What did Alexander the Great conquer briefly? Who is Alexander the Great: biography of the great commander and the history of the conquest of the world by a ruthless pragmatist

Alexander the Great (Alexander III the Great, other Greek Ἀλέξανδρος Γ" ὁ Μέγας, lat. Alexander III Magnus, born presumably July 20 (21), 356 - June 10, 323 BC) - Macedonian king from 336 BC from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator world power that collapsed after his death. In Muslim tradition, can be identified with the legendary king Dhul-Qarnayn. In Western historiography he is best known as Alexander the Great. Even in Antiquity, Alexander gained the reputation of one of the greatest commanders in history.

Having ascended the throne at the age of 20 after the death of his father, the Macedonian king Philip II, Alexander secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece with the defeat of the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander began a legendary campaign to the East and in seven years completely conquered the Persian Empire. Then he began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers, tired of the long campaign, he retreated.

The cities founded by Alexander, which are still the largest in several countries in our time, and the colonization of new territories in Asia by the Greeks contributed to the spread of Greek culture in the East. Almost reaching the age of 33, Alexander died in Babylon from a serious illness. Immediately his empire was divided among his generals (Diadochi), and a series of Diadochi wars reigned for several decades.

Birth and childhood

Alexander was born in 356 BC. e. in the Macedonian capital Pella. According to legend, Alexander was born on the night when Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Already during Alexander's campaigns, a legend spread that the Persian magicians interpreted this fire as a sign of a future catastrophe for their empire. But since all sorts of legends and signs always accompanied the birth and life of the great people of antiquity, the fortunately coinciding date of Alexander’s birth is sometimes considered artificial.

Alexander's exact birthday is unknown. It is often taken for July 20, since according to Plutarch Alexander was born “on the sixth day of the month hecatombeon (ancient Greek ἑκατομβαιών) , which the Macedonians call loi(ancient Greek λῷος)"; There are also dates between July 21 and 23. 1 day of hecatombeon is often taken as July 15, but exact correspondence has not been proven. However, from the testimony of Aristobulus, recorded by Arrian, it can be calculated that Alexander was born in the fall. In addition, according to the testimony of Demosthenes, a contemporary of the king, the Macedonian month Loy actually corresponded to the Attic boedromion (September and October). Therefore, the period from October 6 to October 10 is often given as the date of birth.

His parents are the Macedonian king Philip II and the daughter of the Epirus king Olympias. Alexander himself, according to tradition, descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, from whom the first Macedonian king Karan allegedly branched off. According to the legendary version, which became widespread at the instigation of Alexander himself, his real father was Pharaoh Nectaneb II. It was expected that the child would be named Amyntas in honor of Philip's father, but he named him Alexander - probably with political overtones in honor of the Macedonian king Alexander I, nicknamed "Phihelline" (friend of the Greeks).

The greatest influence on little Alexander was his mother. The father was engaged in wars with the Greek policies, and the child spent most of his time with Olympias. She probably tried to turn her son against Philip, and Alexander developed an ambivalent attitude towards his father: while admiring his stories about the war, he at the same time felt hostility towards him because of his mother’s gossip.

Alexander was seen as a talented child from early childhood. Thanks to this, he was recognized very early as the heir to his father's business, and Olympias became the most influential of Philip's at least six wives. However, Alexander could be the only son of Philip worthy to accept his kingdom. The fact is that, according to ancient authors, his brother Philip (later known as Philip III Arrhidaeus) was weak-minded. Philip had no other reliably known sons, or at least none of them were ready to rule his father's kingdom by 336.

From early childhood, Alexander was prepared for diplomacy, politics, and war. Although Alexander was born in Pella, he, along with other noble youths, was educated in Mieza not far from the city. The choice of a place remote from the capital was probably due to the desire to remove the child from the mother. Alexander's educators and mentors were: his maternal relative Leonid, to whom he retained deep affection in adulthood, despite a strict Spartan upbringing in childhood; jester and actor Lysimachus; and from 343 BC. e. - the great philosopher Aristotle. The choice of him as a mentor was not accidental - Aristotle was close to the Macedonian royal house, and was also well acquainted with Hermias, the tyrant of Atarneus, who maintained friendly relations with Philip. Under the guidance of Aristotle, who emphasized the study of ethics and politics, Alexander received a classical Greek education and was also instilled with a love of medicine, philosophy and literature. Although all Greeks read the classic works of Homer, Alexander studied the Iliad especially diligently, since his mother traced her origins to the main character of this epic, Achilles. Subsequently, he often re-read this work. It is also known from sources that Alexander had a good knowledge of “Anabasis” by Xenophon, Euripides, as well as the poets Pindar, Stesichorus, Telestus, Philoxenus and others.

Youth

Even in his childhood, Alexander differed from his peers: he was indifferent to bodily joys and indulged in them very moderately; Alexander's ambition was boundless. He showed no interest in women, but at the age of 10 he tamed Bucephalus, a stallion, because of whose obstinacy King Philip refused to take him. Plutarch on the character of Alexander:

“Philip saw that Alexander was stubborn by nature, and when he got angry, he did not yield to any violence, but with a reasonable word he could easily be persuaded to make the right decision; That’s why my father tried to convince more than to command.”

At the age of 16, Alexander remained with the king in Macedonia under the supervision of the general Antipater, when Philip was besieging Byzantium. Having led the troops remaining in Macedonia, he suppressed the uprising of the Thracian tribe of the Medes and created the city of Alexandropol on the site of the Thracian settlement (by analogy with Philippopolis, which his father named in his honor). And 2 years later, in 338 BC. e. At the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander showed personal courage and skills as a commander, leading the left wing of the Macedonian army under the supervision of experienced military leaders.

Alexander demonstrated his penchant for adventure in his youth, when, without his father’s will, he wanted to marry the daughter of Pixodarus, the ruler of Caria. Later, he seriously quarreled with his father because of the latter’s marriage to the young noble Cleopatra, which resulted in a breakdown in relations between Philip and Olympias, whom Alexander sincerely loved. Philip's wedding to a noble Macedonian woman may have been organized by part of the local aristocracy. Many noble Macedonians did not want to accept the fact that Philip’s heir would be the son of a foreigner, who, moreover, was under her strong influence. After this, Olympias attempted to overthrow Philip with the help of her brother Alexander of Molossus, the ruler of Epirus. However, Philip learned about Olympias's plans and invited the king of Epirus to marry Cleopatra, the sister of his heir Alexander, and he agreed. By the time of Cleopatra's wedding, the future conqueror had reconciled with his father and returned to Macedonia.

During the wedding celebrations in 336 BC. e. Philip was killed by his bodyguard Pausanias. The circumstances of the murder are not entirely clear, and the possibility of participation in the conspiracy by various interested parties who became Philip's enemies as a result of his aggressive policies is often pointed out. Pausanias himself was captured and immediately killed by people from Alexander’s retinue, which is sometimes interpreted as the desire of the future king to hide the true orderer of the attack. The Macedonian army, which knew Alexander well and had seen him in battle, proclaimed him king (probably at the direction of Antipater).

Ascension to the throne

Greece and Macedonia in 336 BC. e.

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander first dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to Macedonian tradition, with other possible rivals. As a rule, they were accused of conspiracy and actions on behalf of Persia - for this, for example, two princes from the Lyncestid dynasty (Arrabai and Heromen), representing Upper Macedonia and laying claim to the Macedonian throne, were executed. However, their brother Alexander was Antipater’s son-in-law, and therefore Alexander brought him closer to him. At the same time, he executed his cousin Aminta and left his half-sister Kinana a widow. Amyntas represented the "senior" line of the Argeads (from Perdiccas III) and nominally ruled Macedonia for a time in its infancy until he was removed by his guardian Philip II. Finally, Alexander decided to eliminate the popular commander Attalus - he was accused of treason and negotiations with Athenian politicians. Alexander attracted the nobility and the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes. Moreover, after the reign of Philip, the treasury was practically empty, and debts reached 500 talents.

At the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the difficult situation that had arisen. Thus, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian rule became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek city-states tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip and weaken the influence of Macedonia. However, Alexander took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded agreement with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek city states, their independent decision of internal affairs, and the right to withdraw from the agreement. To guide the foreign policy of the Greek states, a general council was created and the “position” of a Hellenic hegemon with military powers was introduced. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies admitted Macedonian garrisons (this, in particular, was what Thebes did).

Alexander: - Ask me whatever you want!
Diogenes: - Don’t block the sun for me!
(Jean-Baptiste Regnault, 1818)

In Corinth, Alexander met the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. According to legend, the king invited Diogenes to ask him for whatever he wanted, and the philosopher replied, “Don’t block the sun for me.” Soon Alexander visited Delphi, but they refused to receive him there, citing non-public days. But the king found the Pythia (soothsayer) and demanded that she predict his fate, and she exclaimed in response, “ You are invincible, my son!».

Marching north and taking Thebes

Having a still calm Greece behind him, eyeing a new king, in the spring of 335 BC. e. set out on a campaign against the rebel Illyrians and Thracians. According to modern estimates, no more than 15 thousand soldiers went on the northern campaign, and almost all of them were Macedonians. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon (Shipka): the barbarians set up a camp of carts on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their carts; Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the carts in an organized manner. During the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children whom the barbarians had left in the camp and transported them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Tribal tribe, and their ruler Sirmus, along with most of his fellow tribesmen, took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, was unable to land on the island. As harvest time approached, Alexander's army could destroy all the Triballi's crops and try to force them to surrender before their supplies ran out. However, the king soon noticed that troops of the Getae tribe were gathering on the other side of the Danube. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on homemade rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube, defeated the Getae and thereby deprived the ruler of the Triballi Sirmus of hope for a quick end to the war. It is possible that Alexander borrowed the organization of the crossing from Xenophon, who described the crossing of the Euphrates on homemade boats in his work Anabasis. Soon Alexander concluded alliance treaties with all the northern barbarians.

While Alexander was settling matters in the north, in the south, at the end of summer, under the influence of a false rumor about Alexander’s death, a rebellion broke out in Thebes, the Greek city most affected by Philip. The inhabitants of Thebes called on all of Greece to revolt, but the Greeks, while verbally expressing solidarity with the Thebans, in fact preferred to observe the development of events.

The Athenian orator Demosthenes called Alexander a child, convincing his fellow citizens that he was not dangerous. The king, however, sent an answer that he would soon appear at the walls of Athens and prove that he was already a grown man. In the tense situation, Alexander did not waste time. With rapid marches, he transferred the army from Illyria to Thebes. The siege took several days. Before the storming of Thebes, Alexander repeatedly proposed peace negotiations and was refused.

At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Sources give various reasons for the defeat of the Thebans: Arrian believes that the Theban troops lost heart and could no longer restrain the Macedonians, while Diodorus believes that the main reason was the discovery by the Macedonians of an unprotected section of the city walls. In any case, Macedonian troops occupied the walls of the city, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. The city was captured and plundered by storm, and the entire population was enslaved. With the proceeds (approximately 440 talents), Alexander fully or partially covered the debts of the Macedonian treasury. All of Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian weapons. Residents of a number of cities themselves brought to trial politicians who called for a rebellion against Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began preparing for a campaign in Asia.

At this stage, Alexander’s military expeditions took the form of pacifying opponents of the Corinthian League and the Panhellenic idea of ​​vengeance on the barbarians. Alexander justifies all his aggressive actions during the “Macedonian” period by an inextricable connection with the goals of the Pan-Hellenic Union. After all, it was the Corinthian Congress that formally sanctioned Alexander’s dominant status in Hellas.

Conquest of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt (334-332 BC)

Having appointed Antipater as his governor in Europe and leaving him 12 thousand infantry and 1500 cavalry, in the early spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander, at the head of the united forces of Macedonia, the Greek city-states (except for Sparta, which refused to participate) and the allied Thracians, set out on a campaign against the Persians. The moment to start the campaign was chosen very well, since the Persian fleet was still in the ports of Asia Minor and could not prevent the army from crossing. In May, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in the area where the legendary Troy was located. According to legend, sailing to the other shore, Alexander threw a spear towards Asia, which symbolized that everything conquered would belong to the king.

Diodorus Siculus gives the composition of his troops, generally confirmed by other sources:

• Infantry - a total of 32 thousand - 12 thousand Macedonians (9 thousand in the Macedonian phalanx and 3 thousand in the shield-bearing units), 7 thousand allies (from Greek cities), 5 thousand mercenaries (Greeks), 7 thousand barbarians (Thracians and Illyrians), 1 thousand archers and Agrians (Paeonian tribe in Thrace).
• Cavalry - only 1500-1800 Macedonians (hetaira), 1800 Thessalians and 600 Greeks from other regions, 900 Thracians and Paeonians. That is, in total there were 5 thousand cavalry in Alexander’s army.

In addition, there were several thousand Macedonian soldiers in Asia Minor, who crossed there under Philip. Thus, the total number of Alexander’s troops at the beginning of the campaign reached 50 thousand soldiers. There were also many scientists and historians at Alexander’s headquarters - Alexander initially set himself research goals.

Alexander's campaign of 334.

Alexander's campaign of 333.

Alexander's campaign of 332-331.

When Alexander's army found itself near the city of Lampsacus on the banks of the Hellespont, the townspeople sent the rhetorician Anaximenes, who taught Alexander oratory, to Alexander to ask him to save the city. Expecting sophisticated rhetorical tricks and requests from his teacher, Alexander exclaimed that he would not do anything that Anaximenes asked. However, the rhetorician asked him to capture and plunder his hometown, and the king had to keep his word - not to capture or plunder Lampsacus. Occupying the nearby town of Priapus, Alexander's soldiers were surprised to learn about the cult of the local deity of the same name, and soon his veneration spread throughout the Mediterranean.

The commander of the Greek mercenaries in the Persian service, Memnon, who was well acquainted with the Macedonian army (he fought against Philip’s troops sent to Asia Minor) and personally knew Alexander, recommended refraining from open clashes with Alexander’s army and suggested using scorched earth tactics. He also insisted on the need to actively use the fleet and to strike at Macedonia itself. However, the Persian satraps refused to listen to the advice of the Greek and decided to give battle to Alexander on the Granik River near Troy. In the Battle of Granicus, the satraps' detachments, mostly cavalry (numbering up to 20 thousand), were scattered, the Persian infantry fled, and the Greek hoplite mercenaries were surrounded and exterminated (2 thousand were taken prisoner).

Most cities in Asia Minor voluntarily opened their gates to the winner. Phrygia surrendered completely, and its satrap Atisius committed suicide. Soon, the commandant of the city of Sardis, Mithren, surrendered the city, despite the fact that it was perfectly fortified, and the citadel located on the mountain was practically impregnable. Thanks to this betrayal, Alexander gained one of the strongest fortresses in Asia Minor and the richest treasury without a fight. In gratitude, the king introduced Mithren into his inner circle, and soon appointed him satrap of Armenia. The residents of Ephesus also surrendered the city without a fight: before the arrival of Alexander, they overthrew the pro-Persian elite and restored democracy. In place of the Persian satraps, Alexander appointed Macedonians, Greeks, or, as in the case of Mithrenos, Persians personally loyal to him.

Shortly after arriving in Caria, Alexander was met by Ada, the former satrap of Caria, who had been removed from power by her brother Pixodarus. She surrendered to him the city of Alinda, where she lived after her removal, and said that Alexander was like a son to her. Sometimes this phrase, recorded by Arrian, is interpreted as legal adoption. For him, this became an opportunity to win over some of the Carians to his side - Ada still enjoyed authority among the local aristocracy.

In Caria, Alexander faced resistance from the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, where there were strong Persian garrisons, and where the troops of the satraps who survived the battle of Granicus accumulated. Alexander's entire fleet approached Miletus, with the help of which he crossed the Hellespont. However, within a few days a huge Persian fleet arrived at the city. Despite this, Alexander did not lift the siege of the city and rejected the offer of the Milesian oligarchy to open the city to both armies. This was probably due to the fact that the commandant of the city, Hegesistratus, conducted secret negotiations with Alexander about surrender and had already contributed to the occupation of the outer fortifications of the city by the Greeks. The very next morning, the Greeks, using siege engines, destroyed the walls of Miletus, after which troops broke into the city and captured it. In addition, the Greeks forced the Persian fleet to retreat because it did not have sufficient supplies of food and water. Soon the Persians returned, but after a small clash they again sailed from Miletus. After this, Alexander took an unexpected step and ordered the dissolution of almost his entire fleet. Modern historians see this decision of the king as one of the few mistakes he made.

Alexander cuts the Gordian knot.
(Jean-Simon Berthelemy, late 18th-early 19th centuries)

Already near Halicarnassus, the king regretted his decision - the city was supplied from the sea, and since Alexander did not have the opportunity to block the supply channel, the army had to prepare for a deliberately difficult assault. During 334 BC. e. and until the autumn of 333, Alexander conquered all of Asia Minor.

Having barely left Asia Minor from Cilicia, Alexander encountered the Persian king Darius III in battle at Issami in November 333 BC. e. The terrain favored Alexander; a huge Persian army was squeezed into a narrow gorge between the sea and the mountains. The Battle of Issus ended with the complete defeat of Darius; he himself fled from the battlefield, leaving his family in the camp, which went to the Macedonians as a prize. Macedonian troops captured part of the treasures of the Persian king and many noble captives in Damascus.

The victory at Issus opened the way to the south for the Macedonians. Alexander, skirting the Mediterranean coast, headed to Phenicia with the goal of conquering coastal cities and depriving the Persian fleet of bases. Peace terms twice proposed by Darius were rejected by Alexander. Of the cities of Phenicia, only the impregnable Tire, located on the island, refused to recognize the power of Alexander. However, in July 332 BC. e. After a 7-month siege, the impregnable fortress city fell after an assault from the sea. With his fall, the Persian fleet in the Mediterranean ceased to exist, and Alexander could freely receive reinforcements by sea.

After Phenicia, Alexander continued his journey to Egypt through Palestine, where he was resisted by the city of Gaza, but it was also taken by storm after a 2-month siege.

Egypt, whose armed forces were destroyed at the Battle of Issus, was surrendered by the satrap Mazak without any resistance. The local population welcomed him as a deliverer from the hated Persian yoke and willingly recognized his power. Alexander did not touch local customs and religious beliefs; in general, he preserved the system of governing Egypt, supporting it with Macedonian garrisons. Alexander stayed in Egypt for six months from December 332 BC. e. to May 331 There, the king founded the city of Alexandria, which soon became one of the main cultural centers of the ancient world and the largest city in Egypt (currently the second largest city in Egypt). Also dating back to this time was his long and dangerous pilgrimage to the oracle of Zeus-Amon in the Siwa oasis in the Libyan desert. After meeting him, Alexander began to actively spread the rumor about himself that he was the son of the supreme god Zeus. (The ascension of the pharaoh to the throne has long been accompanied in Egypt by his sacralization; Alexander adopted this tradition).

Having strengthened himself sufficiently in the conquered territory, Alexander decided to delve into lands unknown to the Greeks, into the central regions of Asia, where the Persian king Darius III managed to assemble a new huge army.

Defeat of the Persian Empire (331-330 BC)

In the summer of 331 BC. e. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and found himself on the outskirts of Media, the heart of the Persian state. On a large plain (on the territory of modern Iraqi Kurdistan), specially prepared for the action of large masses of cavalry, King Darius was waiting for the Macedonians. October 1, 331 BC. e. A grandiose battle took place at Gaugamela, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. King Darius, as in the previous battle, fled from the battlefield, although his troops were still fighting, and the outcome of the battle was not at all determined. Meanwhile, the battle of Megalopolis took place between the Greeks and Macedonians, in which the Spartan king Agis and about five thousand Spartan soldiers died, the losses of the Macedonian side under the command of Antipater amounted to about three and a half thousand dead. Having learned about the outcome of the battle, Alexander said to his companions: “While we are here fighting the great king [Darius], there is a mouse war going on in Arcadia.” Thus, he showed his extreme rejection of the civil strife that tore apart the ancient Greek lands, and his attitude towards them as something insignificant, unimportant in the light of his grandiose campaign, despite the fact that in its scale the Battle of Megalopolis was at least comparable to the battles under its beginning, and in terms of losses of Macedonian forces it was almost three times greater than the Battle of Gaugamela.

Alexander moved to the south, where ancient Babylon and Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, opened their gates to him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to serve the king of Asia, as Alexander began to be called.

From Susa, Alexander headed through mountain passes to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After an unsuccessful attempt to break out on the move, Alexander and part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia, Ariobarzanes, and in January 330 BC. e. Persepolis fell. The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving, the palace of the Persian kings was burned. According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, inciting the drunken company of Alexander and his friends.

In May 330 BC. e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. In July, Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy among his military leaders. The Bactrian satrap Bessus, who killed Darius, named himself the new king of the Persian Empire under the name Artaxerxes. Bess tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.

King of Asia

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people, tried to equalize the victors with the vanquished and combine their customs into a single whole. The measures taken by Alexander initially concerned external forms such as oriental clothing, a harem, and Persian court ceremonies. However, he did not demand compliance with them from the Macedonians. Alexander tried to rule the Persians like their previous kings. In historiography, there is no consensus on the title of Alexander - by adopting the title “King of Asia,” the new king could either indicate the continuity of his state with the Achaemenid Empire, or, on the contrary, he could emphasize the contrast between the new power and Persia, since he did not use such Achaemenid titles as “king of kings” " and others.

The first complaints against Alexander appeared in the fall of 330 BC. e. The fighting comrades, accustomed to the simplicity of morals and friendly relations between the king and his subjects, muttered dully, refusing to accept Eastern concepts, in particular proskynesis - prostrating and kissing the king's feet. His closest friends and court flatterers followed Alexander without hesitation.

The Macedonian army was tired of the long campaign, the soldiers wanted to return home and did not share the goals of their king to become the master of the whole world. At the end of 330 BC. e. a conspiracy against Alexander by several ordinary soldiers was discovered (only 2 participants are known). However, the consequences of the unsuccessful conspiracy were more than serious due to the inter-clan struggle within Alexander’s entourage. One of the leading commanders, the commander of the hetaira Filota, was accused of passive complicity (knew, but did not inform). Even under torture, Filota did not admit to evil intent, but was executed by soldiers at a meeting. Philotas' father, the general Parmenion, was killed without trial or any proof of guilt due to Alexander's increased suspicion. Less significant officers, who were also suspected, were acquitted.

In the summer of 327 BC. e. the “conspiracy of pages”, noble young men under the Macedonian king, was discovered. In addition to the direct culprits, Callisthenes, a historian and philosopher, who alone dared to object to the king and openly criticize the new court orders, was also executed. The death of the philosopher was a logical consequence of the development of Alexander's despotic inclinations. This tendency was especially clearly manifested in the death of Cleitus the Black, the commander of the royal bodyguards, whom Alexander personally killed as a result of a drunken quarrel in the fall of 328 BC. e. The increasing frequency of information about conspiracies is associated with Alexander’s worsening paranoia.

Campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC)

After the death of Darius III, local rulers in the eastern satrapies of the collapsed Persian Empire felt independent and were in no hurry to swear allegiance to the new monarch. Alexander, dreaming of becoming king of the entire civilized world, found himself involved in a three-year military campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC).

It was predominantly a guerrilla war rather than a battle between armies. The Battle of Polytimetus can be noted. This was the first and only victory over the troops of the commanders of Alexander the Great in the entire history of his campaign to the East. Local tribes acted in raids and retreats, uprisings broke out in different places, and Macedonian troops sent by Alexander destroyed entire villages in retaliation. The fighting took place in Bactria and Sogdiana. Alexander the Great conquered Paropamisada and founded the city here - Alexandria of the Caucasus.

In Sogdiana, Alexander defeated the Scythians. To do this, he had to cross the Yaxartes River. The Macedonian troops did not go further north; the places there were deserted and, according to the Greeks, sparsely inhabited. In the mountains of Sogdiana and Bactria, the local population, when the Macedonians approached, hid in inaccessible mountain fortresses, but Alexander managed to capture them, if not by storm, then by cunning and perseverance. The king's troops brutally dealt with the rebellious local population, which led to the devastation of Central Asia.

In Sogdiana, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Greek Αλεξάνδρεια Εσχάτη - Extreme Alexandria) (modern Khujand). In Bactria, on ancient ruins, he founded the city of Alexandria in Arachosia (modern Kandahar). There in Bactria in the winter of 328/327 BC. e. or in the summer of 327, Alexander married Roxana, the daughter of a local nobleman (possibly a satrap) Oxyartes. Although ancient authors generally assumed that the marriage was for love, this union made it possible to attract the local aristocracy to the side of the king. After the wedding, which consolidated Macedonian dominance in Bactria and Sogdiana, the king began preparations for a campaign in India.

Campaign to India (326-325 BC)

In the spring of 326 BC. e. Alexander invaded the lands of the Indian peoples from Bactria through the Khyber Pass, conquered a number of tribes, crossed the Indus River and took possession of King Ambha from Taxila (the Greeks called the king "the man from Taxila", that is, Taxil) in what is now Pakistan. The main combat operations of the Macedonian troops took place in the Punjab region.

Taxilus swore allegiance to Alexander, hoping with his help to defeat his rival, King Porus of eastern Punjab. Porus placed an army and 200 elephants on the borders of his land, and in July of 326 BC. e. A battle took place on the Hydaspes River, in which Porus' army was defeated and he himself was captured. Unexpectedly for Taxila, Alexander left Porus as king and even expanded his domain. This was Alexander’s usual policy in the conquered lands: to make the conquered rulers dependent on himself, while trying to maintain a counterbalance to them in the person of other appanage rulers.

At the end of the summer of 326 BC. e. Alexander's advance to the east stopped. On the banks of the Bias River (a tributary of the Indus), the Macedonian army refused to further follow the king due to fatigue from the long campaign and endless battles. The immediate cause was rumors of huge armies with thousands of elephants beyond the Ganges. Alexander had no choice but to turn the army south. When retreating to Persia, he planned to seize other lands.

From about November 326, the Macedonian army rafted down the Hydaspes and Indus rivers for seven months, making forays along the way and conquering the surrounding tribes. In one of the battles for the city of Mallov (January 325 BC), Alexander was seriously wounded by an arrow in the chest. Irritated by the opposition and courage of the peoples of India, Alexander exterminates entire tribes, unable to stay here for a long time to bring them to submission.

Alexander sent part of the Macedonian army under Craterus to Persia, and with the rest reached the Indian Ocean.

In the summer of 325 BC. e. Alexander moved from the mouth of the Indus to Persia along the ocean coast. The return home through the deserts of Gedrosia, one of the coastal satrapies, turned out to be more difficult than the battles - many Macedonians died on the road from the heat and thirst.

Alexander's last years

In March 324 BC. e. Alexander entered Susa, where he and his army indulged in rest after a 10-year military campaign. Having secured dominion over the conquered lands, Alexander began the final organization of his fragile empire. First of all, he dealt with the local satraps and executed many for poor governance.

One of his steps towards creating a unified state from his culturally diverse subjects was a grand wedding at which he married Stateira, the eldest daughter of Darius III, captured after the Battle of Issus, and Parysates, daughter of Artaxerxes III. Alexander also gifted his friends with wives from noble Persian families. In total, according to Arrian, up to 10 thousand Macedonians took local wives, all of them received gifts from the king.

A serious reform took place in the army: a phalanx of 30 thousand young men from Asian peoples was prepared and trained according to the Macedonian model. Local aristocrats were even enrolled in the elite cavalry of the hetaira. The Macedonians' unrest resulted in open rebellion in August 324 BC. e., when ordinary soldiers accused the king of almost treason. Having executed 13 instigators and pointedly ignoring the soldiers, Alexander forced the army, which could no longer imagine any other commander other than Alexander, into obedience.

In February 323 BC. e. Alexander stopped in Babylon, where he began to plan new wars of conquest. The immediate goal was the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula; an expedition against Carthage was visible in the future. While the fleet is being prepared, Alexander builds harbors and canals, forms troops from recruits, and receives embassies.

Death of Alexander

5 days before the start of the campaign against the Arabs, Alexander fell ill. From June 7, Alexander could no longer speak. After 10 days of severe fever, June 10 or 13, 323 BC. e. Alexander the Great died in Babylon at the age of 32, just over a month short of his 33rd birthday and leaving no instructions on his heirs.

In modern historiography, the generally accepted version is that the king died naturally. However, the cause of his death has not yet been reliably established. The version most often put forward is about death from malaria. According to this version, the king’s body, weakened by daily attacks of malaria, was unable to resist two diseases at once. The second disease was presumably either pneumonia or transient leukemia (bleeding) caused by malaria. According to another version, Alexander fell ill with West Nile fever. There have also been suggestions that Alexander could have died from leishmaniasis or cancer. However, the fact that none of his dining companions fell ill reduces the plausibility of the version of an infectious disease. Historians pay attention to Alexander’s drinking bouts with generals that became more frequent towards the end of his conquests, which could have undermined his health. There is also a version about the king’s overdose of poisonous hellebore, which was used as a laxative. According to the modern opinion of British toxicologists, the symptoms of the disease from which Alexander died - prolonged vomiting, convulsions, muscle weakness and slow pulse - indicate his poisoning with a drug made from a plant called white hellebore (lat. veratrum album) - a poisonous plant, used by Greek doctors for medical purposes. Greek doctors gave a drink made from white hellebore with honey to drive out evil spirits and induce vomiting. Finally, even in antiquity, versions appeared about the poisoning of the king by Antipater, whom Alexander was going to remove from the post of governor of Macedonia, but no evidence of this appeared.

After Alexander

Division of the Empire

According to legend, before his death, Alexander gave the royal ring and seal to the military leader Perdiccas, who was to become regent for the pregnant queen Roxana. It was assumed that she would soon give birth to a legal heir, whose interests would be protected by Perdiccas until he came of age. A month after Alexander's death, Roxana gave birth to a son, named Alexander after his father. However, the supreme power of the regent Perdiccas soon began to be challenged by other military leaders (diadochi), who wanted to become independent rulers in their satrapies.

Alexander's empire actually ceased to exist already in 321 BC. e. after the death of Perdiccas in a clash with his former comrades. The Hellenistic world entered a period of wars of the Diadochi, which ended with the death of the last “heirs” in 281 BC. e. All members of Alexander's family and people close to him became victims of the struggle for power. Alexander's brother Arrhidaeus, who for some time was a puppet king under the name of Philip III, was killed; mother Alexandra Olympias; Alexandra's sister Cleopatra. In 309 BC. e. Roxana's son was killed at the age of 14 along with his mother by the diadochos Cassander; At the same time, the diadochus Polyperchon also killed Hercules, the son of Alexander by his concubine Barsina.

Alexander's Tomb

Diadochus Ptolemy took possession of the embalmed body of Alexander the Great and transported it in 322 BC. e. to Memphis. In Memphis, Alexander's body was most likely preserved in the Serapeion temple. Subsequently (probably on the initiative of Ptolemy Philadelphus) his body was transported to Alexandria.

300 years later, the first Roman emperor Octavian touched Alexander’s body, breaking off the mummy’s nose with an awkward movement. The last mention of the mummy of Alexander the Great is contained in the description of the campaign of the Roman emperor Caracalla to Alexandria in the 210s. Caracalla laid his tunic and ring on the tomb of the great conqueror. Since then, nothing has been known about the king's mummy.

There is an assumption that the sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, found by Napoleon’s French expeditionary force in Egypt and handed over to the British, could have been used for some time to bury the conqueror himself. This assumption is supported by the Ptolemies’ frequent use of pharaonic objects (even obelisks) for their own purposes, the need for the new dynasty to promote its continuity with the previous pharaohs, as well as the fact that Ptolemy I took possession of the king’s body so quickly that he might not have time to create something worthy of the great conqueror's sarcophagus. Currently, this sarcophagus is kept in the British Museum in London.

Alexander's personality

Plutarch describes his appearance as follows:

“Alexander’s appearance is best conveyed by the statues of Lysippos, and he himself believed that only this sculptor was worthy of sculpting his image. This master was able to accurately reproduce what many of the king's successors and friends later imitated - a slight tilt of the neck to the left and a languid look. Apelles, painting Alexander in the image of the Thunderer, did not convey the skin color characteristic of the king, but depicted him darker than he actually was. Alexander was reported to be very fair, and the whiteness of his skin turned red in places, especially on his chest and face.”

Alexander did not have a heroic build and was indifferent to athletic competitions, preferring pleasure feasts and battles. The personality and character of Alexander, like any great man, cannot be accurately depicted by individual traits or single stories and historical anecdotes; they are determined only by the totality of his deeds and their relationship to the previous and subsequent eras.

Very often Alexander rushed into the thick of the battle; Plutarch lists a list of his wounds:

“At Granicus, his helmet was cut with a sword that penetrated to the hair... at Issus - with a sword in the thigh... at Gaza he was wounded with a dart in the shoulder, at Maracanda - with an arrow in the shin so that the split bone protruded from the wound; in Hyrcania - a stone to the back of the head, after which his vision deteriorated and for several days he remained in danger of blindness; in the area of ​​the Assakans - with an Indian spear in the ankle... In the area of ​​the Malls, an arrow two cubits long, piercing the armor, wounded him in the chest; there... he was hit in the neck with a mace.”

Sex life

The opinion about Alexander’s bisexuality dates back to antiquity; his close friend Hephaestion and favorite Bagoya were named as partners. The king often compared himself to Achilles, and Hephaistion to Patroclus. Moreover, in Ancient Greece, the two heroes of the Iliad were usually considered a homosexual couple. Macedonian aristocrats often practiced relationships with men even in their youth. Relatives turned a blind eye to such relationships and usually showed concern only if the man did not express interest in women in adulthood, which created problems for procreation.

However, Plutarch in his Comparative Lives gives different facts.

One day Philoxenus, who commanded an army stationed on the seashore, wrote to Alexander that he had a certain Tarentine Theodore who wanted to sell two boys of remarkable beauty, and asked the king if he wanted to buy them. Alexander was extremely outraged by the letter and more than once complained to his friends, asking whether Philoxenus really thought so badly of him that he was offering him this abomination. He cruelly scolded Philoxen himself in a letter and ordered him to drive Theodore away along with his goods. He scolded Gagnon no less sharply, who wrote that he was going to buy and bring him the famous boy Crobilus in Corinth.

At the same time, Alexander had mistresses, three legal wives (the Bactrian princess Roxana, the daughters of the Persian kings Statira and Parisat) and two sons: Hercules from the concubine Barsina and Alexander from Roxana. In general, the king treated women with great respect, although even Alexander’s teacher Aristotle defended the subordinate position of women in society.

Religious views

Before his first successes in the fight against the Persians, Alexander actively made sacrifices to the gods, but later he ceased to treat the gods with reverence. Thus, even earlier, he had violated the ban on visiting the Delphic oracle, and mourning the death of his friend Hephaestion, Alexander equated him with heroes, organized his cult and founded two temples in his honor.

In Egypt, Alexander proclaimed himself the son of Amun-Ra and thus declared his divine identity; Egyptian priests began to honor him both as the son of god and as a god. He also visited the famous oracle of Ammon in the oasis of Siwa. These actions are usually assessed as a pragmatic political step aimed at legitimizing control over Egypt. Among the Greeks, the king’s desire to deify himself did not always find support - most Greek city-states recognized his divine essence (as the son of Zeus, the Greek analogue of Amon-Ra) only shortly before his death, including with obvious reluctance, like the Spartans (they decided: “So just as Alexander wants to be a god, let him be one”). Soon, in honor of the king, Alexandria began to be held - all-Ionian games like the Olympic ones, and shortly before his death, the ambassadors of the Greek city-states crowned him with golden wreaths, thereby symbolically recognizing his divine essence. The statement about Alexander's divine essence seriously shook the trust in him of many soldiers and commanders. In Greece, victorious commanders were sometimes given similar honors, so discontent was caused only by Alexander’s renunciation of his father and the demand for recognition of himself as an invincible god.

A later author, Josephus, recorded a legend that Yahweh appeared to Alexander in a dream, and therefore Alexander treated the Jewish high priest in Jerusalem with great respect, and also allegedly read the Book of the Prophet Daniel and recognized himself there.

Performance evaluations

Then the cursed and wicked Evil Spirit, in order to make people doubt this faith, sent the Roman Alexander, who was in Egypt, to Iran to wreak havoc and instill fear. He killed the Iranian king, destroyed the royal palace, and devastated the state. And the religious books, including the Avesta and Zend, written in gold letters on specially prepared ox skins and stored in Stakhra, where Ardashir Papakan was from, in the “Castle of Letters”, were collected and burned by that vile, vicious, sinful, malevolent Roman Alexander from Egypt . He killed many high priests and judges, Kherbeds and Mobeds, adherents of Zoroastrianism, active and wise people of Iran.

Ferdowsi. Shahnameh. Per. V.V. Derzhavin.

And Ardashir opened his mouth to them:
“Hey, glorious ones with your knowledge,
Those who have comprehended with their hearts the essence of everything!
I know there is not one among you,
Who wouldn't hear what hardships I subjected you to?
We are Iskandar - an alien, of low birth!
He cast down the ancient glory into darkness,
The whole world was squeezed into a violent fist.
<...>
Remember Iskandar, who destroyed
The most glorious ones, the color of the universe destroyed.
Where are they all? Where is their majestic shine?
There is only a bad reputation left about them.
Not to a blooming paradise - to a chilling hell
They left. Haftvad will not last forever!”

The nickname “Great” has been firmly attached to Alexander since ancient times. The Roman writer Curtius in the 1st century called his work “The History of Alexander the Great” (Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis); Diodorus noted " greatness of glory» commander (17.1); Plutarch also called Alexander "a great warrior." The Roman historian Titus Livius reported on the high assessment given to Alexander by another famous commander in history, Hannibal:

Scipio... asked who Hannibal considered the greatest commander, and he answered that Alexander, king of the Macedonians, for with small forces he defeated countless troops and reached the most distant countries that man had never dreamed of seeing.

According to Justin, " there was not a single enemy that he did not defeat, there was not a single city that he did not take, not a single people that he did not conquer».

Napoleon Bonaparte admired not so much Alexander's military genius as his statesmanship:

What fascinates me about Alexander the Great is not his campaigns, for which we have no means of assessing, but his political instinct. His appeal to Amon became a profound political action; thus he conquered Egypt.

However, the commander’s achievements were questioned by ancient philosophers who did not see the greatness of glory in the seizure of new lands. Seneca called Alexander an unhappy man, who was driven into unknown lands by passion for ambition and cruelty, and who tried to subjugate everything except passions, for from the sciences he had to learn “how small the land is, whose insignificant part he captured.”

Alexander was assessed differently in the East. Thus, in the Zoroastrian “Book of the Righteous Viraz” (Arda Viraz Namag), Alexander is presented as a messenger of the lord of evil Angra Mainyu. Subsequently, official Persian historiographers tried to portray Alexander as a descendant of the Achaemenids in order to substantiate the theory of hereditary succession to the Persian throne. It is often assumed that Alexander hides under the name Dhul-Qarnayn in the Koran, where he is characterized as a righteous man. The pseudo-historical novel "The History of Alexander the Great" was translated into the Pahlavi language, and through it, probably, into Arabic before the appearance of the Koran, and was known in Mecca. Subsequently, the personality of Alexander was popular in the Muslim world, and they often tried to attribute non-Greek origin to him. For example, North African Arab authors traced its roots to the territory of the Maghreb, and Spanish authors to the Pyrenees. The medieval Persian poet Ferdowsi in his poem Shahnameh includes Alexander among the rulers of Iran, neutrally narrates his philosophical conversation with the sages, but through the mouth of King Ardashir he voices a negative assessment of the conqueror. The poet Nizami Ganjavi dedicated a separate poem “Iskender-name” in the “Khamsa” cycle to Alexander.

Alexander was also a popular character in Jewish tradition - particularly in the Bible, rabbinic literature and Josephus. In the Book of Daniel, which Alexander allegedly read, he is not directly named, but is seen as part of the divine plan to save the Jewish people. In the First Book of Maccabees, Alexander is presented as a moderately hostile conqueror, one of whose successors was Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the organizer of the persecution of adherents of Judaism. In rabbinic literature, the attitude towards Alexander is mixed.

The image of Alexander in historiography

Already in antiquity, two traditions stood out in the depiction of Alexander: apologetic and critical; the first was represented by the works of Plutarch and Arrian, the second by Diodorus Siculus, Pompey Trogus, Quintus Curtius Rufus. As prof. Y. Belokh: “Of all the heroes of antiquity, the great Alexander aroused the greatest interest in an educated society, even in times of decline.”

Attempts to study the activities of Alexander were made during the Renaissance, but the systematic study of the life and work of the commander began only in the 19th century with the advent of historical scientific schools. Most studies of the 19th and early 20th centuries about the life and work of Alexander are characterized by an idealization of the commander. They were started by the author of the fundamental “History of Hellenism” I. Droyzen. The author of the “History of Greek Culture”, Jacob Burckhardt, J.P. Magaffie, J. Rade, P. Jouguet and others also praised Alexander’s activities. Arnold Toynbee considered Alexander a genius who single-handedly created the Hellenistic world. The American military historian Theodore Dodge devoted a separate work to Alexander's military art, who sought to draw lessons for modern times from Alexander's campaigns. To the greatest extent, the apologetic tradition received support in Germany, where attention to his personality was especially great.

In the book of the famous German teacher and popularizer of historical science G.V. Stohl “Heroes of Greece in War and Peace” (1866), Alexander was portrayed as a successful commander and wise statesman. Translated into Russian at the end of the 19th century, G. V. Shtol’s book enjoyed great success among Russian gymnasium and student youth.

Researchers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries are characterized by extreme Eurocentrism and justification of the aggressive policy of the Macedonian king: for Burckhardt, the greatness of Alexander is determined by the spread of Greek culture and civilization among the barbarian peoples of the East, and for Jouguet his conquests are assessed in line with the concept of “beneficent imperialism” and are presented as unconditionally progressive phenomenon. Alexander was considered the herald of the “brotherhood of peoples” by Mikhail Rostovtsev and some other representatives of Anglo-American historiography. Sometimes similar views persisted later: in particular, throughout Greek historiography of the 20th century, Alexander, as a rule, was presented as the bearer of high culture and the leader of Western civilization in its eternal struggle with the East.

After World War II, major studies appeared that critically assessed the activities of the commander. As a politician guided only by cold calculation, Alexander was presented by British historians Robert David Milnes and Peter Green (in 2010, the latter’s monograph was translated into Russian). Pierre Briand's monograph focuses on opposition to Alexander. The ambivalence of Alexander’s actions was shown by Fritz Schachermayr (his monograph on Alexander was repeatedly republished in Russian). In his opinion, Alexander and his father Philip represent completely different types of historical figures - unbridled and rational, respectively. Schachermayr also blames Alexander for destroying his father’s work in bringing the Macedonians closer to the rest of the Greek world. Among the case studies, Alfred R. Bellinger's two-volume work on the coinage of the Macedonian king with an excursion into his economic policies stands out.

In Soviet historiography, the study of Alexander the Great was carried out primarily by S. I. Kovalev (published a monograph about him in 1937), A. S. Shofman (published the two-volume “History of Ancient Macedonia” in 1960 and 1963, and a separate work “Eastern Politics” Alexander the Great” in 1976 and articles) and G. A. Koshelenko (“Greek polis in the Hellenistic East” in 1979 and a number of articles).

Memory of Alexander

Sources

Alexander was accompanied on his campaigns by many intellectuals, including the historian Callisthenes and several philosophers. Many of them subsequently published memoirs about their great contemporary. Thus, Alexander’s courtier Haret of Mytilene wrote the “History of Alexander” in ten books, which described primarily Alexander’s personal life, but was preserved only in minor fragments. His work was not structured according to a chronological principle, but was rather a collection of anecdotes. Similar works were left behind by Medeas and Polyclitus from Larissa and Ephippus from Olynthos. In addition, the Cynic philosopher Onesicritus from Astypalaia, who traveled with the army headquarters all the way to India, described in detail the king’s conquests. Onesicritus was particularly interested in India, and he described in detail the types of local animals and plants, and the customs of the peoples. Despite the abundance of fables and fictitious stories, in ancient times Onesicritus’s information served as one of the most important sources when geographers described India (in particular, Onesicritus widely uses Strabo). Nearchus, who commanded the fleet upon his return from India, also left memories of the war.

A completely different fate befell the staff historiographer Callisthenes of Olynthos - in 327 he was executed on charges of preparing a conspiracy. Because of this, the last of his detailed records describe the events of the Battle of Gaugamela. His “Acts of Alexander” had a pronounced apologetic character and was intended as a justification of the king before the Greek audience. However, already in ancient times, the unfinished work of Callisthenes was criticized for bias and distortion of facts by Timaeus of Tauromenius and Polybius. Not immediately after Alexander’s death, the commander Ptolemy, who by that time had already become the ruler of Egypt, systematized his memories. Ptolemy created the image of Alexander as a brilliant commander. It is assumed that due to Ptolemy's military background, his writing contained many precise details related to military actions. The engineer (possibly an architect) Aristobulus, who was in his troops, did not immediately write the history of Alexander’s campaigns, in which he paid a lot of attention to the geographical and ethnographic description of the conquered lands. Although Aristobulus began writing history at the age of 84, he accurately recorded all distances, amounts of money, and days and months of events. It is known that the last two works contained a wealth of factual material. With the exception of a few fragments, all works written by Alexander's contemporaries have been lost.

Only in small fragments has the work of Clitarchus, a younger contemporary of Alexander, survived to this day, who probably did not participate in the campaigns with him, but tried to put together scattered eyewitness accounts and already published works. His work “On Alexander” consisted of at least 12 books and was close in style to a heroic novel. Despite the criticism of Clitarchus' work by ancient historians, his work was very popular in antiquity. The formation of a cycle of fantastic legends associated with Alexander dates back to this time, although legends around the personality of the great conqueror began to appear during his lifetime. Together they created a tradition of true and fictitious information about Alexander, which in historiography is known as the “Vulgate”. The “Ephemerides” (records of the tsar’s court journal) and “Hipomnemata” (notes by Alexander himself with plans for further conquests) have also not survived. Ancient authors often quoted Alexander's correspondence with friends, relatives and officials, but most of these letters are later forgeries.

Due to the fact that interest in Alexander’s personality did not fade, the Greeks, and then the Romans, wrote about him much later, relying on the works of their predecessors. It is these writings that have partially survived to this day and serve as the main sources for studying the life and activities of the king. Most of them relied in one way or another on the work of Clitarchus and, to some extent, on the works of Timagenes. Works from the Alexander-friendly tradition include Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca Historia, Quintus Curtius Rufus's History of Alexander, and Pompey Trogus's History of Philip (the latter work preserved in an abridged version compiled by Justin). Largely independent of this tradition is Arrian, who is considered the most reliable source on the life of Alexander. Of great value is the biography of Alexander in the Comparative Lives of Plutarch, who selected materials in accordance with his ideas about the role of the individual in history.

Medieval novels about Alexander. Alexander in European folklore

E. A. Kostyukhin about the medieval perception of Alexander.

In the early Western European Middle Ages, history was rethought and acquired a new pattern, the past turned out to be closely connected with the present and similar to it. So, Priam is called the first king of the Franks, Alexander the Great is called the Greek, and Caesar is called the Roman Charlemagne, they walk around the world with twelve peers and smash the Saracens.

After the death of the king, the Romance of Alexander (History of Alexander the Great) was written. The time of formation of its final edition is unclear - it dates back to the times from the reign of Ptolemy II (3rd century BC) to the beginning of the 3rd century AD. e. The novel is fantastic in nature, and it was compiled based on materials from historical works, memoirs and semi-legendary tales. Many of the events that are described in the “Novel” as real are found among ancient historians only as voiced plans. Moreover, the “Novel” was written based on even more materials than the five surviving works about Alexander. The author of "Novel" is unknown. In one of the manuscripts, Callisthenes is named as the author, but he could not write this work because Alexander executed him, and therefore the conditional author of the work is sometimes designated as Pseudo-Callisthenes. There is an assumption that the first versions of the novel, before final processing, appeared in the East, where there was an urgent need to justify the conquests of Alexander and the establishment of Greek rule there. Factual information in the novel is often distorted, and the chronology is often broken. In its classic form, the novel consisted of 10 parts, although in earlier versions there were practically no themes related to Greece.

Even in antiquity, the novel was translated into Latin by Julius Valerius Polemius; followed by translations into other languages. In the 10th century, the Archpriest of Naples Leo translated the Byzantine version of the late edition of Pseudo-Callisthenes from Greek into the Latin language more common in Europe. Lev's work was called "History of Battles" (lat. Historia de preliis).

Around 1130, the cleric Lamprecht of Trier wrote the Song of Alexander, based on a similar but almost extinct work by Alberic of Besançon. This work is not yet knightly novel, but in some aspects anticipates it. Lamprecht's work contains a number of fantastic innovations in the legend of Alexander, which existed in Europe at that time: the ruler is dressed in armor tempered in dragon blood; his army reached the place where the sky meets the earth; along the way he met people with six arms and flies the size of doves; finally, Alexander tries to impose tribute on the angels in paradise. Lamprecht’s “Songs” are also characterized by a religious mood: the author preaches the ideals of asceticism, calls for renunciation of worldly vanity and repentance of sins.

Plots related to Alexander's campaigns were found in European chivalric novels in different countries (in particular, England, Germany, Spain, France, and the Czech Republic). In the first half of the 12th century, Alberic of Pisançon wrote a novel in Old French, since there were a very large number of people who did not speak Latin. It bore the imprint of new trends in literature and was close to the chivalric romance. At the end of the 12th century, Walter of Chatillon wrote the poem “Alexandridea” in Latin. During this period, several more revisions of the legend of Alexander arose, the largest of which (16 thousand verses) belongs to Alexander of Paris (de Berne). In the 13th century, based on the poems about Alexander, prose novels appeared, the first translations and further adaptations, which were very popular in medieval Europe. The Old French “Roman of Alexander” was written in a special twelve-syllable syllabic verse, which later received the name “Alexandrian”. In later editions of the novel, an idealized image of Alexander as a courageous but humane commander finally emerged. For a long time, this character was a model of a king-knight for European culture and was included, in particular, in the list of nine worthy ones (other righteous pagans were Hector and Gaius Julius Caesar). In various versions of the novel there are allusions to events relevant to their time: for example, the Czech poetic “Alexandride” of the early 14th century contains many references to Czech reality, to the dominance of the Germans and German culture in Prague.

However, along with the novels about Alexander, there were other works that supplemented the legend about him with new fictional details. For example, in the 13th century, Henri d'Andely created "Lay of Aristotle", which is based on the popular legend about Aristotle and Phyllis, Alexander's mistress. The German "Imperial Chronicle" of the mid-12th century indicates that the German tribe of the Saxons fought as part of Alexander's army .

The novel about Alexander was already known in Kievan Rus - a translation made in the 12th or even 11th century from one of the Byzantine editions is contained in a number of manuscripts. At the same time, some episodes from the Bible and Greek literature that were absent in the Byzantine editions of the novel were introduced into the text. Around 1490-91, the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin included in a collection of secular stories a translation of one version of the novel, known as “Serbian Alexandria”. According to Ya. S. Lurie, this is “ typical medieval chivalric romance" It is not known where this novel came from in the monastery, but for a number of reasons the source is called the South Slavic edition of the novel, probably compiled in Dalmatia from Greek and Western European versions. When translated into Russian (probably Efrosin was only a compiler, editor and copyist, but not a translator), South Slavic words incomprehensible to the reader were replaced, some plot motifs were changed, and the main part of the novel was divided into legends. In addition, due to insufficient familiarity with the plots of the Trojan War (the Iliad in Rus' was often considered a book about the destruction of Jerusalem), numerous references to Homer were shortened. The compilers of “Serbian Alexandria” artificially Christianized the image of the great conqueror, attributed to him sayings in the Christian spirit and presented him as a fighter for the faith. In the 16th century, “Serbian Alexandria” was practically forgotten in the Muscovite state, and only in the 17th century did it become widespread again. At the same time, translations from Western European editions of the novel, made in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, appeared.

The novel came to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the form of translations of Western European editions from Latin into Old Belarusian and immediately became one of the most popular secular works. Thus, the Belarusian pioneer printer of the early 16th century, Francis Skorina, in the author’s preface to the Bible, recommended reading not “Alexandria” and “Troy,” but the biblical books of Judges and Maccabees, because, in his words, “ you will find more and fairer in them" Later, in addition to translations of Western European versions of the novel from Latin, copies of Serbian Alexandria circulated, and then compilations appeared that combined the two traditions. Thanks to the popularity of the novel, some stories from it found their way into Belarusian folk tales.

Alexander in fine arts

Subjects related to the life of Alexander were used in the fine and decorative arts of the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance and later, they were developed in paintings and tapestries. The greatest interest for the masters was not the real exploits of the king, but his fictional travels and adventures. In addition, in France, Alexander was depicted in the paintings of some churches, including the cathedrals of Nîmes and Chalons, as a defender of religion. Since the 15th century, Alexander began to be depicted on playing cards as the king of clubs. Pope Paul III, who received the name Alexander at baptism, decorated the Castel Sant'Angelo with wall paintings based on the life of the king and minted coins with his image.

As a rule, Alexander was depicted as a young and eager man wearing a helmet or a full set of armor. Most often, the masters were inspired by stories about the taming of Bucephalus, the Battle of Issus, the capture of the mortally wounded Darius, as well as the episode about the capture of Darius’ family by the Macedonian army. Also popular were stories about the pardon of the Theban woman Timoclea, the cutting of the Gordian knot, the healing of Alexander by his physician Philip, and the wedding of the king with Roxana.

Alexander in European culture of modern times

With the spread of absolutism in Europe and the spread of knowledge about antiquity, those close to the monarchs compared the kings with the great rulers of antiquity. In particular, court poets and painters of Louis XIV often depicted him in the image of Alexander the Great. In 1765, Voltaire compared Catherine II with the queen of the Amazons, hinting at the legendary meeting of the commander with her, and “ Catherine, according to Voltaire’s logic, is so great that the roles should be reversed - Alexander the Great himself would have to seek Catherine’s attention».

The events associated with the collapse of Alexander's empire were reflected in the twelve-volume gallant-heroic novel Cassandra by Gautier de Calprened, popular in the 17th century.

In the 17th century, plots related to the life of the commander were reflected in the French theater: the tragedies “The Death of Alexander” by Alexander Hardy and “Alexander the Great” by Jean Racine were created and staged. The plot of the latter work was based on information from Plutarch and Curtius Rufus, and its success was facilitated by the favorable attitude of Louis XIV: the king, having viewed the production, found many similarities with himself in the theatrical Alexander. The production of Alexander the Great also marked a break between Racine and Corneille: Racine took the production from Molière's troupe and gave it to the rival troupe of the Hôtel de Burgundy. There is a well-known phrase attributed to Peter I: “My brother Charles fancies himself Alexander, but he will not find Darius in me” (meaning Charles XII).

In 1899, the poet Valery Bryusov wrote one of his most famous poems, “Alexander the Great” (“The tireless striving from fate to another destiny...”).

Alexander in the Eastern tradition

The legends about Alexander (Iskander) became widespread in the East. Among the most popular stories is the legend of Alexander's two horns, which he carefully hid from everyone, including barbers; one of the barbers escaped and told the secret to the reed; then a pipe is made from the reed, which tells everyone the secret of the conqueror. The appearance of this plot was often associated with the Greek myth of Midas, but in the middle of the 20th century, assumptions appeared about the Greeks borrowing a similar tale widespread in the East and about the origin of the plot without their participation. In Syrian literature, there were several tales about Alexander, who is presented as a rural hero-hero, who through strength and courage acquired the best horse, the best sword and the most beautiful girl. The common nickname “Two-horned” there is explained by the fact that Alexander “ attached two swords to his head like horns and struck enemies with them" In Georgian and Tajik folklore, the name Alexander is associated with the abolition of the ancient custom of gerontocide (the killing of old people who have reached a certain age). In the folklore of a number of peoples, the story of Alexander’s descent to the seabed is known, and in Azerbaijani folklore, Alexander sets fire to the sea so that the king of the sea will pay him tribute - miraculous gifts.

In the Middle Ages, “The Romance of Alexander” by Pseudo-Callisthenes was translated into Coptic, Syriac, Middle Persian, Armenian (5th century), Ge’ez (late 14th century), possibly Arabic and other languages. Many of them bore little resemblance to the original - for example, in Syrian literature there were two completely different versions of the novel, and the Ethiopian version of the novel is largely an original work that can hardly be called a translation.

In the poem “Shahnameh”, Ferdowsi depicts the image of Alexander as a conqueror, who changes under the influence of conversations with priests, brahmans, philosophers and due to acquaintance with the “flourishing city”.

The classic of Persian literature Nizami Ganjavi dedicated his last poem “Iskander-name” to Alexander. The work is structured according to principles close to the European chivalric romance, but Nizami consistently pursues his philosophical line, and Alexander conducts learned conversations with Greek and Indian sages. In addition, there is a utopian element in the poem: while traveling to the north, Alexander finds a land where there is an ideal society without supreme power, poverty and vices

In Turkish literature, the court poet Ahmedi was the first to use the plot of Alexander in his essay “Iskander-name”. His poem is considered both as an imitation of Nizami’s poem of the same name, and as a response to it. the sources of his information about Alexander are Nizami, Ferdowsi, and folk legends. In Ahmedi's work, as in other legends about Alexander, there are many anachronisms: for example, it is indicated that not only Aristotle, but also Plato and Socrates and Hippocrates, who lived at other times, were involved in the upbringing of the young king; it also tells about Alexander's visit to Mecca and Baghdad, which was under the rule of the caliphs. In general, the fantastic and adventure element in Ahmedi's poem is much stronger than in his two predecessors, although it also contains encyclopedic information from various fields of knowledge. The work was strongly influenced by Sufism, which was expressed in the coexistence of a description of events with philosophical overtones. There was also a prose version of the poem, more accessible in language and content, created by Hamzawi, Ahmedi’s brother.

The Central Asian poet Alisher Navoi, in his work “Iskander’s Wall,” described his ideal of government against the backdrop of fantastic stories about the life of Alexander (the search for living water, the construction of a wall to protect against barbarians, and others).

Alexander in modern culture

In the 20th-21st centuries, the rich and multifaceted image of Alexander was interpreted depending on the needs of society. However, what was new at this time was an attempt to completely revise the role of Alexander in history. Between the First and Second World Wars, the very idea of ​​conquest accompanied by war came under active criticism. This anti-militaristic tendency was most clearly manifested in the work of Bertolt Brecht. In particular, in the 1920s and 30s, he wrote several poems that criticized the commander’s excessive efforts to conquer the Earth and pointed out the attribution of the merits of the entire Greek army to one single commander. Finally, in the radio play “The Interrogation of Lucullus” (1940-41), Brecht defends the view that Alexander’s glory means nothing in heaven.

In the 1930s, the Soviet writer V. G. Yan wrote the story “Lights on the Mounds.” In the spirit characteristic of his time, he turned the noble Sogdian Spitamen into a poor caravan driver and painted a picture of the class struggle and the struggle of the peoples of Central Asia for national liberation. He also pointed out that Alexander was by no means a great leader: he committed both “progressive” actions and reprehensible ones. In addition, Alexander is the central character of the poem “Water of Immortality” by L. I. Oshanin. The author tries to be impartial about Alexander, but points out the positive and negative aspects of his conquests.

Alexander was often interpreted from a modern perspective as a harbinger of globalization and anti colonialism (cf. the book of the German historian S. Fischer-Fabian “Alexander the Great. The Dream of the Brotherhood of Nations”); he was included in various lists of the greatest commanders in the first positions. Maurice Druon's fictionalized biography of the king, Alexander the Great, or the Romance of God, contains elements of psychoanalysis and mysticism, making it stand out among other popular biographies of the commander. Professional historian Arnold Toynbee attempted to describe the hypothetical future of the Macedonian Empire if Alexander had lived 36 years longer.

Alexander is also the hero of many novels: I. A. Efremova (“Thais of Athens”), Mary Renault (“Divine Flame”, “Persian Boy”, “Funeral Games”), David Gemmell (“Macedonian Legion”, “The Dark Prince” ), Lev Oshanin “Water of Immortality (novel in ballads)”, Yavdata Ilyasov “Sogdiana”, Mikhail Volokhov (“Diogenes. Alexander. Corinth.”), Valerio Massimo Manfredi (“Alexander the Great. Son of a Dream”, “Alexander the Great. Sands” Amon", "Alexander the Great. The Limits of the World"), James Rollins ("Bones of the Magi"), etc.

In children's literature, Alexander, as a rule, is traditionally presented as the greatest commander of all times.

In cinema

Despite Alexander's popularity, a relatively small number of films have been made about him.

• "Alexander the Great" (USA, 1956) - Hollywood peplum of 1956.
• Alexander the Great (USA, 1968) was an unsuccessful television film that was ranked 34th among TV Guide's 50 worst films.
• “Alexander the Great” (Greece, 1980) - the image of Alexander was used in the phantasmagoria about the events of the 20th century by Theodoros Angelopoulos.
• “Alexander” (USA, 2004) - a film by Oliver Stone - the film is not “biographical” in the full sense of the word, since there is neither a coherent narrative about the life of the commander, nor many important moments of his biography, which is why a number of Alexander’s actions seem irrational to the audience . According to Colin Farrell, who plays Alexander, this was a consequence of the director’s position: Oliver Stone left only part of the episodes of the original script “to tell the story as he wanted.” Overall, the film reproduces the heroic myth of Alexander, with particular emphasis on his campaigns and conquests. The focus on the king's Oedipus complex and his fear of women was probably intended to make Alexander more relatable to modern audiences using well-known Freudian motifs.

In animation

• "Alexander" (Japan, 1999) is an anime series based on the light novel by Aramata Hiroshi.
• "Alexander - The Movie" (Japan, 2000) - a compilation of the first four episodes of the original series.
• "Alexander the Great" (Italy, 2006) - full-length computer animated film.
• Fate/Zero (Japan, 2011) is an anime series created by ufotable studio based on the light novel of the same name by Gen Urobuchi. Alexander the Great (Iskander) is introduced as the King of Conquerors, a servant of the Rider class.

In music

• "Alexander the Great" is a song by Iron Maiden from the album Somewhere in Time.
• “Alexander” is a song by Sergei Babkin from the album “Motor”.
• “Alexander” is a song by the group “Snega”.

Computer games

Alexander is a character in a number of computer games:

• Alexander,
• Rome: Total War - Alexander,
• Civilization IV: Warlords,
• Civilization VI
• Empire Earth,
• Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots,
• Rise and Fall: Civilizations at War,
• Call to Power II.

Other

• The Alexander crater on the Moon is named after the commander.

After the assassination of the Macedonian king Philip II in 336 BC. e. his son Alexander was proclaimed king. Upon ascending the throne, Alexander first dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father, and at the same time with other possible rivals. At the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the situation. The Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian rule became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek city-states tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip. However, Alexander quickly took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded treaty with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek city states, their independent decision of internal affairs, and the right to withdraw from the agreement. To guide the foreign policy of the Greek states, a general council was created and the post of Hellenic hegemon with military powers was introduced. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies admitted Macedonian garrisons.

In the spring of 335 BC. e. Alexander set out on a campaign against the rebel Illyrians and Thracians. No more than 15 thousand soldiers went on the campaign. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon: the barbarians set up a camp of carts on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their carts. Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the carts in an organized manner. As a result of their victory in the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children whom the barbarians had left in the camp and transported them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Tribal tribe, but their ruler Sirm, along with most of his fellow tribesmen, took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, failed to land on the island. Soon the king noticed that troops of the Getae tribe were gathering on the other bank of the Danube. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on homemade rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube and defeated the Getae. Soon Alexander concluded alliance treaties with all the northern barbarians.

However, while Alexander was settling matters in the north, in the south, under the influence of a false rumor about Alexander’s death, a rebellion broke out in Thebes, the Greek city most affected by Philip. With rapid marches, Alexander transferred his army from Thrace to Thebes. In just 13 days, the Macedonian army completed this transition. The rebel city was offered peaceful terms of surrender, but the Thebans refused. At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Macedonian troops occupied the city walls, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. The city was captured, plundered, and the entire population was enslaved. All of Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian weapons. Residents of a number of cities themselves brought to trial politicians who called for a rebellion against Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began preparing for a campaign in Asia.

Known for his ambitions for conquest, Alexander the Great took his place in history as a great ancient Hellenic commander and conqueror.

Over 10 years of military campaigns, he conquered more than half of the lands known at that time and did not suffer a single defeat in battle!

short biography

Alexander the Great (name - AlexanderIII; nickname - "Great") born July 20-21, 356 BC in Macedonia. His father - PhilipII, was the current king of Macedonia. His mother - Olympics, daughter of the king of Epirus.

It is known that at the age of 7 the boy began to be taught the art of war and various sciences. Alexander showed no interest in philosophy and mathematics. But in horse riding and archery, as well as some other physical and military sciences he had no equal.

Aristotle's student

One of the teachers of young Alexander the Great was Aristotle- famous and wisest ancient Greek philosopher. Thanks to his teacher's stories about the Universe and its many riches and wonders, the boy began to dream of conquering new lands.

After another news that his father Philip had defeated another enemy and conquered the city, AlexanderIII became sad and said: “At this rate, there will be nothing left for me...”

Young commander

At the age of 16, Alexander underwent his first baptism of fire during a battle with the Athenians. His command of the cavalry decided the outcome of the battle in favor of the Macedonians and earned the young commander the nickname "Great". Philip's soldiers praised him!

The father was pleased with his son’s first practical experience, and from that moment on, young Alexander began to closely study military science: the basics of combat, the peculiarities of actions phalanx- a combat unit of the Macedonians, which made their numerical minority unimportant in battles with enemies.

King of Macedonia

When Alexander turned 20 years old, his father was treacherously killed by one of his close associates. The time has come to accept the royal throne and government. Alexander the Great did not participate in internal government, but he actively and fruitfully showed himself as a commander and invader, first of neighboring cities, and later of neighboring and distant lands.

There is a legend that during the siege of Athens, the main commander of the Greeks came to the Macedonian Phocion and said the following words:

“Why do you fight against your fellow tribesmen, against the Hellenes? You strive for fame and riches, so go to Asia and fight against the barbarians. There you will win wealth, achieve military glory, and among the Greeks you will become famous for your kindness.”

The Macedonian took advantage of the wise advice of the Greek commander, retreated from Athens and directed his 40 thousandth army(according to some sources, there were about 50 thousand soldiers) on a campaign to the lands of Asia, Persia, and Egypt.

Pharaoh of Egypt

Having crossed the Hellespont, Alexander and his army took the first fight with the Persian army near Troy, on the Granik River.

The Persian army was defeated by a talented commander from Macedonia. After this, many Persian cities surrendered to the young king without a fight.

In 332 BC. The Macedonian entered Egypt without any resistance and became his Pharaoh. By that time, almost all the military power of the Egyptians was in Asia Minor.

King of Asia

After strengthening his position in Egyptian lands and building the city of Alexandria, Macedonian decides to delve deeper into Asian lands. By that time DariusIII, the Persian king, managed to gather a large army for a new battle with Alexander.

October 1, 331 BC e. a great battle took place at Gaugamelah, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. Darius once again fled from the battlefield, which further reduced his authority.

After this battle, the satraps of many Persian lands began to call the conqueror Alexander King of Asia and they opened the gates for him without a fight.

Persian king

Next, Alexander moved to the south, where the ancient Babylon And Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, opened their gates to him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to serve the King of Asia.

From Susa, Alexander went through mountain passages to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After an unsuccessful attempt to break out on the move, Alexander and part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia, Ariobarzanes, and in January 330 BC e. Persepolis fell.

The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving, the palace of the Persian kings was burned.

According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, inciting the drunken company of Alexander and his friends.

IN May 330 BC e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. In July 330 BC. e. King Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy by his military leaders. Bactrian satrap Bess, who killed Darius, named himself the new king of the Persian Empire. Bess tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.

Trek to India

After the victory over the Persians, Alexander the Great did not return to his native land, but moved to India. In the battle he defeated the army of the Indian king Porus and wanted to reach World Ocean. But then his army rebelled.

The Macedonians did not want to fight anymore, they demanded a return to their homeland, accusing their king of an excessive thirst for wealth and glory. I had to give in to him. He had grandiose plans, he wanted to conquer the whole world, he thought of building a road through the Sahara desert, digging wells along it and much more.

Death of Alexander "The Great"

Upon returning to Babylon, Alexander soon fell ill with a fever. The disease progressed, the Great Commander fought it for 10 days, but June 13, 323 BC Alexander the Great died.

His body was transported to Alexandria, where he was buried with great honors in a golden coffin.

Alexander the Great was born in the fall of 356 BC. e. in the capital of Ancient Macedonia - the city of Pella. From childhood, Macedonsky’s biography included training in politics, diplomacy, and military skills. He studied with the best minds of that time - Lysimachus, Aristotle. He was interested in philosophy and literature, and was not interested in physical joys. Already at the age of 16, he tried on the role of a king, and later - a commander.

Rise to power

After the assassination of the king of Macedon in 336 BC. e. Alexander was proclaimed ruler. Macedonsky's first actions in such a high government position were the abolition of taxes, reprisals against his father's enemies, and confirmation of the union with Greece. After suppressing the uprising in Greece, Alexander the Great began to contemplate war with Persia.

Then, if we consider the short biography of Alexander the Great, military actions followed in alliance with the Greeks and Franks against the Persians. In the battle near Troy, many settlements opened their gates to the great commander. Soon almost all of Asia Minor, and then Egypt, submitted to him. There Macedonian founded Alexandria.

King of Asia

In 331 BC. e. The next most important battle with the Persians took place at Gaugamela, during which the Persians were defeated. Alexander conquered Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis.

In 329 BC. BC, when King Darius was killed, Alexander became the ruler of the Persian Empire. Having become the king of Asia, he was subjected to repeated conspiracies. In 329-327 BC. e. fought in Central Asia - Sogdean, Bactria. In those years, Alexander defeated the Scythians, married the Bactrian princess Roxana and set off on a campaign to India.

The commander returned home only in the summer of 325 BC. The period of wars ended, the king took up the management of the conquered lands. He carried out several reforms, mainly military.

Death

From February 323 BC. e. Alexander stopped in Babylon and began planning new military campaigns against the Arab tribes, and then on Carthage. He gathered troops, prepared a fleet and built canals.

But a few days before the campaign, Alexander fell ill, and on June 10, 323 BC. e. died in Babylon from a strong fever.

Historians have still not established the exact cause of the death of the great commander. Some consider his death to be natural, others put forward theories about malaria or cancer, and still others about poisoning with a poisonous medicine.

After Alexander's death, his great empire fell apart, and wars for power began among his generals (diadochi).

Alexander the Great is an outstanding figure in history, commander, king, creator of a world power. Born in 356 BC in the Macedonian capital. Belongs to the family of the mythical hero Hercules. While his father participated in the wars, his mother was raising Alexander. This affected the future commander’s relationship with his father - despite admiring his victories and war stories, he was disgusted by his mother’s unpleasant stories about him.

From childhood, everyone saw Alexander as a talented child, so they tried to develop him comprehensively - they taught him politics, diplomacy, and the military arts. The future commander studied with the best and brightest people of that time.

Already at the age of twenty, Alexander took the position of ruler and took his first decisive actions - he abolished taxes, took revenge on his father’s enemies and confirmed the alliance with Greece. Then he decided to implement his father’s plan - he carried out the Persian campaign, which resulted in the recognition of Macedonian as a great ruler and commander.

In addition, he made a northern campaign and conquered Thebes, conquered Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt and founded Alexandria there - the first Greek-Macedonian colony in the East. He conquered Babylon and became the king of Asia, as a result of which he was repeatedly subjected to conspiracies. After the end of the war period, he carried out several reforms. He married Princess Roxana.

In February 323 BC he put all his efforts into preparing a campaign against Carthage, but his illness prevented him from carrying it out - in the same year he died of a fever. The death of the commander is still controversial; on this issue, historians are divided into three groups, each of which defends its own point of view.

The great empire created by Alexander the Great fell apart after his death and began wars for power.

Option 2

Born in 356 BC. in the Macedonian capital Pella. Died in 323 BC. Alexander is considered a descendant of the gods, since his grandfather Amyntas III came from a younger branch of the dynasty, his mother was the Epirus queen Olympias from the Pyrrhid dynasty. His father, King Philip II, was from the Argead family. As a child he was interested in Greek literature and culture, music, and mathematics. The training took place in Mieza, the teachers were Leonidas and the actor Lysimachus, then the philosopher Aristotle himself became the mentor. The work “The Iliad” has become a reference book. Already at a young age, the future king showed his qualities as a ruler and strategist, he was distinguished by his hot-tempered disposition, determination, but also curiosity.

Alexander first had the honor of ruling the kingdom at the age of 16. He skillfully proved himself in suppressing the uprising of the Thracians and the rebellion of the inhabitants of Thebes. Throughout his life he strove to retain power; this is evidenced by many campaigns and conquests. He managed to carry out reprisals against rivals and enemies, and is also known for the execution of his cousin Amyntas and the son of Philip and Cleopatra.

While still a child, the boy experienced feelings of admiration for his father, but at the same time some hostility, since he saw the relationship between his parents.

What exploits did you become famous for? He united Hellas, fulfilled his father’s dream - a campaign against Persia. Battle of the Granicus River in 334 BC. allowed to seize power over all of Asia Minor. He conquered Palestine, Syria, and many countries in the Middle East. The city of Alexandria, one of the major cultural, scientific, and shopping centers, was founded in his honor.

329 - assassination of the Persian king David by Alexander's soldiers. At the same time, the Macedonian king convinced David’s murderers of the fall of the Persian Empire, and called himself an avenger of honor.

Gradually, the commander captured the territories now known as Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and built cities. One example is the city of Kandahar.

In 326 the campaign against India took place. However, due to the exhaustion of the army by long battles, it was necessary to abandon further advance towards Asia. Life was at risk due to injury in battle with local tribes.

Alexander the Great was distinguished by his mercy towards the local population and their traditions. Many plans remained unfulfilled due to his death in 323 BC. There are different versions, one of them is malaria, the other is poisoning. After his tragic death, the empire fell apart.

The image of Alexander the Great is an example for many military leaders, his thoughts and strategies are used today.

Macedonian - biography

Alexander the Great is the king of Macedonia and the great conqueror of the eastern lands from Thrace to China.

Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC. in the family of the Macedonian king Philip 2 and queen Olympias. According to ancient customs, the son did not study at home, but went to his relatives to acquire knowledge. Alexander was brought up by one of the greatest philosophers of the time - Aristotle, from whom he received a craving for enlightenment. Also, Tsar Leonid played a big role in the formation of his personality, captivating him with dreams of military domination over the whole world. In general, the boy’s childhood passed calmly, but he lacked the attention of his father, who was constantly at war. Alexander thought that he would not get the lands on which he would perform his exploits.

In 336 BC. Alexander's father dies, after which his son takes the throne of the king. First of all, he deals with internecine wars and eliminates the conspirators. Then he begins a full-scale war with Greece. After the Battle of Chaeronea, he gains the upper hand and conquers Greece. From this moment the great campaigns into Persia begin. Alexander gathered a large army and headed for a mortal battle against the Persian king Darius 3. But after the bloody battle of Granicus, the ruler of Persia fled, and Alexander took city after city with virtually no resistance from local residents. He was greeted as a liberator from Persian hegemony. Alexander was amazed at the beauty and equipment of Persian settlements; he adopted many technologies from Persian craftsmen and military personnel. Moreover, he was generous and did not insist on changes in leadership, culture or religious beliefs. That is why riots and uprisings were not started against the young conqueror. The young king also married two daughters of Darius: Satyra and Parysatis.

Having conquered Persia from Asia Minor to Bactria, Alexander the Great began to move on. It was a real surprise for him to realize that beyond Persia there were still unexplored lands. Until the end of his life, he was sure that the end of the earth was somewhere nearby, that he only needed to work a little to achieve power over the whole world. But Alexander remained devoted to his dream and went to India, where he first encountered elephants, but successfully defeated them. The Indian king opened the gates for him, and India was conquered. The conqueror founded his empire and went to his beloved city of Babylon, where he spent the rest of his life. He planned to travel to Arabia and China, but was never able to do so. His health suffered greatly due to contracting malaria, from which he would not recover. He died in 323 BC. leaving a huge empire for his comrades.