (604 thousand),
  • Komi-Zyryans (293 thousand),
  • Komi-Permyaks (125 thousand),
  • Karelians (93 thousand).

The number of some peoples does not exceed thirty thousand people: Khanty, Mansi, Vepsians. The Izhorians number 327 people, and the Vod people number only 73 people. Hungarians, Finns, Estonians, and Sami also live in Russia.

Development of Finno-Ugric culture in Russia

In total, sixteen Finno-Ugric peoples live in Russia. Five of them have their own national-state entities, and two have national-territorial ones. Others are dispersed throughout the country. At the national and local levels, programs are being developed with the support of which the culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples, their customs and dialects is being studied. Thus, Sami, Khanty, Mansi are taught in primary schools, and Komi, Mari, Udmurt, and Mordovian languages ​​are taught in secondary schools in those regions where large groups of the corresponding ethnic groups live.

There are special laws on culture and languages ​​(Mari El, Komi). Thus, in the Republic of Karelia there is an education law that enshrines the right of Vepsians and Karelians to study in their native language. The priority for the development of the cultural traditions of these peoples is determined by the Law on Culture. Also, the republics of Mari El, Udmurtia, Komi, Mordovia, and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug have their own concepts and programs for national development. The Foundation for the Development of Cultures of Finno-Ugric Peoples has been created and operates (on the territory of the Mari El Republic).

Finno-Ugric peoples: appearance

The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians were the result of a mixture of Paleo-European and Paleo-Asian tribes. Therefore, the appearance of all the peoples of this group contains both Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. Some scientists even put forward a theory about the existence of an independent race - the Ural, which is “intermediate” between Europeans and Asians, but this version has few supporters.

Finno-Ugrians are heterogeneous in anthropological terms. However, any representative of the Finno-Ugric people possesses characteristic “Ural” features to one degree or another. This is, as a rule, of average height, very light hair color, a snub nose, a wide face, and a sparse beard. But these features manifest themselves in different ways.

Thus, the Erzya Mordvins are tall, have blond hair and blue eyes. Mordvins-Moksha - on the contrary, are shorter, with wide cheekbones, and darker hair. The Udmurts and Mari often have characteristic “Mongolian” eyes with a special fold at the inner corner of the eye - epicanthus, very wide faces, and a thin beard. But at the same time, their hair, as a rule, is blond and red, and their eyes are blue or gray, which is typical for Europeans, but not Mongoloids. The “Mongolian fold” is also found among the Izhorians, Vodians, Karelians and even Estonians. Komi people look different. Where there are mixed marriages with the Nenets, representatives of this people have braided hair and black hair. Other Komi, on the contrary, are more like Scandinavians, but have wider faces.

Religion and language

Finno-Ugric peoples living in European Russia are predominantly Orthodox Christians. However, the Udmurts and Mari in some places managed to preserve the ancient (animistic) religion, and the Samoyed peoples and inhabitants of Siberia - shamanism.

Finno-Ugric languages ​​are related to modern Finnish and Hungarian. The peoples who speak them make up the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group. Their origin, territory of settlement, commonality and differences in external features, culture, religion and traditions are the subjects of global research in the field of history, anthropology, geography, linguistics and a number of other sciences. This review article will try to briefly cover this topic.

Peoples included in the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group

Based on the degree of similarity of languages, researchers divide the Finno-Ugric peoples into five subgroups. The basis of the first, Baltic-Finnish, are Finns and Estonians - peoples with their own states. They also live in Russia. The Setu, a small group of Estonians, are settled in the Pskov region. The most numerous of the Baltic-Finnish peoples of Russia are the Karelians. In everyday life they use three autochthonous dialects, while Finnish is considered their literary language. In addition, the same subgroup includes the Vepsians and Izhorians - small peoples who have preserved their languages, as well as the Vod (there are less than a hundred people left, their own language has been lost) and the Livs.

Second– Sami (or Lapp) subgroup. The main part of the peoples who gave it its name are settled in Scandinavia. In Russia, the Sami live on the Kola Peninsula. Researchers suggest that in ancient times these peoples occupied a larger territory, but were subsequently pushed further north. At the same time, their own language was replaced by one of the Finnish dialects.

On the third the subgroup that makes up the Finno-Ugric peoples - the Volga-Finnish - includes the Mari and Mordovians. The Mari are the main part of the population of the Mari El Republic; they also live in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurtia and a number of other Russian regions. They have two literary languages ​​(with which, however, not all researchers agree). Mordva – autochthonous population of the Republic of Mordovia; at the same time, a significant part of the Mordvins are settled throughout Russia. This people consists of two ethnographic groups, each with its own literary written language.

Fourth the subgroup is called Permian. It includes the Komi, Komi-Permyaks, and also the Udmurts. Even before October 1917, in terms of literacy (though in Russian), the Komi were approaching the most educated peoples of Russia - Jews and Russian Germans. As for the Udmurts, their dialect has been preserved for the most part in the villages of the Udmurt Republic. Residents of cities, as a rule, forget both the indigenous language and customs.

TO fifth, the Ugric subgroup includes the Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi. Although the lower reaches of the Ob and the northern Urals are separated by many kilometers from the Hungarian state on the Danube, these peoples are actually the closest relatives. The Khanty and Mansi belong to the small peoples of the North.

Disappeared Finno-Ugric tribes

The Finno-Ugric peoples also included tribes, mentions of which are currently preserved only in chronicles. So, Merya people lived between the Volga and Oka rivers in the first millennium AD - there is a theory that he subsequently merged with the Eastern Slavs.

The same thing happened with Muromoy. This is an even more ancient people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group, who once inhabited the Oka basin. Researchers call the long-vanished Finnish tribes that lived along the Onega and Northern Dvina rivers miracle(according to one hypothesis, they were the ancestors of modern Estonians).

Commonality of languages ​​and culture

Having declared the Finno-Ugric languages ​​as a single group, researchers emphasize this commonality as the main factor uniting the peoples who speak them. However, the Ural ethnic groups, despite the similarity in the structure of their languages, still do not always understand each other. Thus, a Finn will certainly be able to communicate with an Estonian, an Erzyan with a Moksha, and an Udmurt with a Komi. However, the peoples of this group, geographically distant from each other, must make quite a lot of effort to identify common features in their languages ​​that would help them conduct a conversation.

The linguistic kinship of the Finno-Ugric peoples is primarily traced in the similarity of linguistic constructions. This significantly influences the formation of the thinking and worldview of peoples. Despite the differences in cultures, this circumstance contributes to the emergence of mutual understanding between these ethnic groups. At the same time, the unique psychology determined by the thought process in these languages ​​enriches universal human culture with their unique vision of the world.

Thus, unlike the Indo-Europeans, the representative of the Finno-Ugric people is inclined to treat nature with exceptional respect. Finno-Ugric culture also largely contributed to the desire of these peoples to peacefully adapt to their neighbors - as a rule, they preferred not to fight, but to migrate, preserving their identity. Also, a characteristic feature of the peoples of this group is openness to ethnocultural exchange. In search of ways to strengthen relationships with related peoples, they maintain cultural contacts with all those who surround them.

Basically, the Finno-Ugric people managed to preserve their languages ​​and basic cultural elements. The connection with ethnic traditions in this area can be seen in their national songs, dances, music, traditional dishes, and clothing. Also, many elements of their ancient rituals have survived to this day: wedding, funeral, memorial.

40 000
250-400

Archaeological culture Language Religion

Finno-Ugric peoples (Finno-Ugrians listen)) - a linguistic community of peoples speaking Finno-Ugric languages ​​living in Western Siberia, Central, Northern and Eastern Europe.

Classification and numbers

Finno-Ugric peoples are divided into two groups: Finnish and Ugric.

The total number of Finno-Ugric peoples is estimated at 25 million people. Of these, there are about 14 million Hungarians, 5 million Finns, about 1 million Estonians, 843 thousand Mordovians, 637 thousand Udmurts, 614 thousand Mari.

Finno-Permian group

Baltic-Finnish subgroup

  • Finns (Suomi) - 6,000,000: 4,800,000 - in Finland, 300,000 - in Sweden, 300,000 people - in the USA, 50 people - in Kazakhstan.
    • Ingrians - 32,231: 20,300 - in Russia, 10,639 - in Estonia.
    • Kvens - 10,000 - 60,000 - in Norway.
  • Estonians - 1,050,000: 920,000 - in Estonia (), 39,763 - in Finland (), 28,113 - in Russia (2002), 25,509 - in Sweden (), 25,000 - USA ().
    • Võru - 74,000 in Estonia.
    • Setu - 10,000: 10,000 in Estonia, 214 in Russia (2010).
  • Karelians - 120,000: 93,344 - in Russia (2002), 20,000 - in Finland.
  • Veps - 8,240 people in Russia (2002).
  • Izhorians - 700 people: 327 people - in Russia (2002).
  • Livs - 250-400 people (in Latvia).
  • Vod - 100 people: 73 - in Russia (2002).

Sami subgroup

  • Sami - 30,000-70,000: 40,000 in Norway, 20,000 in Sweden, 6,500 in Finland, 1.8 thousand people in Russia (2010).

Volga-Finnish subgroup

  • Mordva - 744,237 in Russia (2010)
    • Mokshane - 49,624 in Russia (2002)
    • Erzyans - 84,407 in Russia (2002)
  • Mari - 547,605 in Russia (2010)

Perm subgroup

  • Udmurts - 636,906 in Russia (2002).
    • Besermyans - 3,122 in Russia (2002).
  • Komi-Zyrians - 293,406 in Russia (2002).
    • Komi-Izhemtsy - 15,607 in Russia (2002).
  • Komi-Permyaks - 125,235 in Russia (2002).
    • Komi-Yazvintsy - 5,000 in Russia.

Ugric group

Danube subgroup

  • Hungarians - 14,500,000: 9,416,015 - in Hungary (), 1,563,081 - in the USA (), 1,433,073 - in Romania (), 520,528 - in Slovakia (), 315,510 - in Canada (), 293 299 - in Serbia (), 156,600 - in Ukraine ().
    • Yases (medieval Alan people assimilated by the Hungarians)

Ob subgroup

  • Khanty - 28,678 people in Russia (2002).
  • Mansi - 11,432 people in Russia (2002).

Classification of state-territorial entities

Modern independent Finno-Ugric states

Modern Finno-Ugric national autonomies

Romania Russia

Archeology

  • Cherkaskul culture - Bronze Age culture in the south of the Urals and Western Siberia
  • Mezhovskaya culture - Bronze Age culture in the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia
  • Ananyinskaya culture - Iron Age culture in the Middle Volga region
  • Pianoborskaya culture - Iron Age culture in the Volga region and the Urals
  • Bakhmutin culture and the Kama region
  • Dyakovo culture - Iron Age culture in Central Russia
  • Gorodets culture - Iron Age culture in Southern Russia and the Volga region
  • Karayakup culture - Iron Age culture in the Southern Urals
  • Kushnarenkovskaya culture - Iron Age culture in the Southern Urals
  • Mazuninskaya culture - Iron Age culture in the Kama region and on the lower reaches of the Belaya River
  • Sargat culture - Iron Age culture in Western Siberia

Story

Linguistic analysis shows the presence of direct contacts between the population of the Indo-Iranian group and the population of the Finno-Ugric language group. V.N. Chernetsov point to the presence of many Iranian features in the language, folklore and rituals of the later Ugric population of Western Siberia (Khanty and Mansi).

Genetics

According to the latest genetic data, the tribes that spread haplogroup N migrated from Southern Siberia.

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Notes

Literature

  • Bongard-Levin G. M., Grantovsky E. A. From Scythia to India. M., 2000.
  • Bernshtam T. A. Christianization in the ethnocultural processes of the Finno-Ugric peoples of the European North and the Volga region (comparative generalization) // Modern Finno-Ugric Studies. Experience and problems. Collection of scientific works State. Museum of Ethnography of the Peoples of the USSR. - L., 1990. - P. 133-140.
  • Worldview of the Finno-Ugric peoples. M., 1990.
  • Napolskikh V.V. Introduction to historical uralistics. Izhevsk: UdmIYAL, 1997.
  • Peoples of the Volga and Urals regions. Komi-Zyryans. Komi-Permyaks. Mari. Mordva. Udmurts. M., 2000.
  • Ryabinin E. A. Finno-Ugric tribes within Ancient Rus'. St. Petersburg : St. Petersburg State University Publishing House, 1997.
  • Khelimsky E. A. Comparative studies, uralistics: Lectures and articles. M.: Languages ​​of Russian culture, 2000.
  • Fedyanovich T. L. Family customs and rituals of the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region. M., 1997.

Links

An excerpt characterizing the Finno-Ugric peoples

Chernyshev was sitting with a book of a French novel at the window of the first room. This room was probably formerly a hall; there was still an organ in it, on which some carpets were piled, and in one corner stood the folding bed of Adjutant Bennigsen. This adjutant was here. He, apparently exhausted by a feast or business, sat on a rolled up bed and dozed. Two doors led from the hall: one straight into the former living room, the other to the right into the office. From the first door one could hear voices speaking in German and occasionally in French. There, in the former living room, at the sovereign’s request, not a military council was gathered (the sovereign loved uncertainty), but some people whose opinions on the upcoming difficulties he wanted to know. This was not a military council, but, as it were, a council of those elected to clarify certain issues personally for the sovereign. Invited to this half-council were: the Swedish General Armfeld, Adjutant General Wolzogen, Wintzingerode, whom Napoleon called a fugitive French subject, Michaud, Tol, not a military man at all - Count Stein and, finally, Pfuel himself, who, as Prince Andrei heard, was la cheville ouvriere [the basis] of the whole matter. Prince Andrei had the opportunity to take a good look at him, since Pfuel arrived soon after him and walked into the living room, stopping for a minute to talk with Chernyshev.
At first glance, Pfuel, in his poorly tailored Russian general's uniform, which sat awkwardly on him, as if dressed up, seemed familiar to Prince Andrei, although he had never seen him. It included Weyrother, Mack, Schmidt, and many other German theoretic generals whom Prince Andrei managed to see in 1805; but he was more typical than all of them. Prince Andrei had never seen such a German theoretician, who combined in himself everything that was in those Germans.
Pfuel was short, very thin, but broad-boned, of a rough, healthy build, with a wide pelvis and bony shoulder blades. His face was very wrinkled, with deep-set eyes. His hair in front, near his temples, was obviously hastily smoothed with a brush, and naively stuck out with tassels at the back. He, looking around restlessly and angrily, entered the room, as if he was afraid of everything in the large room into which he entered. He, holding his sword with an awkward movement, turned to Chernyshev, asking in German where the sovereign was. He apparently wanted to go through the rooms as quickly as possible, finish bowing and greetings, and sit down to work in front of the map, where he felt at home. He hastily nodded his head at Chernyshev’s words and smiled ironically, listening to his words that the sovereign was inspecting the fortifications that he, Pfuel himself, had laid down according to his theory. He grumbled something bassily and coolly, as self-confident Germans say, to himself: Dummkopf... or: zu Grunde die ganze Geschichte... or: s"wird was gescheites d"raus werden... [nonsense... to hell with the whole thing... (German) ] Prince Andrei did not hear and wanted to pass, but Chernyshev introduced Prince Andrei to Pful, noting that Prince Andrei came from Turkey, where the war was so happily over. Pful almost looked not so much at Prince Andrei as through him, and said laughing: “Da muss ein schoner taktischcr Krieg gewesen sein.” [“It must have been a correctly tactical war.” (German)] - And, laughing contemptuously, he walked into the room from which voices were heard.
Apparently, Pfuel, who was always ready for ironic irritation, was now especially excited by the fact that they dared to inspect his camp without him and judge him. Prince Andrei, from this one short meeting with Pfuel, thanks to his Austerlitz memories, compiled a clear description of this man. Pfuel was one of those hopelessly, invariably, self-confident people to the point of martyrdom, which only Germans can be, and precisely because only Germans are self-confident on the basis of an abstract idea - science, that is, an imaginary knowledge of perfect truth. The Frenchman is self-confident because he considers himself personally, both in mind and body, to be irresistibly charming to both men and women. An Englishman is self-confident on the grounds that he is a citizen of the most comfortable state in the world, and therefore, as an Englishman, he always knows what he needs to do, and knows that everything he does as an Englishman is undoubtedly good. The Italian is self-confident because he is excited and easily forgets himself and others. The Russian is self-confident precisely because he knows nothing and does not want to know, because he does not believe that it is possible to completely know anything. The German is the worst self-confident of all, and the firmest of all, and the most disgusting of all, because he imagines that he knows the truth, a science that he himself invented, but which for him is the absolute truth. This, obviously, was Pfuel. He had a science - the theory of physical movement, which he derived from the history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the modern history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the latest military history, seemed to him nonsense, barbarism, an ugly clash, in which so many mistakes were made on both sides that these wars could not be called wars: they did not fit the theory and could not serve as the subject of science.
In 1806, Pfuel was one of the drafters of the plan for the war that ended with Jena and Auerstätt; but in the outcome of this war he did not see the slightest proof of the incorrectness of his theory. On the contrary, the deviations made from his theory, according to his concepts, were the only reason for the entire failure, and he, with his characteristic joyful irony, said: “Ich sagte ja, daji die ganze Geschichte zum Teufel gehen wird.” [After all, I said that the whole thing would go to hell (German)] Pfuel was one of those theorists who love their theory so much that they forget the purpose of theory - its application to practice; In his love for theory, he hated all practice and did not want to know it. He even rejoiced at failure, because failure, which resulted from a deviation in practice from theory, only proved to him the validity of his theory.
He said a few words with Prince Andrei and Chernyshev about the real war with the expression of a man who knows in advance that everything will be bad and that he is not even dissatisfied with it. The unkempt tufts of hair sticking out at the back of his head and the hastily slicked temples especially eloquently confirmed this.
He walked into another room, and from there the bassy and grumbling sounds of his voice were immediately heard.

Before Prince Andrei had time to follow Pfuel with his eyes, Count Bennigsen hurriedly entered the room and, nodding his head to Bolkonsky, without stopping, walked into the office, giving some orders to his adjutant. The Emperor was following him, and Bennigsen hurried forward to prepare something and have time to meet the Emperor. Chernyshev and Prince Andrei went out onto the porch. The Emperor got off his horse with a tired look. Marquis Paulucci said something to the sovereign. The Emperor, bowing his head to the left, listened with a dissatisfied look to Paulucci, who spoke with particular fervor. The Emperor moved forward, apparently wanting to end the conversation, but the flushed, excited Italian, forgetting decency, followed him, continuing to say:
“Quant a celui qui a conseille ce camp, le camp de Drissa, [As for the one who advised the Drissa camp,” said Paulucci, while the sovereign, entering the steps and noticing Prince Andrei, peered into an unfamiliar face .

Finno-Ugric languages ​​are related to modern Finnish and Hungarian. The peoples who speak them make up the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group. Their origin, territory of settlement, commonality and differences in external features, culture, religion and traditions are the subjects of global research in the field of history, anthropology, geography, linguistics and a number of other sciences. This review article will try to briefly cover this topic.

Peoples included in the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group

Based on the degree of similarity of languages, researchers divide the Finno-Ugric peoples into five subgroups.

The basis of the first, Baltic-Finnish, are Finns and Estonians - peoples with their own states. They also live in Russia. Setu - a small group of Estonians - settled in the Pskov region. The most numerous of the Baltic-Finnish peoples of Russia are the Karelians. In everyday life they use three autochthonous dialects, while Finnish is considered their literary language. In addition, the Vepsians and Izhorians belong to the same subgroup - small peoples who have preserved their languages, as well as the Vods (there are less than a hundred people left, their own language has been lost) and Livs.

The second is the Sami (or Lapp) subgroup. The main part of the peoples who gave it its name are settled in Scandinavia. In Russia, the Sami live on the Kola Peninsula. Researchers suggest that in ancient times these peoples occupied a larger territory, but were subsequently pushed further north. At the same time, their own language was replaced by one of the Finnish dialects.

The third subgroup that makes up the Finno-Ugric peoples - the Volga-Finnish - includes the Mari and Mordovians. The Mari are the main part of Mari El; they also live in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurtia and a number of other Russian regions. They have two literary languages ​​(with which, however, not all researchers agree). Mordva - autochthonous population of the Republic of Mordovia; at the same time, a significant part of the Mordvins are settled throughout Russia. This people consists of two ethnographic groups, each with its own literary written language.

The fourth subgroup is called Permian. It also includes the Udmurts. Even before October 1917, in terms of literacy (though in Russian), the Komi were approaching the most educated peoples of Russia - Jews and Russian Germans. As for the Udmurts, their dialect has been preserved for the most part in the villages of the Udmurt Republic. Residents of cities, as a rule, forget both the indigenous language and customs.

The fifth, Ugric, subgroup includes the Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi. Although the lower reaches of the Ob and the northern Urals are separated by many kilometers from the Hungarian state on the Danube, these peoples are actually the closest relatives. The Khanty and Mansi belong to the small peoples of the North.

Disappeared Finno-Ugric tribes

The Finno-Ugric peoples also included tribes, mentions of which are currently preserved only in chronicles. Thus, the Merya people lived between the Volga and Oka rivers in the first millennium AD - there is a theory that they subsequently merged with the Eastern Slavs.

The same thing happened with Muroma. This is an even more ancient people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group, who once inhabited the Oka basin.

The long-vanished Finnish tribes that lived along the Northern Dvina are called Chudya by researchers (according to one hypothesis, they were the ancestors of modern Estonians).

Commonality of languages ​​and culture

Having declared the Finno-Ugric languages ​​as a single group, researchers emphasize this commonality as the main factor uniting the peoples who speak them. However, the Ural ethnic groups, despite the similarity in the structure of their languages, still do not always understand each other. Thus, a Finn will certainly be able to communicate with an Estonian, an Erzyan with a Moksha, and an Udmurt with a Komi. However, the peoples of this group, geographically distant from each other, must make quite a lot of effort to identify common features in their languages ​​that would help them conduct a conversation.

The linguistic kinship of the Finno-Ugric peoples is primarily traced in the similarity of linguistic constructions. This significantly influences the formation of the thinking and worldview of peoples. Despite the differences in cultures, this circumstance contributes to the emergence of mutual understanding between these ethnic groups.

At the same time, the unique psychology determined by the thought process in these languages ​​enriches universal human culture with their unique vision of the world. Thus, unlike the Indo-Europeans, the representative of the Finno-Ugric people is inclined to treat nature with exceptional respect. Finno-Ugric culture also largely contributed to the desire of these peoples to peacefully adapt to their neighbors - as a rule, they preferred not to fight, but to migrate, preserving their identity.

Also, a characteristic feature of the peoples of this group is openness to ethnocultural exchange. In search of ways to strengthen relationships with related peoples, they maintain cultural contacts with all those who surround them. Basically, the Finno-Ugric people managed to preserve their languages ​​and basic cultural elements. The connection with ethnic traditions in this area can be seen in their national songs, dances, music, traditional dishes, and clothing. Also, many elements of their ancient rituals have survived to this day: wedding, funeral, memorial.

Brief history of the Finno-Ugric peoples

The origin and early history of the Finno-Ugric peoples remain the subject of scientific debate to this day. The most common opinion among researchers is that in ancient times there was a single group of people who spoke a common Finno-Ugric proto-language. The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians until the end of the third millennium BC. e. maintained relative unity. They were settled in the Urals and the western Urals, and possibly also in some adjacent areas.

In that era, called Finno-Ugric, their tribes came into contact with the Indo-Iranians, which was reflected in myths and languages. Between the third and second millennia BC. e. The Ugric and Finno-Permian branches separated from each other. Among the peoples of the latter, who settled in a western direction, independent subgroups of languages ​​gradually emerged and became distinct (Baltic-Finnish, Volga-Finnish, Permian). As a result of the transition of the autochthonous population of the Far North to one of the Finno-Ugric dialects, the Sami were formed.

The Ugric group of languages ​​disintegrated by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Baltic-Finnish division occurred at the beginning of our era. Perm lasted a little longer - until the eighth century. Contacts of Finno-Ugric tribes with Baltic, Iranian, Slavic, Turkic, and Germanic peoples played a major role in the separate development of these languages.

Territory of settlement

Finno-Ugric peoples today mainly live in Northwestern Europe. Geographically, they are settled over a vast territory from Scandinavia to the Urals, Volga-Kama, lower and middle Tobol region. The Hungarians are the only people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group who formed their own state away from other related tribes - in the Carpathian-Danube region.

Number of Finno-Ugric peoples

The total number of peoples speaking Uralic languages ​​(these include Finno-Ugric and Samoyed) is 23-24 million people. The most numerous representatives are Hungarians. There are more than 15 million of them in the world. They are followed by Finns and Estonians (5 and 1 million people, respectively). Most other Finno-Ugric ethnic groups live in modern Russia.

Finno-Ugric ethnic groups in Russia

Russian settlers flocked en masse to the lands of the Finno-Ugrians in the 16th-18th centuries. Most often, the process of their settlement in these areas occurred peacefully, but some indigenous peoples (for example, the Mari) for a long time and fiercely resisted the annexation of their region to the Russian state.

The Christian religion, writing, and urban culture, introduced by the Russians, over time began to displace local beliefs and dialects. People moved to cities, moved to Siberian and Altai lands - where Russian was the main and common language. However, he (especially his northern dialect) absorbed many Finno-Ugric words - this is most noticeable in the field of toponyms and names of natural phenomena.

In some places, the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia mixed with the Turks, converting to Islam. However, a significant part of them were still assimilated by the Russians. Therefore, these peoples do not constitute a majority anywhere - even in those republics that bear their name.

However, according to the 2002 population census, there are very significant Finno-Ugric groups in Russia. These are the Mordovians (843 thousand people), Udmurts (almost 637 thousand), Mari (604 thousand), Komi-Zyryans (293 thousand), Komi-Permyaks (125 thousand), Karelians (93 thousand). The number of some peoples does not exceed thirty thousand people: Khanty, Mansi, Vepsians. The Izhorians number 327 people, and the Vod people number only 73 people. Hungarians, Finns, Estonians, and Sami also live in Russia.

Development of Finno-Ugric culture in Russia

In total, sixteen Finno-Ugric peoples live in Russia. Five of them have their own national-state entities, and two have national-territorial ones. Others are dispersed throughout the country.

In Russia, considerable attention is paid to the preservation of the original cultural traditions of those inhabiting it. At the national and local level, programs are being developed with the support of which the culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples, their customs and dialects is being studied.

Thus, Sami, Khanty, Mansi are taught in primary schools, and Komi, Mari, Udmurt, and Mordovian languages ​​are taught in secondary schools in those regions where large groups of the corresponding ethnic groups live. There are special laws on culture and languages ​​(Mari El, Komi). Thus, in the Republic of Karelia there is an education law that enshrines the right of Vepsians and Karelians to study in their native language. The priority for the development of the cultural traditions of these peoples is determined by the Law on Culture.

Also, the republics of Mari El, Udmurtia, Komi, Mordovia, and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug have their own concepts and programs for national development. The Foundation for the Development of Cultures of Finno-Ugric Peoples has been created and operates (on the territory of the Mari El Republic).

Finno-Ugric peoples: appearance

The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians were the result of a mixture of Paleo-European and Paleo-Asian tribes. Therefore, the appearance of all the peoples of this group contains both Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. Some scientists even put forward a theory about the existence of an independent race - the Ural, which is “intermediate” between Europeans and Asians, but this version has few supporters.

Finno-Ugrians are heterogeneous in anthropological terms. However, any representative of the Finno-Ugric people possesses characteristic “Ural” features to one degree or another. This is usually of average height, very light hair color, wide face, sparse beard. But these features manifest themselves in different ways. Thus, the Erzya Mordvins are tall, have blond hair and blue eyes. Mordvins-Moksha - on the contrary, are shorter, with wide cheekbones, and darker hair. The Udmurts and Mari often have characteristic “Mongolian” eyes with a special fold at the inner corner of the eye - epicanthus, very wide faces, and a thin beard. But at the same time, their hair, as a rule, is blond and red, and their eyes are blue or gray, which is typical for Europeans, but not Mongoloids. The “Mongolian fold” is also found among the Izhorians, Vodians, Karelians and even Estonians. Komi people look different. Where there are mixed marriages with the Nenets, representatives of this people have braided hair and black hair. Other Komi, on the contrary, are more like Scandinavians, but have wider faces.

Finno-Ugric traditional cuisine in Russia

Most of the dishes of traditional Finno-Ugric and Trans-Ural cuisines, in fact, have not been preserved or have been significantly distorted. However, ethnographers manage to trace some general patterns.

The main food product of the Finno-Ugrians was fish. It was not only processed in different ways (fried, dried, boiled, fermented, dried, eaten raw), but each type was also prepared in its own way, which would better convey the taste.

Before the advent of firearms, the main method of hunting in the forest was snares. They caught mainly forest birds (grouse, wood grouse) and small animals, mainly hares. Meat and poultry were stewed, boiled and baked, and much less often, fried.

For vegetables they used turnips and radishes, and for herbs - watercress, hogweed, horseradish, onions, and young mushrooms growing in the forest. Western Finno-Ugric peoples practically did not consume mushrooms; at the same time, for the eastern ones they constituted a significant part of the diet. The oldest types of grain known to these peoples are barley and wheat (spelt). They were used to prepare porridges, hot jelly, and also as a filling for homemade sausages.

The modern culinary repertoire of the Finno-Ugric people contains very few national features, since it has been strongly influenced by Russian, Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash and other cuisines. However, almost every nation has preserved one or two traditional, ritual or festive dishes that have survived to this day. Taken together, they allow us to get a general idea of ​​Finno-Ugric cooking.

Finno-Ugric peoples: religion

Most Finno-Ugrians profess the Christian faith. Finns, Estonians and Western Sami are Lutherans. Catholics predominate among Hungarians, although you can also meet Calvinists and Lutherans.

Finno-Ugrians living in are predominantly Orthodox Christians. However, the Udmurts and Mari in some places managed to preserve the ancient (animistic) religion, and the Samoyed peoples and inhabitants of Siberia - shamanism.

If you pay attention to the map of the Russian Federation, you can find in the Volga and Kama basins the names of rivers where the syllables “ga” and “va” occur. This confirms that Finno-Ugric tribes lived here. In their language, such syllables mean “river.” Despite the fact that they had a fairly wide distribution area, many historians still cannot say exactly what their way of life was.

Description of the Finno-Ugric tribes

Since Finno-Ugric tribes lived in a significant part of Russia, their names are very diverse. They can be divided into five main groups:

  1. Karelians living in the Republic of Karelia. They communicate in several dialects, but the main language is Finnish. They also speak Russian.
  2. Lapps or Sami living in Northern Scandinavia. Previously, their numbers were much larger, but over time they were pushed to the north, as a result of which poor living conditions began to steadily reduce the number of people.
  3. Mordovians and Mari living on the territory of Mordovia, as well as in many Russian regions. Of all the groups, this is the one that is considered to have quickly Russified; the nationalities immediately adopted the Christian faith and the corresponding language.
  4. Komi and Udmurts inhabiting the Komi Republic. This group is the most educated; they had no equal in terms of literacy until the revolution.
  5. Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi, living in the Northern Urals and the lower reaches of the Ob. But initially the banks of the Danube were considered the capital of this nation.

Thus, the Finno-Ugric tribes throughout their history marched in the same ranks with the Russians. This means that their cultures were intertwined, they learned new things from each other.

Where did the Finno-Ugrians come from?

Speaking about where the Finno-Ugric tribes settled, let’s delve into the question of the origin of the nationality. The fact is that their place of residence covers large territories, but there is no exact information about where it all began.

It is believed that they represent the primordial In the IV-III millennium BC. e. they not only occupied Russian territories completely, but also spread to Europe. There are two opinions about why the tribes went West. Firstly, it could be normal migration. Secondly, the possibility of their being pushed back by the conquerors is allowed.

Historians consider the second option more probable, since in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Tribes from Turkey, India, Asia Minor, and so on began to penetrate into Russian territory. However, what can be said for sure is that the Finno-Ugric peoples played an important role in the formation of the Slavic people.

Pre-Slavic population

The Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes are considered the indigenous population of the Russian land before the Slavs. They began to develop these territories 6 thousand years ago. They gradually moved to the west of the Ural Mountains, then to the East European Plain, and then reached the coast of the Baltic Sea. However, the Urals have always been considered the homeland of these peoples.

Unfortunately, most of the Finno-Ugric tribes have not survived to this day. Their current numbers are minimal. But what we can say for sure is that the descendants of such a vast and numerous people in the past live throughout the entire planet.

Habitat

The settlement of Finno-Ugric tribes cannot be called unambiguous. This is due to the fact that the process began in but subsequently captured other territories. They were mostly attracted to the north and west.

By the 1st millennium, virtually the entire Baltic territory was occupied by Finno-Ugric tribes. The place of settlement is not the only one, as some ethnic groups went towards Northern Scandinavia.

But excavations show that all these peoples had much in common with the Slavs, from farming, religion to appearance. Consequently, although most of the tribes went north, some of them remained on the territory of modern Russia.

First meetings with Russians

In the 16th-18th centuries, Russian settlers began to rush to the territories where Finno-Ugric tribes lived. The list of military skirmishes was minimal, since for the most part settlement was carried out completely peacefully. Only rarely did the annexation of new lands to the Russian state meet with resistance. The Mari were the most aggressive.

Religion, writing and the language of the Russians quite quickly began to supplant the local culture. But also from the Finno-Ugric side, some words and dialects entered the language. For example, some Russian surnames, like Shukshin, Piyasheva and others, have nothing in common with our culture. They go back to the name of the tribe “Shuksha”, and the name “Piyash” is generally pre-Christian. Thus, the combination of two cultures takes place harmoniously, complementing each other.

Colonization

The ancient Finno-Ugric tribes lived over large territories, which was the reason for their displacement. It should be noted that not all of them could defend themselves from armed colonialists. But this did not need to be done, since many lands joined Rus' quickly and without resistance.

However, the places where Finno-Ugric tribes lived attracted not only Russians. The Turks were also interested in expanding their territories. Therefore, part of the people accepted not the Christian, but the Muslim faith.

It should be noted that, despite the fact that the Finno-Ugrians literally dissolved in the cultures that appeared on their lands, they retained their anthropological type. These are blue eyes, blond hair and a wide face. Also, many words were borrowed from their language, for example, tundra or sprat.

Farm

In fact, it is impossible to identify any specific features of the economic activities conducted by the Finno-Ugric tribes. Their occupations were mostly reindeer herding, fishing and hunting. Only some of the tribal subgroups had differences.

For example, the Mari, who had a negative attitude towards joining the Russian state, resisted until the revolution. This had a negative impact on them. They could not trade, and few of them could carry out craft activities. Living in villages and hamlets forced them to earn a living only through cattle breeding and agriculture.

The Komi subgroup, which is distinguished by education, could earn money in a different way. Among them there were many merchants and entrepreneurs, which made it possible to abandon hard work.

Religion

Orthodoxy was the religion of most of the peoples who made up the Finno-Ugric tribes. The religion of some of them differs quite strongly due to the fact that during the colonization of the territories, some were conquered by the Turks. Therefore, individual settlements were forced to turn to Islam and Islam.

But not all Finno-Ugric tribes profess Orthodoxy. The list of nationalities that have turned to other religions is minimal, but it still exists.

The Udmurts adopted Orthodoxy, but this did not become the reason for following Christian traditions. Many of them were baptized only so that the Russian nobility would leave them alone. Their main religion is paganism. They worship deities and spirits. Many of the Komi people retained their former faith and remained Old Believers.

The Khanty and Mansi also did not perceive Christianity as their main religion. They turned to the old faith, and did not even try to hide it; baptism was alien to them. But due to the fact that they lived far from the Russian princes, no one could force them to accept Orthodoxy. Probably for this reason, the old faith remained the only one for the Khanty and Mansi that they knew about. They simply had nothing to compare with.

Writing

Unfortunately, the Finno-Ugric tribes include those groups of people who considered the transmission of written information sinful. As a result of this, any literary sources are simply excluded. Transmission of information in written form is prohibited.

However, the use of hieroglyphs was available. It began in the 4th millennium BC. e. and continued until the 14th century. Only then did the Metropolitan of Perm appropriate his own letter to the Komi tribe. It is likely that this is why they became more educated than their blood brothers.

Finno-Ugric tribes, unlike the Slavs, did not have a specific language. Each settlement used its own dialect. Often, within the same nationality, people could not understand each other. This was probably also the reason for the lack of writing.

Literature and languages

All Finno-Ugric tribes, whose names cannot be counted due to their large numbers, spoke their own dialects. Moreover, even one nationality often could not understand its blood neighbor without an interpreter. But, contrary to popular belief, the most common languages ​​have not disappeared.

On the territory of modern Russia, you can find schools where they teach in two languages ​​- Russian and their native language - the one spoken by their ancestors many thousands of years ago. For example, in Mordovia there is a study of Russian and

Before the reign of Peter I, modern Russia was not known for forcing the entire population to speak exclusively Russian. It was used only in large cities or large administrative institutions (tax offices, etc.). The Russian language penetrated into villages and small settlements gradually; at first, it was used to communicate only with landowners and bailiffs.

The Moksha, Meryan and Mari languages ​​were considered the main literature. Moreover, they were spoken in them even with cab drivers, market traders, and so on. That is, it was simply unprofitable for various people involved in business activities not to know the dialects of their clients.

Conclusion

Literature was also enriched by the culture of this people. Finno-Ugrians always buried their dead in oak coffins. They needed to be guarded. The role of guards was taken on by cats, which, according to legend, were inhabited by the soul of a sorcerer or sorcerer of the tribe. Chains were also hung on the oak if it was intended for quick cutting and processing. Accordingly, even such a great Russian classic as Pushkin could not abandon Finno-Ugric culture. And, probably, his learned cat represents none other than a shaman who came from the afterlife.



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