The process of developing a management decision includes three main stages. The process of implementing a management decision
Introduction
The relevance of the study is due to the fact that in market economic conditions, entrepreneurship is the most important form of development of commercial organizations of various fields and scales of activity. To achieve and maintain leading positions in the market, business structures must promptly develop effective management solutions.
In the study of decision-making processes, both in theory and in management practice, until recently, the main attention was paid to the stage of developing decision alternatives and issues related to finding the optimal option. It was even believed that it was the development of a solution that took up most of the time and money allocated to solve the problem. But management practice shows otherwise. It is the implementation and control of decisions that is the most complex, labor-intensive and lengthy stage, absorbing the bulk of time and resources in the process of management activities.
The gap currently observed in management practice between the adoption of a management decision and its implementation and control, expressed both in the prolongation of implementation deadlines and in the insufficient effectiveness of implemented decisions, is largely a consequence of insufficient attention of managers to such an important area of their work as personal management . The fact is that not a single solution, even the most remarkable one, is implemented automatically; for its implementation it is necessary to make certain efforts and organize implementation.
Currently, managers do not pay enough attention to the problems of control, despite the fact that it is an integral element of the development of effective management in an enterprise, which reflects successful management activities aimed at finding solutions to help the organization survive in a dynamically changing environment in a competitive environment.
The purpose of the test is to consider the implementation of management decisions and control over their implementation.
Objectives of the course project:
Consider the process of implementing management decisions;
Characterize the organization and control of the implementation of management decisions;
Conduct an analysis of the implementation of management decisions and control over their implementation at CJSC STF "Medtechnika";
Show ways to improve control of management decisions at ZAO NTF Medtekhnika.
Implementation of management decisions
The organization must have a mechanism for implementing decisions made. The difficulty here lies in the need to coordinate many interrelated, simultaneously performed management tasks that are at various stages of implementation. The stage of implementation of a management decision consists of the following procedures:
development of a solution implementation plan;
implementation management;
monitoring the implementation of the decision;
assessment of implementation results Golubkov E.P. Technology of making management decisions. - M, 2005. - P. 123.
There are two groups of people: those who prepare the decision (P); those who implement it (N). These groups of people develop a special style of thinking. A developer, including a scientist, has a predominantly analytical-logical thinking style (AL). Those who implement decisions, including the manager, have a style of thinking that could be called intuitive-synthetic (IS).
People from the first group must determine:
what should be done;
how and who should do it;
what should be done when there are clear instructions on the two previous issues, but the decision is not implemented Golubkov E.P. Technology of making management decisions. - M, 2005. - P.124.
There is often a situation when the first (R) believe that they have found a reasonable solution, and the second (N) find that the solution left the most significant issues undeveloped and does not answer the question of how to do it.
Let's represent the initial stage of the decision implementation process as a matrix (Table 1).
Table 1
Matrix of human interaction at the initial stage
Let us explain each cell of this matrix for the case when the situation occurs when implementing the simplest decisions carried out by order, or decisions for which there are developed instructions.
The developer should also see the problem from the position of a manager. AL - the developer's style of thinking should be temporarily replaced by the IS style. On the other hand, the manager must try to understand the developer who is trying to find a rational solution, i.e. he must have AL-style thinking skills. Full mutual understanding is achieved when the team participates in developing solutions. Each decision must be proven and should not raise doubts about the need for implementation. Inertia and indifference arise in the absence of mutual understanding. Resistance appears in cases where there is no mutual understanding and there is distrust in the decision itself.
An important part of the analysis of the process of implementing decisions is the study of the motives that guide individual employees and structural units in preparing and implementing decisions. The possibility of consolidating motives is linked to the psychology of behavior of individual employees. Problems of motivation are closely related to the theory of organization and require the involvement of psychologists and sociologists.
The main reasons for failures in implementing solutions:
The management of the organization, and especially the middle level, is poorly familiar with the terminology and logic of decision-making theory. It is unable to perceive many of the provisions of this theory and, therefore, restructure its thinking. The main conclusion from this is the need to train managers in modern management methods;
in some cases, the set of alternatives presented to managers for choice does not correspond to their needs (an inaccurately understood goal, an imprecise criterion, the presence of unspecified but important factors, etc.). A direct consequence of this reason is the need to establish strong contacts between people of both groups (R and N);
many difficulties arise due to the fact that middle and lower level managers do not have the right to issue permission to conduct analysis of the activities of a unit, even at their own level of hierarchy;
to eliminate the listed difficulties in the organization, it is recommended to create a special unit, the main tasks of which should be monitoring existing procedures and developing and implementing innovations in this area; such a division should prevent the emergence of undesirable changes in the established practice of preparing decisions that could lead to duplication or unjustified complication of decisions. Regarding new functions, the division develops and reports to management its proposals for improving the decision-making process. In addition, the division must monitor the main directions of development of competing companies Glushchenko V.V., Glushchenko K.I. Development of a management decision. - Zheleznodorozhny, 2007. - P.83-84.
Every management decision has its own subject, i.e. the person or body that receives it, an object– the workforce or individual employees who must carry out this decision, and item, i.e. the content of the decision, which determines what needs to be done, etc.
Thus, a management decision is an act of the subject of management that determines the activity and behavior of the object of management. Through decisions, activity goals, deadlines for achieving them, types of work are established, people are assigned to positions and jobs, their functions, rights and responsibilities are determined, rules of behavior at work, penalties and incentives for employees, material resources and funds are distributed, quality is assessed products, etc.
A management decision is a complex act, including legal, social, psychological and other aspects. In legal terms, a management decision is an authoritative act of the subject of management, in which he expresses his will, exercises the rights granted to him to dispose of the labor of subordinate workers, material and monetary resources in the interests of production. At the same time, a decision is an act of the subject accepting responsibility for its possible adverse consequences and an act of assigning responsibility to the performers for its full and timely implementation. The manager is also responsible for the timeliness of decision-making and for avoiding making an overdue decision.
A management decision is a social act, since it is made by people and affects the interests of people.
A management decision is a psychological act, since it is the result of human mental activity. Therefore, the quality of a decision largely depends on the depth of thinking, which in turn is directly related to the knowledge and experience accumulated by a person and used by him in the decision-making process.
From an information point of view, a decision is the result of information processing, during which a choice is made among possible options of the one that is closest to the optimal, i.e., the best.
The decision is a direct product of managerial labor. These are intermediate products, but necessary. Without it, it is impossible to obtain the final product (car, building, finished clothing). A solution, as a type of product, can serve as a subject of purchase and sale. This allows the creation of special organizations to develop complex management decisions for a fee. The role of such organizations is often performed by research institutions, computer centers and other organizations.
The quality of management decisions directly affects management efficiency. Without a solution there is no management.
Management decisions can have different directions and many purposes.
The classification of management decisions can be carried out according to the following criteria: subject, object, subject, time of adoption, importance, formalizability, degree of independence, obligation, form.
By subject, i.e. Depending on who makes them, decisions can be divided into three groups. The first group of decisions is related to the type of management subject. Decisions can be made by: the administration of the organization, enterprise; local authorities; labor collective; public organizations. The second grouping is related to the place of the subject of the decision in the management hierarchy. Decisions are made by lower-level managers (foreman, foreman, foreman, site manager); mid-level managers (divisions of organizations, associations); managers of the highest level of management (organization, association). The third group of decisions is related to the number of people involved in their adoption: individual decisions made by managers on the basis of unity of command; collegial, adopted by specially created boards and various commissions; collective, adopted by labor collectives and collectives of public organizations.
Classification of solutions by object means dividing them depending on who is assigned to perform them. The object of decisions in construction can be the industry as a whole, its sub-sectors, construction organizations, as well as individuals.
By subject, i.e. In terms of content, solutions can be classified depending on the production subsystems to which they relate. There are technical, organizational, economic, social solutions.
By time, to which decisions relate, they can be divided into decisions about the future, present and past. Decisions about the future are planning and forecast decisions. Planning decisions (plans) are of a directive nature; predictive decisions (forecasts) are probabilistic predictions of the future state of the control object.
By degree of importance decisions are divided into strategic and tactical. Strategic decisions include such general decisions that have a decisive impact on the management object as a whole, on the success of the organization or enterprise. Strategic decisions involve not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes in the structure of production. Tactical are private decisions made to resolve current, private problems.
In terms of possibility formalization of work When preparing solutions, they are divided into formalizable and non-formalizable (standard non-standard). Formalized are those decisions that can be prepared according to a specific template. Therefore, all operations associated with the development of such solutions can be described in the form of an algorithm, programmed and performed using a computer. Non-formalizable solutions include those whose preparation process cannot be represented in the form of an algorithm. these are problem solutions that require a creative approach, for example, solutions to improve the quality of construction and labor productivity.
By degree independence solutions are divided into those applied: independently; in pursuance of decisions of higher management bodies; at the initiative of subordinate units.
Depending on the degree of obligation decisions are mandatory and recommended.
By form Decision submissions are classified into documented (written, electronic records) and undocumented (oral).
In order for management decisions to fulfill their leading role in management, they must satisfy a number of requirements, the main ones of which are: feasibility, timeliness, optimality, legality, authority, fairness, consistency and continuity, simplicity, brevity and clarity of presentation. Oral decisions transmitted through the chain of command through several authorities require particular simplicity, clarity and brevity.
Extremely harmful to the business, and ultimately also to those leaders who make decisions, are such negative traits as bias, substitution of what is desired, overinsurance, half-heartedness, and self-centeredness. Particularly dangerous is egocentrism, which manifests itself in the substitution of the general goals of the organization for individual or narrow group goals.
In order to make timely effective decisions on the entire range of emerging problems, it is necessary to properly organize the work on preparing solutions. This is the most important condition for the efficiency and effectiveness of management. The organization of preparation of solutions is determined by their complexity. Some decisions are made directly by the manager within a short time, others are developed by large groups of specialists over many months.
Decision making is the responsibility of the manager. To prepare complex decisions, a person responsible for organizing all the work may be appointed.
Organization of decision-making work includes: establishing the type of decision to be made; determining the scope of work, duration, timing of decision-making and the composition of specialists required for this; selection of decision-making methods, determination of the procedure for consideration, agreement and approval (signing) of the decision. When preparing the most complex decisions involving a large number of participants, it is advisable to draw up a decision plan.
In modern management, a noticeable problem is non-implementation of decisions. At the same time, the number of unfulfilled decisions on the same issue often increases. As a result, production suffers, discipline decreases, and workers become accustomed to not following through on decisions. Therefore, it is necessary for managers and management staff to show maximum persistence to steadily ensure the implementation of the decisions made.
Organization of the implementation of decisions includes: timely delivery of them to executors, accounting, control, regulation of implementation, analysis and evaluation of the results achieved as a result of the implementation of decisions. The possibility of successfully implementing a decision is inherent in the decision itself, when it indicates not only what is to be done, but also the performers, timing, means and methods of activity, as well as those who monitor the implementation of the decision. Despite this, in the case of complex decisions, a plan for its implementation is drawn up, detailing and specifying measures to ensure the implementation of decisions and linking them in time.
Bringing the decision to the executors must be timely and accompanied by its promotion and explanation. It is important to achieve a correct understanding of the content and significance of the decision, as well as to arouse in employees the desire to actively participate in its implementation.
It is necessary to organize accounting and control of the progress of implementation of decisions at its individual stages. For this purpose, all existing or special types of accounting and control are used. For accounting and control purposes, it is advisable to use a decision file.
Regulating the implementation of decisions consists of timely taking measures to eliminate the backlogs and other shortcomings in the implementation of decisions identified during the control process. If necessary, decisions are adjusted taking into account the specific situation.
Analysis and evaluation of the achieved results make it possible to establish the effectiveness of the solution, identify its shortcomings, evaluate the success of the work of the solution implementers and implement measures to stimulate them.
Systematic decision-making methods are based on a systems approach, which is a methodology for studying complex objects. The essence of the systems approach is that cognizable complex objects are considered as systems, that is, as a complex of elements that are interconnected and represent a holistic formation. A formation is considered holistic if it has new properties that are absent in its constituent elements. With a systems approach, attention is focused on revealing a complex object and identifying the whole variety of external and internal connections that influence its functioning and development.
Most systems are characterized by the presence of a goal, which is a system-forming factor. The same set of interconnected elements can represent different systems depending on the purpose in question. A system can be composed of elements included in it entirely or in some part, for example, part of its properties, simultaneously or sequentially. The same elements can be included in different systems. The internal connections of a system are always stronger than its connections with the environment.
Decision making methods
In the practice of managing complex systems, which include construction, systemic, expert, logical and logical-mathematical methods of decision making have found their application.
The systems approach is based on a number of principles: a) integrity, which consists in the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the irreducibility of the properties of the whole from them; b) the dependence of each element, property and relationships of the system on their place and functions within the whole; c) structurality - the possibility of describing a system through establishing its structure, i.e. networks of connections and relationships of the system; d) interdependence of structure and environment, expressed in the fact that the system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, being the leading component of interaction; e) hierarchy, which consists in the possibility of dividing the system into subsystems and elements, which in turn have system properties. The system under consideration itself is a subsystem of a broader system, i.e. higher level systems (matasystems).
The task of the systems approach when making decisions on various artificial systems is to ensure such a combination of their elements that would contribute to the maximum manifestation of the properties of the integrity of systems (these properties are also called emergent).
The requirements of the systems approach are satisfied by a decision made taking into account all factors influencing the expected result, and ensuring the maximum manifestation of the properties of the integrity of the system, i.e. optimal solution.
The most important procedures of the systems approach are: identification of the subject of the solution as a system, macro approach, micro approach, systems modeling.
Necessity identification (identification) of the subject of solution as a system is determined by the essence of the systems approach, which consists in the representation of cognizable objects in the form of systems. In the process of identification, it is necessary to determine what should be taken as a system in each specific case, what components are included in it, establish its type, identify which broader system it is part of, determine the elements of the external environment and the nature of the relationship between the system and the external environment.
Identification of the subject of solution as a system begins with identifying the problem and establishing goals that need to be achieved in the process of solving it. The goal is the main system-forming factor.
By macro walk stems from the systemic principles of hierarchy and interdependence of structure and environment. It consists of considering the object under study, which is the subject of a solution and presented in the form of a system, as an element of a broader system (metasystem) and analyzing its connections with elements of the external environment. A metasystem determines the interdependence of all its constituent systems, their properties, relationships, place and functions within the metasystem as a whole, and the external environment influences the formation of the properties of the system. Therefore, this approach will allow us to identify the goals and external parameters of the system under consideration. It should be taken into account that the same system can be part of one or several metasystems, each of which has its own requirements.
When making design decisions, the macro approach is called external design. If a decision is made to build a residential building, then it should be taken as a system. The house will be part of at least two metasystems: a system associated with the customer (developer) and systems of architecture of settlements. The customer (developer), based on the need for housing, family structure, available funds for construction, determines the size of the living area of the house, the structure of apartments, and their level of comfort. The chief architect of the locality determines the location of construction, number of storeys, and requirements for architectural design. By studying connections with the external environment, they determine the conditions for supplying the house with electricity, gas, water, thermal energy for heating, the possibility of connecting to external sewerage networks, the conditions for trade and transport services for the population, and much more.
Micro approach consists in considering the subject of the decision as an independent system to establish its internal structure, composition of elements and relationships between them. If the macro approach is used to identify the goals and external characteristics of the system, then the micro approach is used to make decisions that ensure their achievement. When making design decisions, the micro approach is called internal design. In the above example with the construction of a house, after establishing at the macro-approach stage the parameters of the residential building as a whole (total and living area, number of storeys) and the requirements that it must meet in terms of architecture and comfort, the issue of the structure of the house itself is resolved, space-planning plans are adopted , constructive and other solutions.
Experienced managers strive to take into account all factors that may influence a particular decision. However, a random selection of such factors leads to the fact that any of them will be missed. Consideration of the object that is the subject of the decision as an element of the metasystem and as an independent system, the study of connections with the external environment guarantee a more complete account of the factors influencing the decision.
To simplify the management, especially of very complex systems, the “black box” method is used. The control object is presented in the form of a “black box”, i.e. its contents are unknown, but the patterns of connections between input and output devices are known, or, in other words, it is known what specific results at the output of the system are caused by certain influences at the input.
For production systems, the “black box” method consists in the fact that the control body (manager) does not delve into the activities of the subordinate unit (employee), but sets it only output results and ensures that the input is what is necessary to obtain them. The performance of a unit (employee) is judged on the basis of outputs versus the provision of inputs; Intervention in resolving internal issues of a unit (employee) on the part of the subject of management is carried out only as a control in the presence of deviations from planned targets.
The most important means of a systems approach is modeling. Modeling is a method of studying objects using their models. A model is an analogue of the object under study, i.e. a system that allows you to display the properties of the system being studied - the original - that interest researchers. Models are used when direct study of the object under study is difficult or expensive. The model, as it were, plays the role of a “representative” or “substitute” of the original in the process of studying it. The information obtained as a result of the study of the model extends to the original. In some types of models, certain corrections are introduced to take into account differences in the operating conditions of the model and the original, their inertia, etc. From a logical point of view, such dissemination of information from the model to the original is based on the method of analogies.
Analogy is a similarity, similarity of objects in some properties, relationships or characteristics, and objects that are generally distinguishable. Inference by analogy is a logical conclusion about the properties _ and relationships of one object based on the fact that this object is similar to another object, the properties and relationships of which are known.
The peculiarity of all conclusions by analogy is that one subject is directly studied, and a conclusion is drawn about another subject. However, a conclusion by analogy is always probabilistic in nature, no matter how obvious the established similarity of two objects may seem. Therefore, the data of any analogy should be verified by practice. The positive role of analogy often lies in the fact that it leads to guesses and gives thought to one or another assumption.
Modeling is a broader concept than analogy. It includes inferences by analogy as an integral part. A model always acts as a means of study, explanation, prediction and heuristics, i.e. searching for something new. Modeling covers the processes of building a model, researching it, obtaining the necessary information with its help, and practical application of the results.
Depending on the tools used to build models, modeling can be physical or abstract. .
Physical modeling carried out with the help of physical objects and phenomena, i.e. using models that have a certain real form. Physical modeling, in turn, can be subject-based and analog.
Subject-physical modeling based on direct analogies between the object being studied and its model, which has the same physical nature. Such models include scaled-down models of construction sites, populated areas, models of building structures, working models of construction machines and mechanisms, and others. Thus, the architectural merits of buildings and the quality of their space-planning solutions are studied using building models. By testing structural models, judgments are made about the strength properties and stability of structures.
A specific type of physical modeling is business (management) games, in which control systems are simulated by creating game teams that perform simulated functions. Business games are used to develop solutions to improve management.
Analog Physical Simulation involves the use of models that have a different nature from the original, but allow the same mathematical description as the original. For example, using a hydraulic device consisting of vessels connected by tubes, it is possible to study the movement of material flows in an enterprise. A change in the level of liquid in the vessels will mean a change in the reserves of materials (semi-finished products) at various stages of the production process, and the cross-sectional area of the tubes and the speed of the liquid will give an idea of the material consumption. Using electrical-analog installations, you can analyze and calculate network diagrams, solve problems related to optimizing cargo transportation, placing orders, and others.
Abstract modeling implemented on models presented in the form of symbols. Therefore it is also called symbolic. A symbol is a conventional sign that denotes a concept, object, phenomenon, action, event, property, connection, relationship between objects, phenomena, etc. By materializing mental images, the symbol makes it possible to accumulate, store and transmit information. Thanks to their clarity, symbols facilitate logical operations and make the thinking process more productive.
Abstract models are divided into two groups - mathematical and logical.
Varieties of mathematical modeling are economic-mathematical and simulation modeling. Economics-mathematical modeling- one of the main methods for studying processes occurring in production systems. An economic-mathematical model is a formalized description of the essential connections and patterns of the process of functioning and development of a production system in the form of formulas, systems of equations, etc. Among the methods of economic-mathematical modeling, the most famous are linear and nonlinear programming, dynamic programming, correlation methods, queuing theory , matrix calculus, statistical methods. These methods make it possible to obtain optimal solutions and solve many other problems. A distinctive feature of economic and mathematical models is the ability to obtain specific solutions in numerical form.
Simulation modeling allows you to simulate the production process, i.e., conduct experiments on models in order to study the behavior of the system, evaluate various strategies for its functioning and development, and develop management decisions. Simulation modeling is most often carried out under the influence of uncertain factors. It also includes the use of stochastic models and the use of statistical testing methods (Monte Carlo). When modeling complex systems, as well as to implement models online, computers are used.
Logistics modeling implemented on models in the form of text, matrices, graphic diagrams, networks. Models have been used in formal logic for a long time. Unlike mathematical models that allow you to calculate solutions, logic models only specify the logical operations that must be performed in a certain sequence to obtain a solution. Text models are verbal descriptions of the properties of the modeled system that are of interest to researchers in a certain way. They are used, for example, in forecasting (scenario method). Logical models that allow mathematical processing are called logical-mathematical. These include models of symbolic (mathematical) logic and models created on the basis of graph theory (tree, network).
The methodology for studying any objects by presenting them as systems and analyzing these systems is called system analysis. The basis of system analysis used to prepare and justify decisions on complex production management problems is a systems approach. However, system analysis borrows general initial ideas and premises. System analysis is essentially a method for implementing a systems approach to production management. Each management problem, its connections with many other problems and various aspects of management are systematically considered.
The decision-making process is divided into large stages and includes many procedures, the number of which is determined by the complexity of the problems. Decision making on the most complex problems is divided into four stages.
First stage consists in understanding the current situation, identifying existing problems, choosing one that requires a solution in this specific situation in the formulation of the goal.
Usually, a problem is understood as a complex practical and theoretical issue (obstacle, difficulty) that requires study and resolution. In systems analysis, the problem arises when there are differences between the actual and necessary (desired) state of the production system, which is not able to ensure that the actual results of its activities (outputs) correspond to the necessary ones. For example, the actual growth rate of labor productivity in a construction organization is below the planned target, therefore, there is a problem of increasing labor productivity. The problem may lie not only in the need to increase, but also in preventing a decrease in output. Finding a solution to a problem means determining what changes need to be made to the existing system (or what new system needs to be replaced) so that it provides the desired outputs.
In order to identify the main problem that requires a priority solution, it is necessary to identify a complete list of problems. If at the beginning of the analysis it is not possible to clearly identify the main problem, it is advisable to solve a number of simple problems, and then move on to identifying and formulating the main one and establishing how ripe it is for solution at the moment. It is important to take into account as fully as possible all the factors creating the problem, to check their correctness and significance for solving it. Problems may arise from the tasks set by a higher management body; they can be detected on the basis of an analysis of activities over the past period, the results of the next control, claims from the customer and organizations operating the constructed facilities, proposals from specialists, critical speeches at meetings of public organizations. Many problems can be detected directly by a manager who knows well and constantly analyzes the state of affairs in his area. It is recommended to have a constantly updated list of the most important problems of the construction organization.
Setting a goal is of great importance for solving a problem correctly. If the decision-making is determined by the task set by a higher management body, then it is necessary to understand this task, establish the place and role of its unit in achieving the goals of the higher organization. Experience shows that an in-depth study of the problem makes it possible to significantly clarify and even radically change the formulation of the goals of the national economy, the construction industry and the higher construction organization. After clarifying the formulation of the main goal of this decision, it is necessary to establish goals and restrictions subordinate to it, and also formulate a criterion for choosing the best solution.
Second stage decision-making consists of a structural analysis of the object in respect of which the decision is made. In detail, all factors, their characteristics, parameters are identified in dynamics, and the relationships between them are determined.
The analysis is carried out from the perspective of the whole, i.e. from the point of view of the influence of factors on achieving the goal. At this stage, it is important to identify the weakest links in the system.
At the third stage Using various methods, a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the behavior of the system is performed, taking into account the interaction of various factors. In the process of analysis, decision options and their possible consequences are put forward and explored, the possible degree of achievement of goals is assessed, and additional factors that have emerged are studied. The analysis is carried out on all aspects of management - political, economic, social, technical, psychological, etc.
At the fourth stage When making a decision, a synthesis of the system under study is carried out: working options are combined and compared, results for each option are studied and compared with the goals set. If there are discrepancies, the possibilities of achieving goals are analyzed or the need for their revision is justified.
System analysis is iterative in nature, i.e. At each stage, it is possible to return to previous stages to make clarifications and further rework the options. Such requests may be made repeatedly.
Consideration of the stages of the system analysis process gives only the most general idea of it. Detailing of this process is possible only when a specific decision is made.
In the system analysis of management problems, methods are used: decomposition, diagnostics, sensitivity analysis of solutions, aggregation of variables, heuristic and other methods.
System decomposition- this is the division of the system being studied into its constituent subsystems and elements, up to the primary elements, the further division of which, from the point of view of this problem, is inappropriate. This method is used at the second stage of system analysis to identify the relationship of its elements. When decomposing a system, it is necessary to take into account the property of integrity in order to avoid distortion of the characteristics of a system whose parameters are not the sum of the parameters of its parts.
System diagnostics is to identify its weak links in order to concentrate attention on them and prevent a decrease in the efficiency of the system as a whole.
Sensitivity analysis of solutions to various factors is carried out in order to establish the degree of permissibility of changes in the system under which the decision made remains optimal. In this case, special techniques are used.
Aggregation of Variables into complex factors is used to synthesize the results of analysis performed in different ways. In this case, factors that are insignificant in terms of influence are excluded, and factors of a homogeneous direction are combined into complex ones, which makes it possible to reduce the amount of data and simplify the justification of the decision.
Heuristic methods are used to search for solutions to new problems, options for goals and criteria. Heuristics is a science that studies productive creative thinking. Heuristic methods are used when neither past experience nor conditions suggest a way to solve a problem and new approaches are required. The basis of these methods is heuristic reasoning, which must be plausible but not necessarily rigorous. At the preliminary stage, heuristic reasoning allows only to outline options for solving the problem, which are subsequently analyzed by more rigorous methods.
Heuristic methods allow you to find solutions with a minimum search of many of their possible options, thereby reducing the time for developing solutions compared to methods of blind search of options and others.
Analysis systems also use the modeling method, expert, statistical and other methods.
The essence of expert methods is that highly qualified specialists - experts with the necessary professional education, experience and professional intuition - are involved in making decisions (evaluating phenomena).
The most important task of the examination is to identify objective opinions of experts, not distorted by conformity and other influences.
To identify problems and develop management decisions, the survey method is often used in written and oral form (Fig. 3.1)
| Rice. 3.1 Types of survey |
During the written survey, participants receive questionnaires that they must fill out and return to their destination.
In-person examinations in the form of oral interviews provide for direct communication between experts and the persons carrying out the examination. A typical example here is an interview, i.e. a conversation between the interviewer and the expert, during which the expert answers the questions posed to him.
If the survey follows a strictly defined pattern, then we speak of a standardized interview. The standardized form is widely used in mass surveys. With free inquiry there is only one topic and purpose, and there is no specific scheme. In practice, free interviews are used, as a rule, during a preliminary study of a problem.
Personal interview is the most universal method of conducting a survey. It comes in two types – individual and group.
To develop solutions that do not require quantitative justification, in conditions where there are controversial issues or different points of view on solving a problem, it is recommended to hold discussions. Discussion consists of experts freely expressing their opinions, accompanied by providing evidence in favor of their point of view and refuting other opinions.
The development of forms of discussion led to the emergence of a method of collective generation of ideas - also called the brainstorming method. It is used in a situation where it is necessary to find new ways to solve any industrial or scientific problem, identify new ideas, etc. The method is implemented in the form of a meeting of experts, which is held according to certain rules that ensure their joint creativity. As a rule, the method is implemented in two stages. At the first stage, ideas are developed, at the second stage, ideas are selected for implementation. Any idea, even the most absurd (at first glance), can be expressed. Any criticism of ideas is not allowed at meetings. On the contrary, they try to collect as many ideas as possible.
The final stage of the application of expert methods is the processing of expert surveys in order to obtain generalized data and identify new information contained in them, on the basis of which decisions are made.
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INTRODUCTION
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
1.1 The concept of a management decision, its essence, stages
1.2 Classifications of management decisions
2. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT, ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
2.1 Methods for developing management decisions
2.2 Models and methods of decision making
2.3 Algorithm for making management decisions
2.4 Implementation of management decisions
CONCLUSION
Bibliography
INCONTROL
Relevance of the topic. Among the many problems of modern management, the most important are the adoption and implementation of management decisions, which are the main instrument of management influence. Effective decision making is essential to performing management functions.
The development and implementation of effective management decisions is the most important prerequisite for ensuring the organization’s competitiveness in the market, as well as creating an optimal structure of the organization, rationalizing and other aspects of the organization’s activities. managerial market competitiveness
The core of solving any problem in the Russian economy is a management decision. A management decision is the result of specific management activities of management. Decision making is the basis of management. Making and making decisions is a creative process in the activities of managers at any level.
The efficiency and quality of management decisions are the main factor in the rational management of an enterprise. Moreover, every management decision affects the economic, organizational, social, legal and technological interests of the enterprise.
Management decisions play a huge role in the activities of any enterprise, therefore knowledge and understanding of the processes of their adoption is of particular importance in the conditions of Russian reality. It is effective and high-quality management decisions that serve as a source of business development and competitive advantage.
Thus, management decisions represent a way of constant influence of the management subsystem on the managed subsystem, that is, the subject of management on the object of management. This impact ultimately leads to the achievement of intended goals.
This problem is of very serious importance, which inevitably increases as economic situations and management problems that require solutions become more complex. This is evidenced by the increasing scale of losses as a result of even small errors made in the decision.
Currently, managers of various enterprises have to sort through numerous combinations of potential actions in order to find the right action for a given organization at a given time and place. Essentially, for an organization to operate clearly and effectively, a manager must make a series of correct choices from several alternative possibilities. Therefore, this topic is currently very relevant.
The degree of development of the topic. Management decisions are the subject of study by domestic and foreign scientists . Of these, several authors of scientific works can be named: Venedelin A.G. and Saak A.E give the concept of management decision; Sahak A.E. and Tyushnyakov V.N. show the essence of a management decision; Suetenkov E.N. and Pasko N.I. determine the content of management decisions and classify them; Eddowes M. and Stansfield R. review decision-making methods; Litvak B.G. and Gasanov A.Z. present a classification of decision-making models; Gerchikova I.N. shows the decision-making mechanism, etc.
Object course work is a management decision.
Subject work are the features of technology for making management decisions.
Goal of the work consists of researching technology for developing, making and implementing management decisions.
To achieve the goal, it is necessary to set a number of specific tasks:
reveal the concept of a management decision, its essence, stages;
consider classifications of management decisions;
study methods for developing management decisions;
consider models, methods and decision-making mechanisms;
show the algorithm for making management decisions;
consider the process of implementing a management decision.
Methodological basis. To obtain the most reliable information, research methods such as system analysis of the study of management decisions were used. The classification method made it possible to identify management decisions on various grounds. Using the structural-functional method, we were able to consider the stages of a management decision. Thanks to system modeling, we considered an algorithm for management decisions.
Theoretical andpractical significance is that this course work is of great importance when conducting practical and lecture classes for specialists in the field of social work.
Work structure includes: introduction, two chapters, conclusion, bibliography.
The introduction reveals the relevance of the topic, its object, subject, goals and objectives. It also shows its practical significance, the degree of development of the topic and its methodological basis. The first chapter defines a management decision, examines its stages, and also presents a classification of decisions. The second chapter describes the technology for developing, making and implementing management decisions: methods for developing management decisions, models, methods and mechanisms for making them are considered, as well as an algorithm is presented, and the implementation of management decisions is discussed in detail. The conclusion reflects the conclusions of the entire course work.
CHAPTER 1.GENERAL CHARACTERISTICSMANAGEMENTTHEIR DECISIONS
1.1 The concept of management decision, itsessence,stages
The category “managerial decision” has multidimensional content. In a broad sense, a management decision can be understood as a concentrated expression of the management process at its final stage; as a command to be executed, coming from the control system to the controlled one; as a fixed management act, expressed in written or oral form and implemented to solve a problem situation or a set goal.
A management decision (MD) always has a socio-economic nature. It is associated with the activity of a person who leads other people and uses all his knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities. Like no other type of management activity, the decision is determined by the psychophysiological personality traits of the manager. This explains the high demands placed on management personnel.
It should be clarified that not every decision made by a manager is managerial. For example, decisions related to the technical side of the organization’s activities, aimed at summing up results or preparing documentation, are not such.
A managerial decision is a decision made in a social system and aimed at:
· to manage management activities;
· design of the organization's management system (methodology, structure, process, mechanism);
· strategic planning;
· personnel management;
· management consulting;
· interaction with the external environment.
Any SD is associated with the social, economic, organizational, legal and technological interests of the organization (see Table 1.1.1. Essence of SD).
Table 1.1.1. The essence of SD
The social essence of SD is embedded in the personnel management mechanism, which includes ways of influencing people in order to coordinate their activities. To successfully influence subordinates, a manager must clearly represent their interests and needs, motives and incentives, attitudes and values, fears and anxieties, and the informal structure of work groups. The social essence of SD is manifested in the goal. The priority when developing solutions should be the creation of a comfortable home and work environment, the comprehensive development of the individual in professional and general cultural terms, and the development of a system of participation in management.
The economic essence of SD lies in the fact that the development and implementation of any solution requires financial, material, time and other costs. Each UR has a real cost. Effective and high-quality decisions should bring income to the organization (municipal entity, country), while erroneous ones lead to losses. It is necessary to take into account the material interest of all participants in the development and implementation process, the efficiency of using all types of resources.
The organizational essence is that employees of the organization participate in the process of developing and implementing management decisions. To organize effective work, it is necessary to form an efficient team, develop job descriptions and regulations, vest employees with powers, rights, duties and responsibilities, provide a control system, provide the necessary resources and technical means, and constantly coordinate the work.
The legal essence of SD is manifested in strict compliance with legal norms during preparation and implementation. Violation of the law in the process of development and implementation of SD may lead to its cancellation, and may also be subject to consideration in court. The entire organization may suffer significant losses if an already developed solution is canceled because resources have already been spent and additional funds will need to be spent on new development. For an illegally implemented decision, a fine may be imposed or criminal prosecution may be initiated against any of the initiators. Ignorance of the law does not exempt you from responsibility. To avoid such situations, many organizations conduct legal reviews of SD.
The technological essence of SD lies in the ability to provide personnel with the necessary technical, information and communication tools and resources for the development and implementation of a solution. Sometimes developers do not have a clear understanding of the target of the solution, or use outdated, unreliable or incomplete information.
Firstly, a management decision is a type of activity that takes place in the management system and is associated with the preparation, selection and adoption of certain options for action. In this sense, a management decision is a type of work in the management apparatus, a certain stage of the management process.
Secondly, a management decision is a variant of the influence of the control system on the controlled one, a formula for influence. In this sense, a management decision is a description of the proposed actions of the control system in relation to the controlled one.
Thirdly, a management decision is the organizational and practical activity of the management system in the managed system.
Decision making is the basis of management. Development and decision-making is a creative process in the activities of managers at any level, including:
· development and goal setting;
· studying the problem based on the information received;
· selection and justification of efficiency criteria (effectiveness) and possible consequences of the decision;
· discussion with specialists of various options for solving a problem (task);
· selection and formulation of the optimal solution;
· decision-making;
· specification of the solution for its implementers.
Management technology considers a management decision as a process consisting of three stages:
1) preparation of a decision;
2) decision making;
3) implementation of the solution.
At the stage of preparing a management decision, an economic analysis of the situation at the micro and macro level is carried out, including search, collection and processing of information, and problems that require solutions are identified and formed.
At the decision-making stage, alternative solutions and courses of action are developed and evaluated on the basis of multivariate calculations; criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected; choosing and making the best decision.
At the stage of implementation of the decision, measures are taken to concretize the decision and bring it to the attention of the executors, the progress of its implementation is monitored, the necessary adjustments are made, and the result obtained from the implementation of the decision is assessed.
Each management decision has its own specific result, therefore the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances.
1.2 Classificationsmanagement decisions
Management decisions are varied in form, content and classified according to various criteria.
Suetenkov E.N. andPasko N.I. classifymanageriallye solutionsin the following way:
1) P on the degree of participation of managers at various levels and specialists:
· collegial (expert and by agreement) - decisions made by a group of managers and specialists;
· collective (democratic) - decisions made by the majority of the organization’s employees, jointly by the work collective or a small group;
· individual (sole) - decisions that are made by the manager alone.
2) P about the levels of planning and time of implementation of activities:
· strategic - decisions that are made at the highest level of management for the long-term development of the organization;
· tactical - decisions that are made at the top and middle levels of management for a year or a quarter and include activities necessary to implement annual or quarterly plans: sales, production or provision of services;
· operational - decisions made in the middle and lower echelons of management related to organizing the work of direct performers, providing them with resources, materials, and information.
3) P about the content of the management process:
· social - decisions affecting the social structure of the organization, personnel, corporate culture, climate and general values;
· economic - associated with the management system, necessary for increasing the economic efficiency of the organization’s activities, profitability, payback and liquidity of assets;
· organizational - decisions related to management methods, ways to achieve goals;
· technical - operational solutions that are necessary to ensure labor and production processes, supply the necessary resources, materials, information.
4) P about the scale of the object :
· global, covering all links of the managed system;
· local, addressed to a specific link or department.
5) P about the nature of the goals :
· strategic, defining general objectives;
· tactical, in which more specific tasks are developed aimed at implementing a previously developed strategy;
· operational, aimed at implementing priority tasks.
6) IN depending on the hierarchy level decisions are distinguished between national economic, sectoral, and intra-production decisions.
7) P about the scope of the decision classified into economic, organizational, social, technical, technological.
8) P about the organization of development management decisions are divided into individual, collegial, collective.
9) P about the extent of coverage of the decision are divided into general, private, local.
10) P about organizational status specific rigid, normative, flexible and guiding management decisions are distinguished.
11) IN depending on the reasons determining the need to make a management decision, they are divided into program decisions, decisions by order of higher authorities, proactive and situational decisions.
12) P about the implementation time period :
· long-term (long-term), designed for a long period of time;
· current (medium-term), which are part of, detailing and clarification of promising ones;
· regulatory (short-term) aimed at ensuring the implementation of current and future decisions.
13) IN depending on the range of problems, which are considered in the decision:
· complex, associated with changes in many aspects of the activity of the managed object;
· private (thematic), related to one of the aspects of the activity of the managed object;
· in their composition, according to the predominant content, technical, economic, social, and organizational solutions are distinguished.
14) P about justification methods (with a certain degree of convention):
· formalizable, in the substantiation of which mathematical methods are widely used;
· not formalized, which are justified mainly by heuristic methods.
15) P about the conditions under which they are accepted :
· in conditions of certainty (they, as a rule, are well structured (deterministic));
· decisions made under conditions of uncertainty, classified as exploratory (they are often associated with qualitative leaps in the development of production).
16) P about the method of influencing the controlled object - directives, which are communicated to the executor in the form of an order, instruction, mandatory for implementation of indirect influence, the development and implementation of which is carried out on the basis of the use of means of stimulating increased production efficiency.
The above classification can be supplemented with the help of N.V. Zlobina., TolassifiquotedmanagerialdecisionsI:
17) P about functional focus : planning, organizing, activating, coordinating, controlling, informing.
18) By degree of repeatability : traditional, non-traditional, innovative.
19) By the nature of development and implementation : balanced, impulsive , inert , risky , careful.
20) By processing methods information : algorithmic and heuristic.
21) By number of criteria : single-criteria And multi-criteria.
22) By direction of influence : external and internal.
23) By fixation method : written And oral.
24) Nature of information : deterministic And probabilistic
AndLazarevthV.N.classifyingUR:
25) By number of alternatives:
· binary decision (there are two alternatives to action - “yes” or “no”);
· low-alternative (a small set of alternatives is considered);
· multi-alternative (there is a very large but finite number of alternatives);
· continuous (the choice is made from an infinite number of states of continuously changing controlled quantities).
26) According to the degree of complexity of preparing a management decision:
· standard or programmable;
· non-standard or non-programmable.
27) By degree of uniqueness: innovative (innovative, creative, original) or routine.
28) On the approach to decision making: intuitive, judgment-based, rationality-based.
29) According to the form of reflection (plan, program, order, instruction).
30) According to the degree of achievement of goals: acceptable (acceptable); optimal (best); effective.
This classification helps to identify standard decisions characterized by a certain set of characteristics, and to develop standard processes for their justification, adoption and organization of implementation. This typification of processes makes it possible to determine the range of decisions developed in certain divisions of the management apparatus and adopted at various hierarchical levels, the composition of information used for this purpose, typical methods of information processing, the system for formalizing decisions made, the processes of their control and stimulation of implementation.
In this chapter we looked at what management decisions are. And we found out that they are divided into the stages of development, adoption and implementation of decisions, and are also classified according to various criteria.
CHAPTER 2. TECHNICALOLOGYDEVELOPMENTS,ACCEPTANCESAND IMPLEMENTATIONSMANAGEMENTTHEIR DECISIONS
2.1 Methods for developing management decisions
In order to make an effective management decision, a manager must not only have a wealth of experience, but also sufficiently skillfully apply in practice: the methodology of management decisions; methods for developing management decisions; organizing the development of management decisions; assessment of the quality of management decisions.
Let's try to consider the manager's tools typical for the sphere of decision making.
The methodology of a management decision is a logical organization of activities to develop a management decision, including the formulation of management goals, the choice of methods for developing solutions, criteria for evaluating options, and drawing up logical schemes for performing operations.
Methods for developing management decisions include methods and techniques for performing operations necessary in developing management decisions. There are many methods by which a management decision can be made:
1) Program-targeted methods are most often used to justify strategic and tactical decisions that are associated with introducing significant qualitative changes in the operation of the managed object. Any management decision is made to achieve certain goals. However, strategic decisions are most often aimed at solving a qualitatively new problem (a qualitative leap in production development).
When developing them, only to a minimal extent can one rely on tradition and experience. The solution to such a problem involves fundamental changes in production - its structure, the equipment and technology used, labor organization, etc. Program-target methods assume the dominant role of the goal, the search for means and ways to achieve it.
The use of program-target methods for substantiating decisions means careful detailed development of the goal that should be achieved as a result of the implementation of this decision. This goal is determined based on the tasks solved by the larger system, which includes the managed object. Often, such a goal is directly established by the governing organization with the participation of scientific and design organizations in the industry.
After defining the goal, a program for achieving it is developed, including: development of a “tree of goals” for individual divisions of the management apparatus and production units; design of resource support, i.e. determination of the content and scope, necessary resources and sources of their acquisition and organizational support for the goal, i.e. establishment of bodies that manage the development and implementation of the program and are responsible for achieving the goal within the approved time frame with the rational use of production resources.
Thus, strategic decisions in the process of developing and implementing a program for their implementation are concretized in a whole system of tactical decisions. They reveal individual aspects of the process of implementing strategic decisions aimed at achieving the general goal and take into account the specific conditions in which the managed object operates, i.e. the system of goals for tactical decisions is aimed at transferring the goal - a strategic decision - into the state of a normative-standard model.
Identification in the process of analysis of ways to justify decisions developed using the program-target method allows us to evaluate the focus and real prospects of the management system.
2) Optimization methods justifications are typical for tactical and some operational decisions. They are based on the use of operations research methods, which include various programming methods of queuing theory, mathematical statistics, probability theory, etc. Their use is most effective when developing solutions in the conditions of a pre-defined and clearly defined goal (optimization criteria), when the main conditions for achieving it (constraints) are known and a choice of ways to solve the problem (tactics) occurs, i.e. for well structured problems.
Depending on the nature of the processes being analyzed and the existing forms of communication, one of the optimization methods is selected. If the process is characterized by linear relationships, then linear programming methods are used; for nonlinear connections - nonlinear programming methods; if the intensity of the connections studied when developing solutions changes - parametric programming; with the probable influence of factors on the selected criterion - statistical programming methods; when including time factors in the analysis - dynamic programming methods. When uncertainty increases, when the decision concerns a process with a high degree of randomness, i.e. less structured, queuing theory is successfully applied. To justify decisions that have a stable set of factors influencing the function under study, but a changing (probable) degree of change in factors, the apparatus of correlation and regression analysis is used. All these methods are linked to the methodology for justifying decisions through operations research.
Modern production is a multi-purpose system. In some cases, it solves several interrelated and sometimes mutually contradictory goals. In these cases, multicriteria optimization methods can be used. However, in practice these situations are solved by carrying out a series of calculations, each of which is focused on achieving a certain criterion. And the choice of the best of them in given conditions is carried out by the leader.
The proportion of decisions justified by optimization methods allows us to judge to what extent the management of a given object or a certain subsystem is focused on achieving optimal production management.
3) Calculation and analytical method is used to develop solutions aimed at developing and improving existing trends established during the production activities of the managed facility. This method is a combination of analysis of the results of the management object’s activities in the area related to the proposed decision, and forecast calculations of further trends in its development. For this purpose, predictive analysis is used. The results of the analysis make it possible to free the reporting data from random phenomena and prepare good material for forecasting purposes. The point of justifying decisions using this method is to conduct an in-depth analysis of actual data, select methods for approximating the phenomenon, establish the final formulation of the decision, and determine programs for its implementation.
A variation of the calculation and analytical method is the factor method. It is used to determine the development paths of those production processes, the results of which are influenced by a number of factors functionally related to the criterion.
4) Systematized methods can be very effective in justifying many non-quantifiable decisions. They are based on logical thinking and expert experience. These include the method of expert assessments, in particular the “Delfa method”, a feature of which is the consistent receipt of assessments while gradually clarifying tasks to experts; the “brainstorming” method, when possible options for changes are discussed collectively; heuristic approach, i.e. establishing typical logical connections and interdependence, etc.
5) Experienced methods the development of solutions is based on the personal experience of managers and specialists, generalizations of situations and methods of resolving them that took place in the past.
This method can be used in two ways. The first of them is to identify typical situations and select, after a thorough analysis of them, decisions made in these situations earlier. Based on this analysis, a bank of typical situations and a “standard” of leader behavior in them is created. In this case, a strict classification of situations, a clear and concise description of them and a description of the decisions made are necessary. Having a set of such situations and their solutions allows them to be used in cases where similar situations arise at a given time.
The second way is to focus on the personal, unrecorded experience of the leader making the decision. At the same time, the quality of the solution depends largely on the qualifications of the manager and specialist, the scale and nature of their experience. This type of experimental method is especially applicable when making decisions that require a quick response from the control system. Justification of a decision using this method can be made individually by a specialist or manager. But in most cases, collective consideration of such decisions with the participation of a competent circle of specialists and representatives of public organizations is justified.
The application of each of these methods for substantiating decisions is based on the integrated use of various statistical, mathematical and logical techniques. The predominance of a certain group of techniques forms each method. To justify decisions, it is necessary to highlight a number of specific techniques: technical and economic calculations, operations research, mathematical and statistical modeling, specific situations, business games, simulation modeling, network methods, etc. .
2.2 Models andmethodsdecision making
In concept "decision technology" includes the following elements:
· What to do (quantity and quality of the object)?
· At what cost (resources)?
· How to do it (using what technology)?
· Who should do it (performers)?
· When to do it (deadline)?
· For whom should it be made (consumers)?
· Where to do (place)?
· What does this give (economic, social, environmental, technical effect)?
If you answer all the questions quantitatively and link the elements in space, time, resources and performers, then you can develop a decision-making technology. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the requirements and apply methods.
Model for solving problems in an organization- This is, first of all, a representation of its problem management mechanism.
We present the most generally accepted classifications of models of the management decision-making process :
1) Descrypto and normative models
Descriptive models are used to describe the properties and parameters of the decision-making process in order to predict its course in the future. The success of using these models largely depends on the accuracy of the description of the laws and patterns of functioning of the control object.
Normative models are used to manage the decision-making process, to form its essential elements and its development. They involve active participation in the decision-making process and its modeling by participants in the decision-making process.
2) Inductive and deductive mdressed
Inductive models are built by generalizing observations on individual particular facts that are considered important for making management decisions. The quality of this model is determined by how much, on the one hand, it is possible to simplify the description of the decision-making situation, and on the other hand, how accurately it is possible to reflect the basic properties of the modeled situation.
When developing deductive models, they do not proceed from an analysis of specific facts, but from a simplified system of hypothetical situations. Here the path to creating a model is from an abstract representation of a management situation to its concrete reality.
3) Problem-oriented and solution models
Problem-oriented models are built on the introduction of new modeling methods in relation to a specific problem decision-making situation. Here the main task is to adapt new methods for modeling a specific management process.
Decision models are developed taking into account the possibilities of conducting experiments with them, as well as the capabilities of modern management technologies, and are aimed at solving the most important management problems.
4) Single-purpose and multi-purpose models
Often, to evaluate an alternative solution, it is necessary to use several rather heterogeneous, independent criteria aimed at achieving different, sometimes difficult to compare, goals. However, one decision must be made, and the most preferable solution must be determined.
Models are called single-purpose when there is one clearly defined goal that the organization strives to achieve, or several goals aggregated into one comprehensive goal. In the latter case, the degree of achievement of the goal is determined using a specially developed complex criterion.
Multi-goal models are those in which the desire to achieve several independent goals that cannot be reduced to one complex is assumed.
5) Onepeperiodic and multi-period models
Single-period models are based on the assumption that the sum of optimal individual decisions in individual decision-making periods as a whole over the entire decision-making period also gives an optimal solution. This approach is not always justified. Sometimes a gain at a particular stage can lead to large losses for the organization if we consider the entire period during which decisions are made.
Multi-period models involve a comprehensive solution to a management problem, taking into account the entire period of making a management decision.
Single-period models can be used when developing a multi-period model in order to more adequately represent the decision-making situation.
6) Deterministic and stochastic models
In deterministic models, all factors influencing the development of a decision-making situation are uniquely defined and their values are known at the time of decision-making.
Stochastic models assume the presence of an element of uncertainty and take into account the possible probabilistic distribution of the values of factors and parameters that determine the development of the situation.
It should be noted that deterministic models, on the one hand, are more simplified, since they do not allow the element of uncertainty to be taken into account fully enough. On the other hand, they make it possible to take into account many additional factors that are often inaccessible to stochastic models.
Multiplicative factor models. Their purpose is to develop characteristics of the influence of the main factors on the development of the management decision-making situation.
Here, too, a well-known pattern often turns out to be true: taking into account some factors during modeling, we often forget about others. And this is natural. No model can take into account absolutely all factors. But a professionally developed model is different in that it allows you to take into account the most significant of them.
The professional use of decision-making process models allows the manager, on the one hand, to control intuitive considerations when making decisions, and in particular to ensure a greater degree of consistency, consistency and reliability of management decisions made, on the other hand, to more fully realize intuition, experience and knowledge.
Decision making methods, aimed at achieving the intended goals, can be different:
1) a method based on the manager’s intuition, which is determined by his previously accumulated experience and amount of knowledge in a specific field of activity, which helps to choose and make the right decision;
2) a method based on a scientific-practical approach, involving the selection of optimal solutions based on the processing of large amounts of information, helping to justify the decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computer technology;
3) a method based on the concept of “common sense”, when the manager, making decisions, justifies them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on his accumulated practical experience.
The problem of a manager choosing a solution is one of the most important in modern management science. It presupposes the need for a comprehensive assessment by the leader himself of the specific situation and his independence in making one of several possible decisions.
Management technology has the following components:
1) General management of decision making assumes that the decision-making process is in the hands of one linear (general) manager, who is in turn subordinate to a superior manager. Here a hierarchy is created in decision making for line positions. Each manager solves his problems with his immediate supervisor, and not with superior managers, bypassing his immediate supervisor. This mechanism is typical for American management.
2) Rules of acceptanceI decisions or standards, usually developed and published by the companies themselves. They formulate the actions necessary to implement the decisions made under certain conditions. These rules are aimed at coordinating between various departments and are divided into operational, strategic, and organizational.
Operating rules are usually formed at the middle management level in the form of various instructions.
Strategic rules, or business policy, include such types of decisions as determining the type of products and services produced, the type of customers, organizing a sales network, methods of setting prices, conditions and guarantees for the sale of company products, etc. Strategic rules are usually formed at the highest level of management with the participation of middle management and have no time restrictions.
Organizational rules are based on local or state law. They relate to such issues as determining the purpose and nature of the company's activities, its relations with government agencies, the legal form and charter of the company. These rules establish the owners of the firm, their rights and responsibilities, as well as the amount of dividends, executive compensation and bonuses, salary schedules, and investment limits within which managers can dispose of the firm's financial resources.
3) Plans are a means of coordinating the activities of various departments when making management decisions. Plans identify the available resources necessary to achieve the intended goals within a specific period. The plans cover the activities of production departments, so management decisions are made within the framework of their plans. The advantage of plans over rules is that they are more flexible and easier to adapt to changing conditions. In American companies, plans are the most important tool for coordinating activities in large enterprises in order to link strategic and operational management.
4) Making bilateral decisions managers of the same level on the basis of individual interaction is carried out without coordination with their general managers. Here a horizontal method of coordination in decision making is implemented within the framework of approved rules and plans.
For coordination purposes, quite often special persons are allocated in production departments located at the same level of the management structure. In some companies, the functions of coordinator are performed by the project manager, who is responsible for the implementation of a specific set of works and receives the authority to make relevant decisions. Quite often, in production departments, managers responsible for the production of a specific product are appointed as decision-making coordinators. Most often this refers to the development of new products or the development and production of products whose parts and components are manufactured in different production departments. In such cases, the coordinator serves as the manager responsible for the release of the final product and has the right to make decisions on issues of technology, organization of production and sales.
The coordinator-manager has the right to discuss draft decisions with the heads of other production departments and functional units, but he does not have the administrative power that line managers receive.
5) Target groups act on the basis of group interaction and make decisions regarding specific issues of joint activities to achieve established goals. Task groups can be created on a temporary or permanent basis and include representatives from different functional departments and specialized production departments. At the head of the group, sometimes created in the form of a committee or commission, a leader (chairman) is appointed, who is given the right to make decisions without coordination with the top management of the company or the general manager. At the same time, group members continue to be subordinate to their leader.
6) In matrix structures, Unlike the two previous horizontal mechanisms, the project manager is granted linear rights similar to those given to heads of functional departments. A network structure emerges that allows decisions to be made in increasingly complex environments dealing with increasingly complex problems.
The first three components provide a vertical relationship between management levels, the last three provide a horizontal connection in the coordination of decisions made. A company can use both simple and complex mechanisms of interaction in management, which depends on the complexity of the decisions made and the possibility of their implementation.
The requirements for management technology can be summarized as follows:
· formulation of problems, development and selection of solutions should be concentrated at the level of the management hierarchy where the relevant information is available for this;
· information should come from all divisions of the company, located at different levels of management and performing different functions;
· choice and decision-making should reflect the interests and capabilities of those levels of management that will be entrusted with the implementation of the decision or that are interested in its implementation;
· subordination in relationships in the management hierarchy, strict discipline, high demands and unquestioning submission must be strictly observed.
Making management decisions involves the use of the following factors:
1) The use of hierarchy in decision making is carried out by most firms in order to coordinate activities and strengthen centralization in management.
2) Use of targeted cross-functional groups in decision making - such task forces are usually created on a temporary basis. Their members are selected from various departments and levels of management. The purpose of creating such groups is to use the special knowledge and experience of group members to make specific and complex decisions. Task groups are most often involved in the creation of new products. Then they include engineers, marketing specialists, production workers, financiers, and suppliers. Initially, they prepare information at a professionally high level, on the basis of which senior management makes decisions about the allocation of capital investments for the development and implementation of new products. One of its members or a senior manager is appointed as the head of the target cross-functional group, who can be replaced by another specialist as the work progresses.
3) The use of formal rules and procedures in decision making is an effective way to coordinate actions. However, guidelines and rules create rigidity in the management system, which slows down innovation and makes it difficult to amend plans in response to changing circumstances.
4) The use of spikes in decision making is aimed at coordinating the activities of the company as a whole. Planning is an important type of management activity on which managers spend a significant part of their time. During the preparation of plans, a process of combining interests and goals between different levels of management is carried out. Control and accounting systems in American firms are adapted to solve management problems, and plans are developed on their basis. Managers constantly monitor the implementation of planned indicators and have the opportunity to adjust them with appropriate justification of such a need to the top managers of the company or heads of production departments.
2.3 . Algorithmmanagement decision making
Table 2.3.1. Algorithm for choosing and making management decisions
Let's take a closer look at the adoption procedure (algorithm):
1 ) Analysis of the situation. For the need to make a management decision to arise, a signal is needed about an external or internal influence that has caused or is capable of causing a deviation from the given mode of operation of the system, i.e. presence of a management situation. Therefore, one of the most important conditions for making the right decision is analyzing the situation. Analysis of a management situation requires the collection and processing of information. This stage performs the function of the organization’s perception of the external and internal environment.
Data on the state of the main environmental factors and the state of affairs in the organization are received by managers and specialists who classify, analyze information and compare the actual values of controlled parameters with planned or predicted ones, which in turn allows them to identify problems that should be solved.
2) Problem identification. The first step towards solving a problem is its definition or diagnosis, complete and correct. As they say, correctly formulating a problem means half solving it.
There are two views on the essence of the problem. According to one, a problem is considered to be a situation when the set goals are not achieved or there is a deviation from a given level, for example, a foreman may establish that labor productivity or the quality of products on his site is below normal. Alternatively, the potential for efficiency gains should also be considered as a problem. Combining both of these approaches, we will understand the problem as the discrepancy between the desired and actual state of the controlled object.
3) Identification and formulation of the problem- a very complicated procedure. The fact is that at the moment of their occurrence, many of the most important problems are poorly structured, i.e. do not contain obvious goals, alternative ways to achieve them, ideas about the costs and effects associated with each of the options, and bringing these problems to quantitative certainty (structuring) requires from managers not only knowledge and experience, but also talent, intuition, and a creative approach.
In medical terminology, the first step in diagnosing a complex problem is identifying the symptoms. General symptoms of an organization's illness are: low - profit, sales volume, labor productivity, quality of goods and services; high costs, staff turnover, numerous conflicts. Identifying symptoms helps to identify the problem in general terms, but just as different diseases often have common symptoms (headaches can be caused by ordinary fatigue and hypertension), different causes can cause similar organizational problems (poor quality of a product can be a consequence of worn-out equipment , and insufficient qualifications of workers). Therefore, managers should probe more deeply into the causes of the problem and not rush to eliminate only its symptoms.
We must also not forget that all elements and work in an organization are interconnected and solving a problem in one part of the organization can cause problems in others. Therefore, when defining the problem to be solved, one should strive to ensure that the number of newly arising problems is minimal.
4) Definition of selection criteria. Before considering possible options for solving a problem, the manager needs to determine the indicators by which alternatives will be compared and the best one will be selected. These indicators are usually called selection criteria. For example, when deciding to purchase new equipment, you can focus on the criteria of price, performance, operating costs, ergonomics, etc., and if you decide to hire a new employee, the selection criteria among candidates may be: education, work experience , age, personal qualities.
5) Development of alternatives. The next stage is to develop a set of alternative solutions to the problem. Ideally, it is desirable to identify all possible alternative ways to solve a problem; only in this case the solution can be optimal. However, in practice, the manager does not (and cannot have) such reserves of knowledge and time to formulate and evaluate every possible alternative. Managers are well aware that finding an optimal solution is very difficult, takes a lot of time and is expensive, so they are not looking for the optimal, but a good enough, acceptable option that allows them to solve the problem and helps to cut off in advance unsuitable alternatives, selection criteria determined at the previous stage.
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Decision making is one of the main components of any management process.
The decision-making process, although seemingly simple, is very difficult. It contains quite a lot of subtleties and underwater reefs that are well known to professional managers.
Each organization develops management decisions. And in each organization, the practice of developing and making management decisions has its own characteristics, determined by the nature and specifics of its activities, its organizational structure, the current communication system, and internal culture.
Nevertheless, there is a common feature that is characteristic of any decision-making process, wherever it takes place. This is the single core that forms the development and decision-making technology used in any organization.
Preparation of decisions is carried out on the basis of the totality of information about the situation, its careful analysis and assessments.
In the decision-making process, much attention is paid to the use of expert assessment methods designed to work with both quantitative and qualitative information.
The main purpose of expert technologies is to increase professionalism, and, consequently, the effectiveness of management decisions.
There are different ways of representing the decision-making process, which are based on different approaches to management: systemic, quantitative, situational, etc.
The main attention is paid to the situational approach, since it most fully reflects the problems arising in management activities, is universal and, in essence, contains the main methods associated with making management decisions and used in other approaches.
Preparing to develop a management solution
The first block of stages in developing a management decision includes the following stages:
obtaining information about the situation;
defining goals;
development of an assessment system;
analysis of the situation;
diagnosis of the situation;
development of a forecast for the development of the situation.
Development of a management solution.
The second block of stages for developing a management decision includes:
generating alternative solutions;
selection of main options for management actions;
development of scenarios for the development of the situation;
expert assessment of the main options for control actions.
Decision making, implementation, analysis of the result.
The third block of stages of development and implementation of a management decision includes:
collective expert assessment;
decision-making by persons with decision-making rights (DM);
development of an action plan;
monitoring the implementation of the plan;
analysis of the results of the development of the situation after management influences.
Implementation of solutions in the organization
The implementation of management decisions, strategic and tactical plans is carried out in the organization in which these decisions and plans were made. Let's consider the mechanisms, organizational structures, relationships that affect the effectiveness of their implementation.
One of the main properties of an organization that influences the implementation of decisions and plans is the hierarchical management structure.
Hierarchical ordering is inherent in all purposeful systems. A hierarchical organization is a multi-level structure consisting of interconnected subsystems, the elements of which have the right to make and implement decisions.
Hierarchy determines management functions and responsibilities, and the order of subordination in the organization. The higher subsystems (divisions), according to the hierarchical structure, make decisions that are binding on the lower ones and have the right to interfere in their actions.
The subordinate unit, as a rule, has a certain degree of freedom within the framework of the tasks and restrictions assigned to it. This freedom lies in the possibility of making independent decisions within the framework of the powers delegated to him.
An important component of an organization's management system is information. Information exchange in a hierarchical structure occurs vertically and horizontally. Vertically, information is transmitted from lower divisions to higher ones and vice versa.
From lower-level units to higher-level ones, information is transmitted about their condition, about interaction with the external environment and other units within the organization, about decisions made and about the expected consequences of decisions made, and the results of their activities.
From higher divisions of the organizational structure to lower ones, information is transmitted about decisions made as they relate to lower divisions of the organization, about plans for their implementation, about allocated resources, about the operating conditions of the lower-level organization, and the assessment of its activities.
Horizontal information exchange is carried out between departments of the same hierarchical level. Typically, information is transmitted horizontally about the plans and results of the activities of divisions within the framework of delegated powers; information about alternative solutions related to the area of joint activities, about the operating conditions of divisions, as well as information related to the activities of another division can be transmitted and agreed upon.
The exchange of information vertically and horizontally implements direct and feedback in managing an organization.
The degree of freedom that a structural unit has in managing its own activities due to the powers delegated to it, direct and feedback connections with higher units and units of the same hierarchical level are one of the main elements of the organization's management system.
Using situation 1, characterize the main stages of developing a management decision:
Situation 1. Since 2005, the Russian trading company Neftekhim OJSC has been selling mineral fertilizers and petrochemical products on the domestic market. The company employs 986 people. Suppliers of these products have the opportunity to increase fertilizer production by 60%. They asked the company OJSC Neftekhim to increase accordingly sale of this product. The company's management was interested in this proposal and created a group to study it in detail. A group of specialists conducted marketing research and identified the most profitable regions for product promotion. They are the Kursk and Voronezh regions, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories. The management of OJSC Neftekhim planned to create a network of branches in these regions to promote fertilizers. This UR was approved by the board of directors and implemented after some time. After a year of operation, the company's financial performance deteriorated due to losses in most branches. The main reason for these losses was that the branches were poorly informed about the time and name of the fertilizers arriving to them. As a result, shareholders' expectations regarding the company's earnings growth were not met.
4. Options for technologies for making management decisions.
Under management adoption process solutions is understood as a cyclical sequence of actions of a management subject aimed at resolving the problems of the organization and consisting in analyzing the situation, generating alternatives, making a decision and organizing its implementation.
If the problem is simple and the situational factors are clear and manageable, then the decision-making process can be quite simple. In this case, after understanding the problem situation, a decision is made that has a direct impact on it and brings the system (managed object) to a state corresponding to the given one.
If the solution to a problem situation is ambiguous, then the decision-making process requires a certain structuring with the identification of stages and procedures (Fig. 8.2).
Rice. 8.2. Composition and sequence of stages of management decision making (according to M.M. Maksimtsov et al., 1998)
Analysis of the situation based on the collection and processing of information from the external and internal environment. Allows managers to determine deviations of a functioning system from a given or planned mode.
Problem identification allows you to establish the essence and reason for the discrepancy between the planned and actual performance indicators of the organization.
Definition of selection criteria. Makes it possible to select the criteria by which comparison and selection of alternatives will be made. These indicators are called selection criteria.
Development of alternative solutions. Involves searching and developing many alternative solutions to a problem.
Selecting an alternative. This is done by comparing the disadvantages and advantages of each alternative. Here it is necessary to take into account the risk factor, i.e. determine the probability of each alternative being realized. Preference is given to the solution option that ensures the achievement of results with the highest degree of probability.
Agreement on the solution. In modern management systems, as a result of the division of labor, a situation has developed where some members of the organization develop a solution, others accept it, and still others implement it. In this regard, management decision making in an organization must be considered as group decision, not an individual process. It is the organization, not the individual leader, who must respond to emerging problems. Therefore, all members of the organization should strive to improve the efficiency of its work. This is where the need arises to coordinate opinions and positions on making management decisions.
Managers who tend to accept individual solutions. However, practice shows that a decision is implemented faster and more effectively when performers have the opportunity to express an opinion on the decision being made, make their own proposals, etc. In this case, the decision made is perceived as one’s own, and not imposed “from above.” Systematic ignoring of the opinions of subordinates leads to the formation of an authoritarian leadership style.
At the same time, it is quite obvious that in a number of cases, more often at the operational and tactical level, the manager is forced to make decisions alone without discussion and coordination.
Implementation management. The adopted decision (alternative) must be implemented. To do this, it is necessary to develop an action plan or program for implementing the decision, which provides for the use of resources, technologies, sources of financing, determines the timing and those responsible for the implementation of the decision. During the implementation of the decision, the manager is obliged to monitor how it is implemented, and, if necessary, provide assistance and make adjustments.
Monitoring and evaluation of results. At this stage, an analysis and assessment of the actual results obtained and the degree of their deviation from the planned indicators is carried out. However, it should be remembered that management decisions are always temporary. Its duration corresponds to the period of relative constancy of the problem situation. Therefore, the main task of control is to promptly identify the decreasing effectiveness of the solution and carry out its correction.
The presented diagram of the decision-making process reflects the logic of management activities, and not its complexity. In practice, this process is more complex and allows not only sequence, but also parallelism of individual procedures. The effectiveness of this process largely depends on the methods that managers use when performing all the necessary types of management.
In the process of problem solving, to strengthen the ability of managers to make informed, effective management decisions aimed at setting and achieving the organization’s goals, various management methods.
Highlight two main classes of management methods: modeling methods and expert assessment methods.
Modeling methods are based on the use of mathematical models to solve the most common management problems.
Development of a management decision using modeling methods includes a number of stages:
setting the task of solving the problem;
quantitative measurement of factors influencing the operation under study;
construction of a mathematical model of the object being studied;
quantitative solution of the model and finding the optimal solution;
checking the adequacy of the mathematical model;
adjustment and updating of the mathematical model.
The most common mathematical models include: models of game theory, queuing theory, inventory management, linear programming, simulation, and economic analysis. They allow solving management problems using economic and mathematical modeling methods.
Methods of expert assessments. They are used in the development of management decisions that are completely or partially not amenable to quantitative analysis. In order to minimize errors and the influence of the subjective factor, the received information is processed using special logical and mathematical procedures and converted into a form convenient for developing a solution.
To conduct the examination, an organizational group is formed to provide conditions for the effective work of experts. Main tasks of the group:
statement of the problem, determination of the purpose and objectives of the examination;
development of examination procedures;
selection, competency testing and formation of a group of experts;
conducting a survey of experts and obtaining their assessments;
processing, formalization and interpretation of received information.
Among the methods of expert assessments, group survey methods are widely used: the nominal group technique method, the brainstorming method, and the Delphi method.
Method nominal group technique built on the principle of restrictions on interpersonal communications. Therefore, all members of the group who have gathered to make a decision initially put out their proposals in writing independently and independently of others. Then each participant reports the essence of his project, the presented options are considered by group members (without discussion or criticism). Only after this, each member of the group, independently of the others, gives a written ranking of the ideas considered. The project with the highest score is accepted as the basis for the decision.
Brainstorming method is to give each group member the right to express a variety of ideas about options for solving a problem, regardless of their validity, feasibility, or even logic. The basic principle of this method is that the more offers, the better. All proposals are heard without criticism or evaluation, and their analysis is carried out centrally after the completion of the process of hearing options based on the notes made. As a result, a list is formed in which all proposals are structured according to certain parameters-constraints, as well as according to their effectiveness.
Delphi method used in cases where gathering a group is not possible. The solution to the problem is carried out in the following sequence:
Group members are asked to answer a detailed list of questions on the issue under discussion.
Each group member answers questions independently and anonymously.
The results of the answers are collected in the center and based on them, an integral document is drawn up containing all possible solutions.
Each group member receives a copy of this material.
An agreed decision is made.
As with the nominal group technique, this method ensures the independence of opinion of individual group members. However, the time spent on developing solutions increases significantly, and the number of alternatives discussed decreases.
In conclusion, it should be noted that when developing and making management decisions, managers, as a rule, use a combination of management methods.
In Figure 8.3. The process of adoption and implementation of the program of anti-tuberculosis care to the population at the territorial level is presented.
It follows from the figure that in the healthcare system the formation strategies anti-tuberculosis care to the population at the territorial level is determined by goals and depends on the specific epidemiological situation, as well as the forecast of its development. For acceptance goals a system of indicators for tuberculosis is analyzed, reflecting the qualitative and quantitative side of the service’s activities, the state of the external and internal environment of the organization.
Fig.8.3. The process of adoption and implementation of the anti-tuberculosis care program for the population
For implementation strategies Targeted regional tuberculosis programs are being formed, aimed at adapting the anti-tuberculosis service to the changing needs of the population for anti-tuberculosis care, as well as to new socio-economic conditions.
Performance programs is possible only with the participation of the general medical network, the anti-tuberculosis service and state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance centers, each of which solves the assigned tasks within its competence.
Control necessary for effective interaction of the organizational macrostructure of the region's anti-tuberculosis service, aimed at achieving effective planned indicators ( results) with rational use resource-saving technologies.
Thus, the management decision is the most important element of management aimed at achieving effective results with minimal use of resources.
5. The role of feedback in the process of developing a management decision. Ways to establish feedback.
