Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. Features of scientific knowledge

Science is the engine of progress. Without the knowledge that scientists convey to us every day, human civilization would never have reached any significant level of development. Great discoveries, bold hypotheses and assumptions - all this moves us forward. By the way, what is the mechanism of cognition of the surrounding world?

General information

In modern science, a distinction is made between empirical and theoretical methods. The first of them should be considered the most effective. The fact is that the empirical level of scientific knowledge provides for an in-depth study of the object of immediate interest, and this process includes both observation itself and a whole set of experiments. As is easy to understand, the theoretical method involves cognition of an object or phenomenon through the application of generalizing theories and hypotheses to it.

Often the empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by multiple terms in which the most important characteristics of the subject under study are recorded. It must be said that this level of science is especially respected because any statement of this type can be verified in a practical experiment. For example, such expressions include this thesis: “A saturated solution of table salt can be prepared by heating water.”

Thus, the empirical level of scientific knowledge is a set of ways and methods for studying the surrounding world. They (methods) are based primarily on sensory perception and accurate data from measuring instruments. These are the levels of scientific knowledge. Empirical and theoretical methods allow us to understand various phenomena and open new horizons of science. Since they are inextricably linked, it would be foolish to talk about one of them without talking about the main characteristics of the other.

Currently, the level of empirical knowledge is constantly increasing. Simply put, scientists are learning and classifying ever-increasing amounts of information, on the basis of which new scientific theories are built. Of course, the ways in which they obtain data are also improving.

Methods of empirical knowledge

In principle, you can guess about them yourself, based on the information that has already been given in this article. Here are the main methods of scientific knowledge at the empirical level:

Observation. This method is known to everyone without exception. He assumes that an outside observer will only impartially record everything that happens (in natural conditions), without interfering in the process itself.
Experiment. In some ways it is similar to the previous method, but in this case everything that happens is placed within a strict laboratory framework. As in the previous case, a scientist is often an observer who records the results of some process or phenomenon.
Measurement. This method assumes the need for a standard. A phenomenon or object is compared with it to clarify discrepancies.
Comparison. Similar to the previous method, but in this case the researcher simply compares any arbitrary objects (phenomena) with each other, without the need for reference measures.

Here we briefly examined the main methods of scientific knowledge at the empirical level. Now let's look at some of them in more detail.

Observation

It should be noted that there are several types at once, and the specific one is selected by the researcher himself, focusing on the situation. Let's list all the types of observation:

Armed and unarmed. If you have at least some understanding of science, then you know that “armed” observation is an observation in which various instruments and devices are used that make it possible to record the results obtained with greater accuracy. Accordingly, “unarmed” surveillance is called surveillance that is carried out without the use of something similar.
Laboratory. As the name implies, it is carried out exclusively in an artificial, laboratory environment.
Field. Unlike the previous one, it is performed exclusively in natural conditions, “in the field.”

In general, observation is good precisely because in many cases it allows one to obtain completely unique information (especially field information). It should be noted that this method is not widely used by all scientists, since its successful use requires considerable patience, perseverance and the ability to impartially record all observed objects.

This is what characterizes the main method, which uses the empirical level of scientific knowledge. This leads us to the idea that this method is purely practical.

Is the infallibility of observations always important?

Oddly enough, in the history of science there are many cases when the most important discoveries became possible thanks to gross errors and miscalculations in the process of observation. Thus, in the 16th century, the famous astronomer Tycho de Brahe did his life's work by closely observing Mars.

It is on the basis of these invaluable observations that his student, the no less famous I. Kepler, forms a hypothesis about the ellipsoidal shape of planetary orbits. But! It later turned out that Brahe's observations were extremely inaccurate. Many assume that he deliberately gave his student incorrect information, but this does not change the point: if Kepler had used accurate information, he would never have been able to create a complete (and correct) hypothesis.

In this case, thanks to inaccuracy, it was possible to simplify the subject being studied. By doing without complex multi-page formulas, Kepler was able to find out that the shape of the orbits is not round, as was then assumed, but elliptical.

Main differences from the theoretical level of knowledge

On the contrary, all expressions and terms that operate at the theoretical level of knowledge cannot be verified in practice. Here's an example: "A saturated salt solution can be made by heating water." In this case, an incredible amount of experimentation would have to be carried out, since “salt solution” does not indicate a specific chemical compound. That is, “table salt solution” is an empirical concept. Thus, all theoretical statements are unverifiable. According to Popper, they are falsifiable.

Simply put, the empirical level of scientific knowledge (as opposed to the theoretical) is very specific. The results of experiments can be touched, smelled, held in your hands, or seen as graphs on the display of measuring instruments.

By the way, what forms of the empirical level of scientific knowledge exist? Today there are two of them: fact and law. A scientific law is the highest form of empirical knowledge, since it deduces the basic patterns and rules in accordance with which a natural or technical phenomenon occurs. A fact means only that it manifests itself under a certain combination of several conditions, but scientists in this case have not yet managed to form a coherent concept.

Relationship between empirical and theoretical data

The peculiarity of scientific knowledge in all fields is that theoretical and empirical data are characterized by mutual penetration. It should be noted that it is absolutely impossible to separate these concepts in an absolute way, no matter what some researchers claim. For example, we talked about making a salt solution. If a person has an understanding of chemistry, this example will be empirical for him (since he himself knows about the properties of the main compounds). If not, the statement will be theoretical in nature.

The importance of the experiment

It must be firmly understood that the empirical level of scientific knowledge is worthless without an experimental basis. It is experiment that is the basis and primary source of all knowledge that has currently been accumulated by humanity.

On the other hand, theoretical research without a practical basis generally turns into groundless hypotheses, which (with rare exceptions) have absolutely no scientific value. Thus, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without theoretical justification, but even this is insignificant without experiment. Why are we saying all this?

The fact is that the consideration of methods of cognition in this article should be carried out assuming the actual unity and interconnection of the two methods.

Characteristics of the experiment: what is it?

As we have repeatedly said, the features of the empirical level of scientific knowledge lie in the fact that the results of experiments can be seen or felt. But for this to happen, it is necessary to carry out an experiment, which is literally the “core” of all scientific knowledge from ancient times to this day.

The term comes from the Latin word “experimentum”, which actually means “experience”, “test”. In principle, an experiment is the testing of certain phenomena under artificial conditions. It must be remembered that in all cases the empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the desire of the experimenter to influence what is happening as little as possible. This is necessary to obtain truly “pure”, adequate data, from which we can speak with confidence about the characteristics of the object or phenomenon being studied.

Preparatory work, instruments and equipment

Most often, before setting up an experiment, it is necessary to carry out detailed preparatory work, the quality of which will determine the quality of the information obtained as a result of the experiment. Let's talk about how preparation is usually carried out:

Firstly, a program is being developed in accordance with which the scientific experiment will be carried out.
If necessary, the scientist independently produces the necessary apparatus and equipment.
Once again they repeat all the points of the theory, to confirm or refute which the experiment will be carried out.

Thus, the main characteristic of the empirical level of scientific knowledge is the presence of the necessary equipment and instruments, without which conducting an experiment in most cases becomes impossible. And here we are not talking about common computer equipment, but about specialized detector devices that measure very specific environmental conditions.

Thus, the experimenter must always be fully armed. We are talking here not only about technical equipment, but also about the level of knowledge of theoretical information. Without having an idea about the subject being studied, it is quite difficult to conduct any scientific experiments to study it. It should be noted that in modern conditions, many experiments are often carried out by a whole group of scientists, since this approach allows one to rationalize efforts and distribute areas of responsibility.

What characterizes the object being studied under experimental conditions?

The phenomenon or object being studied in the experiment is placed in such conditions that they will inevitably affect the scientist’s senses and/or recording instruments. Note that the reaction may depend both on the experimenter himself and on the characteristics of the equipment he uses. In addition, an experiment cannot always provide all the information about an object, since it is carried out in conditions of isolation from the environment.

This is very important to remember when considering the empirical level of scientific knowledge and its methods. It is precisely because of the last factor that observation is so valued: in most cases, only it can provide really useful information about how a particular process occurs in natural conditions. Such data is often impossible to obtain even in the most modern and well-equipped laboratory.

However, one can still argue with the last statement. Modern science has made a good leap forward. Thus, in Australia they even study ground-level forest fires, recreating their course in a special chamber. This approach allows you not to risk the lives of employees, while obtaining completely acceptable and high-quality data. Unfortunately, this is not always possible, because not all phenomena can be recreated (at least for now) in a scientific institution.

Niels Bohr's theory

The famous physicist N. Bohr stated that experiments in laboratory conditions are not always accurate. But his timid attempts to hint to his opponents that the means and instruments significantly influence the adequacy of the data obtained were met by his colleagues extremely negatively for a long time. They believed that any influence of the device could be eliminated by somehow isolating it. The problem is that it is almost impossible to do this even at the modern level, let alone in those days.

Of course, the modern empirical level of scientific knowledge (we have already said what it is) is high, but we are not destined to bypass the fundamental laws of physics. Thus, the researcher’s task is not only to provide a banal description of an object or phenomenon, but also to explain its behavior under various environmental conditions.

Modeling

The most valuable opportunity to study the very essence of the subject is modeling (including computer and/or mathematical). Most often, in this case, they experiment not on the phenomenon or object itself, but on their most realistic and functional copies, which were created in artificial, laboratory conditions.

If it is not very clear, let us explain: it is much safer to study a tornado using the example of its simplified model in a wind tunnel. Then the data obtained during the experiment is compared with information about a real tornado, after which appropriate conclusions are drawn.

Theoretical methods of cognition are what is commonly called “cold reason.” A mind skilled in theoretical research. Why is that? Remember the famous phrase of Sherlock Holmes: “And from here on, please speak in as much detail as possible!” At the stage of this phrase and the subsequent story of Helen Stoner, the famous detective initiates the preliminary stage - sensory (empirical) knowledge.

By the way, this episode gives us the basis for comparing two degrees of knowledge: only primary (empirical) and primary together with secondary (theoretical). Conan Doyle does this through the images of his two main characters.

How does retired military doctor Watson react to the girl’s story? He gets fixated on the emotional stage, having decided in advance that the story of the unfortunate stepdaughter is caused by her unmotivated suspicion of her stepfather.

Two stages of the method of cognition

Helen Holmes listens to her speech in a completely different way. He first perceives verbal information by ear. However, the empirical information obtained in this way is not the final product for him; he needs it as raw material for subsequent intellectual processing.

Skillfully using theoretical methods of cognition to process every bit of information received (not one of which escaped his attention), the classic literary character seeks to resolve the mystery of the crime. Moreover, he applies theoretical methods with brilliance, with analytical sophistication that fascinates readers. With their help, internal hidden connections are found and the patterns that resolve the situation are determined.

What is the nature of theoretical methods of cognition

We deliberately turned to a literary example. With his help, we hope our story began not impersonally.

It should be recognized that science at its modern level has become the main driving force of progress precisely thanks to its “toolkit” - research methods. All of them, as we have already mentioned, are divided into two large groups: empirical and theoretical. A common feature of both groups is the goal set - true knowledge. They differ in their approach to knowledge. At the same time, scientists practicing empirical methods are called practitioners, and theoretical ones are called theorists.

Let us also note that often the results of empirical and theoretical studies do not coincide with each other. This is the reason for the existence of two groups of methods.

Empirical (from the Greek word “empirios” - observation) are characterized by purposeful, organized perception, defined by the research task and subject area. In them, scientists use optimal forms of recording results.

The theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the processing of empirical information using data formalization techniques and specific information processing techniques.

For a scientist practicing theoretical methods of cognition, the ability to use creatively, as a tool in demand by the optimal method, is of paramount importance.

Empirical and theoretical methods have common generic characteristics:

the fundamental role of various forms of thinking: concepts, theories, laws;
for any of the theoretical methods, the source of primary information is empirical knowledge;
in the future, the obtained data is subject to analytical processing using a special conceptual apparatus and information processing technology provided for them;
The goal for which theoretical methods of cognition are used is the synthesis of inferences and conclusions, the development of concepts and judgments as a result of which new knowledge is born.

Thus, at the primary stage of the process, the scientist receives sensory information using methods of empirical cognition:

observation (passive, non-interventional monitoring of phenomena and processes);
experiment (fixation of the process under artificially specified initial conditions);
measurements (determining the ratio of the determined parameter to a generally accepted standard);
comparison (associative perception of one process compared to another).

Theory as a result of knowledge

What kind of feedback coordinates the methods of theoretical and empirical levels of cognition? Feedback when testing the truth of theories. At the theoretical stage, based on the received sensory information, the key problem is formulated. To resolve it, hypotheses are drawn up. The most optimal and well-developed ones develop into theories.

The reliability of a theory is checked by its compliance with objective facts (data of sensory cognition) and scientific facts (reliable knowledge, verified many times before for truth.) For such adequacy, the selection of an optimal theoretical method of cognition is important. It is he who must ensure maximum compliance of the fragment being studied with objective reality and the analytical presentation of its results.

Concepts of method and theory. Their commonalities and differences

Properly chosen methods provide the “moment of truth” in knowledge: the development of a hypothesis into a theory. Having been updated, general scientific methods of theoretical knowledge are filled with the necessary facts precisely in the developed theory of knowledge, becoming its integral part.

If we artificially isolate such a perfectly working method from a ready-made, generally accepted theory, then, having examined it separately, we will find that it has acquired new properties.

On the one hand, it is filled with special knowledge (by incorporating the ideas of the current research), and on the other, it acquires general generic features of relatively homogeneous objects of study. This is precisely what expresses the dialectical relationship between the method and the theory of scientific knowledge.

The commonality of their nature is tested for relevance throughout the entire period of their existence. The first acquires the function of organizational regulation, prescribing to the scientist a formal procedure for manipulation to achieve the goals of the study. Being used by a scientist, methods of the theoretical level of knowledge take the object of study beyond the existing previous theory.

The difference between method and theory is expressed in the fact that they represent different forms of knowledge of scientific knowledge.

If the second expresses the essence, laws of existence, conditions of development, internal connections of the object under study, then the first orients the researcher, dictating to him a “road map of knowledge”: requirements, principles of subject-transforming and cognitive activity.

It can be said in another way: theoretical methods of scientific knowledge are addressed directly to the researcher, appropriately regulating his thought process, directing the process of obtaining new knowledge in the most rational direction.

Their importance in the development of science led to the creation of its separate branch, which describes the theoretical tools of the researcher, called methodology based on epistemological principles (epistemology - the science of knowledge).

List of theoretical methods of cognition

It is well known that the following variants of theoretical methods of cognition include:

modeling;
formalization;
analysis;
synthesis;
abstraction;
induction;
deduction;
idealization.

Of course, the qualifications of the scientist are important in the practical effectiveness of each of them. A knowledgeable specialist, having analyzed the main methods of theoretical knowledge, will select the necessary one from their totality. It is he who will play a key role in the effectiveness of cognition itself.

Modeling method example

In March 1945, under the auspices of the Ballistic Laboratory (USAF), the operating principles of the PC were outlined. This was a classic example of scientific knowledge. A group of physicists, reinforced by the famous mathematician John von Neumann, took part in the research. A native of Hungary, he was the principal analyst for this study.

The above-mentioned scientist used the modeling method as a research tool.

Initially, all devices of the future PC - arithmetic-logical, memory, control device, input and output devices - existed verbally, in the form of axioms formulated by Neumann.

The mathematician put the data from empirical physical research into the form of a mathematical model. Subsequently, the researcher studied it, and not its prototype. Having received the result, Neumann “translated” it into the language of physics. By the way, the thought process demonstrated by the Hungarian made a great impression on the physicists themselves, as evidenced by their reviews.

Note that it would be more accurate to give this method the name “modeling and formalization.” It is not enough to create the model itself; it is equally important to formalize the internal connections of the object through a coding language. After all, this is exactly how a computer model should be interpreted.

Today, such computer modeling, which is carried out using special mathematical programs, is quite common. It is widely used in economics, physics, biology, automotive industry, and radio electronics.

Modern computer modeling

The computer simulation method involves the following steps:

definition of the modeled object, formalization of the installation for modeling;
drawing up a plan for computer experiments with the model;
analysis of the results.

There are simulation and analytical modeling. Modeling and formalization are a universal tool.

The simulation displays the functioning of the system when it sequentially performs a huge number of elementary operations. Analytical modeling describes the nature of an object using differential control systems that have a solution that reflects the ideal state of the object.

In addition to mathematics, they also distinguish:

conceptual modeling (through symbols, operations between them, and languages, formal or natural);
physical modeling (object and model - real objects or phenomena);
structural and functional (graphs, diagrams, tables are used as a model).

Abstraction

The abstraction method helps to understand the essence of the issue being studied and solve very complex problems. It allows you to discard everything unimportant and focus on the fundamental details.

For example, if we turn to kinematics, it becomes obvious that researchers use this particular method. Thus, it was initially identified as primary, rectilinear and uniform movement (with such abstraction it was possible to isolate the basic parameters of movement: time, distance, speed.)

This method always involves some generalization.

By the way, the opposite theoretical method of cognition is called concretization. Using it to study changes in speed, the researchers came up with a definition of acceleration.

Analogy

The analogy method is used to formulate fundamentally new ideas by finding analogues of phenomena or objects (in this case, analogues are both ideal and real objects that have an adequate correspondence to the phenomena or objects being studied.)

An example of the effective use of analogy can be well-known discoveries. Charles Darwin, taking as a basis the evolutionary concept of the struggle for the livelihood of the poor with the rich, created the theory of evolution. Niels Bohr, relying on the planetary structure of the Solar system, substantiated the concept of the orbital structure of the atom. J. Maxwell and F. Huygens created the theory of wave electromagnetic oscillations, using, as an analogue, the theory of wave mechanical oscillations.

The analogy method becomes relevant if the following conditions are met:

as many essential features as possible should resemble each other;
a sufficiently large sample of known traits must be truly related to the unknown trait;
analogy should not be interpreted as identical similarity;
It is also necessary to consider the fundamental differences between the subject of study and its analogue.

Note that this method is most often and fruitfully used by economists.

Analysis - synthesis

Analysis and synthesis find their application both in scientific research and in ordinary mental activity.

The first is the process of mentally (most often) breaking down the object under study into its components for a more complete study of each of them. However, the analysis stage is followed by a synthesis stage, when the studied components are combined together. In this case, all properties identified during their analysis are taken into account and then their relationships and methods of communication are determined.

The integrated use of analysis and synthesis is characteristic of theoretical knowledge. It was these methods, in their unity and opposition, that the German philosopher Hegel laid as the basis for dialectics, which, in his words, “is the soul of all scientific knowledge.”

Induction and deduction

When the term “methods of analysis” is used, it most often refers to deduction and induction. These are logical methods.

Deduction presupposes a course of reasoning that follows from the general to the particular. It allows us to identify certain consequences from the general content of the hypothesis that can be substantiated empirically. Thus, deduction is characterized by the establishment of a common connection.

Sherlock Holmes, mentioned at the beginning of this article, very clearly substantiated his deductive method in the story “The Land of Crimson Clouds”: “Life is an endless connection of causes and effects. Therefore, we can understand it by examining one link after another.” The famous detective collected as much information as possible, choosing the most significant from many versions.

Continuing to characterize methods of analysis, let us characterize induction. This is the formulation of a general conclusion from a series of particulars (from the particular to the general.) A distinction is made between complete and incomplete induction. Complete induction is characterized by the development of a theory, while incomplete induction is characterized by the development of a hypothesis. The hypothesis, as is known, should be updated by proving it. Only after this does it become a theory. Induction, as a method of analysis, is widely used in philosophy, economics, medicine, and law.

Idealization

Often the theory of scientific knowledge uses ideal concepts that do not exist in reality. Researchers endow non-natural objects with special, limiting properties that are possible only in “limiting” cases. Examples include a straight line, a material point, and an ideal gas. Thus, science distinguishes from the objective world certain objects that are completely amenable to scientific description, devoid of secondary properties.

The idealization method, in particular, was used by Galileo, who noticed that if all external forces acting on a moving object are removed, it will continue to move indefinitely, rectilinearly and uniformly.

Thus, idealization makes it possible in theory to obtain a result that is unattainable in reality.

However, in reality, for this case, the researcher takes into account: the height of the falling object above sea level, the latitude of the point of impact, the impact of wind, air density, etc.

Training of methodological scientists as the most important task of education

Today, the role of universities in training specialists who are creatively proficient in the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge is becoming obvious. At the same time, as evidenced by the experience of Stanford, Harvard, Yale and Columbia universities, they play a leading role in the development of new technologies. Perhaps this is why their graduates are in demand in knowledge-intensive companies, the share of which has a constant tendency to increase.

An important role in the training of researchers is played by:

flexibility of the education program;
the opportunity for individual training for the most talented students capable of becoming promising young scientists.

At the same time, the specialization of people developing human knowledge in the field of IT, engineering, production, and mathematical modeling requires the presence of teachers with up-to-date qualifications.

Conclusion

The examples of theoretical knowledge methods mentioned in the article give a general idea of the creative work of scientists. Their activity boils down to the formation of a scientific representation of the world.

It, in a narrower, special sense, consists in the skillful use of a certain scientific method.
The researcher summarizes empirical verified facts, puts forward and tests scientific hypotheses, and formulates a scientific theory that advances human knowledge from a statement of the known to an awareness of the previously unknown.

Sometimes the ability of scientists to use theoretical scientific methods is like magic. Even after centuries, no one doubts the genius of Leonardo da Vinci, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein.

The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory stage of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical level. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of knowledge includes not only sensory, but also logical research. In this case, information received by a sensory method is subjected to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

Empirical knowledge, therefore, is not only a reflection of reality, formed experimentally. They represent a specific unity of mental and sensory expression of reality. In this case, sensory reflection comes first, and thinking plays a subordinate, auxiliary role to observation.

Empirical data provide science with facts. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. This recorded empirical knowledge is synonymous with such concepts as “results” and “events”.

It should be noted that facts act not only as an information source and “sensory” reasoning. They are also a criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge allows one to establish facts using various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the phenomena or objects being studied. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using instruments - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science such research becomes more complicated and more indirect over time.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis according to which the difference or similarity of objects is realized. Comparison allows us to identify quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the comparison method is appropriate when determining the characteristics of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, comparison is made by correlating two objects with a third, which is a standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become an organic element

All of the above methods can be used either independently or in combination. Together, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This research technique involves placing an object in clearly taken into account conditions or reproducing it in an artificial way to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. Activity in this case presupposes the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the direct study of really existing, sensory objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects under study (through measurements, experiments) is carried out; here the primary systematization of the acquired knowledge takes place (in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs).

Empirical cognition, or sensory, or living contemplation, is the process of cognition itself, which includes three interrelated forms:

1. sensation - reflection in the human mind of individual aspects, properties of objects, their direct impact on the senses;
2. perception - a holistic image of an object, directly given in living contemplation of the totality of all its sides, a synthesis of these sensations;
3. representation - a generalized sensory-visual image of an object that influenced the senses in the past, but is not perceived at the moment.

There are images of memory and imagination. Images of objects are usually fuzzy, vague, and average. But on the other hand, in images the most important properties of an object are usually highlighted and unimportant ones are discarded.

Sensations based on the sense organ through which they are received are divided into visual (the most important), auditory, gustatory, etc. Sensations are usually an integral part of perception.

As we see, human cognitive abilities are connected with the senses. The human body has an exteroceptive system aimed at the external environment (vision, hearing, taste, smell, etc.) and an interoreceptive system associated with signals about the internal physiological state of the body.

Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. It involves making observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment. Empirical research is fundamentally focused on studying phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appearing through their concrete shell.

Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relationships of things. Empirical knowledge can be represented by hypotheses, generalizations, empirical laws, descriptive theories, but they are aimed at an object that is given directly to the observer. The empirical level expresses objective facts revealed as a result of experiments and observations, as a rule, from their external and obvious connections. At this level, real experiment and real observation are used as the main methods. An important role is also played by methods of empirical description, focused on the objective characteristics of the phenomena being studied, as cleared as possible from subjective layers. 1. Observation. Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical cognition, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation (as opposed to ordinary, everyday observations) is characterized by a number of features: - purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the given research problem, and the observer’s attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task); - plannedness (observation should be carried out strictly according to plan , compiled based on the research objective); - activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience, using various technical means of observation). Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to record those properties and aspects of the object being studied that constitute the subject of research. Descriptions of observational results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development. Almost every science goes through this initial, “descriptive” stage of development. At the same time, as emphasized in one of the works concerning this issue, the main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at ensuring that it is as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description must give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself and accurately reflect the phenomena being studied. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. With the development of science and changes in its foundations, the means of description are transformed, and a new system of concepts is often created. Observation as a method of cognition more or less satisfied the needs of sciences that were at the descriptive-empirical stage of development. Further progress in scientific knowledge was associated with the transition of many sciences to the next, higher stage of development, at which observations were supplemented by experimental studies involving targeted influence on the objects being studied. As for observations, there is no activity aimed at transforming or changing the objects of knowledge. This is due to a number of circumstances: the inaccessibility of these objects for practical influence (for example, observation of distant space objects), the undesirability, based on the purposes of the study, of interference in the observed process (phenological, psychological, etc.). observation), lack of technical, energy, financial and other possibilities for conducting experimental studies of objects of knowledge. 2. Experiment. Experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It involves the active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object being studied in order to identify and study certain of its aspects, properties, and connections. In this case, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, and interfere with the natural course of processes. The experiment includes other methods of empirical research (observation, measurement). At the same time, it has a number of important, unique features. Firstly, an experiment allows you to study an object in a “purified” form, that is, eliminate all kinds of side factors and layers that complicate the research process. For example, conducting some experiments requires specially equipped rooms protected (shielded) from external electromagnetic influences on the object being studied. Secondly, during the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular, extreme conditions, i.e. studied at ultra-low temperatures, at extremely high pressures or, conversely, in a vacuum, at enormous electromagnetic field strengths, etc. In such artificially created conditions, it is possible to discover amazing, sometimes unexpected properties of objects and thereby more deeply comprehend their essence. In this regard, space experiments are very interesting and promising, making it possible to study objects and phenomena in such special, unusual conditions (weightlessness, deep vacuum) that are unattainable in earthly laboratories. Thirdly, when studying a process, an experimenter can intervene in it and actively influence its course. As noted by Academician I.P. Pavlov, “experience, as it were, takes phenomena into its own hands and uses first one, then the other, and thus, in artificial, simplified combinations, determines the true connection between phenomena. In other words, observation collects what nature offers it, while experience takes from nature what it wants.” Fourth, an important advantage of many experiments is their reproducibility. This means that the experimental conditions, and accordingly the observations and measurements carried out during this process, can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level cognition is associated with the subject of scientific research, includes 2 components - sensory experience (sensation, perception, idea) and their primary theoretical understanding.

Empirical cognition is characterized by fact-recording activity.

Theoretical level consists in further processing of empirical material. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge carried out at the level of high-order abstractions.

Positions of empiricism: in the foreground - the role of sensation, direct observations in cognition and denial of the role of theoretical thinking. The position of rationalism: in the 1st plane is the activity of the mind, ascribes to it the role of unity of the power of knowledge and ignoring the meaning of sensory knowledge.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by direct exploration of real-life, sensory-perceptible objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) stage of cognition. At this level, the scientist operates only with theoretical (ideal, symbolic) objects. Also at this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, and patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed. Theoretical level – a higher level in scientific knowledge

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones include: problem, hypothesis and theory.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer. solutions.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution to a specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, as well as new problems, certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses, are put forward.

Hypothesis - a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, clarified and specified, turning into delusions if the test gives a negative result.

The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays a supporting role in this case). A tested and proven hypothesis becomes a reliable truth and becomes a scientific theory.

Theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and significant connections of a certain area of reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton’s classical mechanics, Darwin’s evolutionary theory, Einstein’s theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without transforming an idea into a personal conviction, a person’s faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

General methods of understanding reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.

Specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science include: idealization, interpretation, thought experiment, machine computational experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method of theory construction, etc.

In scientific knowledge, for example, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used. Abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (while abstracting from a number of individual properties, characteristics of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire set of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by isolating certain properties and relationships that are inextricably linked with objects of the material world into independent entities (“stability” ", "solubility", "electrical conductivity", etc.).

The formation of scientific abstractions and general theoretical principles is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of deeper, more comprehensive knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of research will be qualitatively different compared to that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension) are fundamentally different from each other

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Cognition - this is a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding the world around us and oneself in this world. “Knowledge is, determined primarily by socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. The first (genetically original) is material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relationship of subject and object is only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms. Each form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of cognition. Usually the following are distinguished: ordinary, playful, mythological, artistic and figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. The latter, although related, are not identical to one another; each of them has its own specifics. We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - combining the elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”

Abstraction (idealization) - mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction - the process of deriving a general position from observing a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.

In the history of natural science, there have been attempts to absolutize the meaning in science of the inductive method (F. Bacon) or the deductive method (R. Descartes), to give them universal meaning. However, these methods cannot be used as separate methods, isolated from each other. each of them is used at a certain stage of the cognition process.

Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling - reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models. photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.

Classification - distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.

One of the first classifications in natural science was the classification of flora and fauna by the outstanding Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). For representatives of living nature, he established a certain gradation: class, order, genus, species, variation.