The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78 ended. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

Romania- 60,000 soldiers
190 guns
Bulgaria - 40 000
Serbia - 81 500
Montenegro - 25 000

Romania- 1,350 killed and wounded
Bulgaria- 15,000 killed and wounded
Serbia- 5,000 killed and wounded
Montenegro- 5,000 killed and wounded

Background to the conflict

Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to draw attention in Europe (in Great Britain in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

“Little as the attention paid by the English to the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, and however imperfect their knowledge of all the details, enough information leaked out from time to time to produce a vague but firm conviction that the Sultans did not keep their “firm promises” to Europe ; that the evils of the Ottoman government were incurable; and that when the time comes for another crisis affecting the “independence” of the Ottoman Empire to arise, it will be absolutely impossible for us to again provide the Ottomans with the support previously given during the Crimean War.

Changing balance of power in Europe

Reviewing the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. It was, however, not so simple - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Russia maintained friendly relations with Prussia.

During the suppression of the Bulgarian uprising, Turkish troops committed massacres of civilians, killing over 30 thousand people; Irregular units, the bashi-bazouks, were especially rampant. A number of journalists and publications launched a propaganda campaign against Disraeli, who pursued the pro-Turkish line of the British government, accusing the latter of ignoring the atrocities of Turkish irregular forces; a special role was played by the materials of the American journalist, married to a Russian citizen, Januarius McGahan (eng. Januarius A. MacGahan), published in the opposition newspaper Daily News. In July - August 1876, Disraeli was forced to repeatedly defend the government's policy on the Eastern Question in the House of Commons, as well as justify the false reports of the British ambassador in Constantinople, Henry Elliott ( Sir Henry George Elliot). On August 11 of the same year, during his last debate in the lower house (the next day he was elevated to the peerage), he found himself in complete isolation, being subjected to severe criticism from representatives of both parties.

Publications in Daily News caused a wave of public outrage in Europe: Charles Darwin, Oscar Wilde, Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi spoke out in support of the Bulgarians.

Victor Hugo, in particular, wrote in August 1876 in a French parliamentary newspaper:

“It is necessary to draw the attention of European governments to one fact, one very small fact that governments do not even notice... An entire people will be exterminated. Where? in Europe... Will there be an end to the torment of this small heroic people?

Public opinion in England was finally turned against the “Turkophile” policy of supporting the Ottoman Empire with the publication in early September 1876 of the pamphlet “Bulgarian Horrors and the Eastern Question” by opposition leader Gladstone ( The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East) , which was the main factor in England’s non-intervention on the side of Turkey during Russia’s declaration of war the following year. Gladstone's pamphlet, in its positive part, set out a program for granting autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

A number of works of Russian fiction are devoted to the events in the Balkans and Russia during the initial period of the crisis.

• In Turgenev's poem “Croquet at Windsor” (1876), Queen Victoria was openly accused of conniving at the actions of Turkish fanatics;
• Polonsky's poem "Bulgarian" (1876) told the story of the humiliation of a Bulgarian woman, sent to a Muslim harem and living with a thirst for revenge.

Serbia's defeat and diplomatic maneuvering

• In June, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on Turkey (see Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War). Representatives of Russia and Austria officially warned against this, but the Serbs did not attach much importance to this, since they were confident that Russia would not allow them to be defeated by the Turks.

The Turks’ ignorance of the united will of the European powers gave Russia the opportunity to ensure the neutrality of the European powers in the war with Turkey. Invaluable assistance in this was provided by the Turks themselves, who through their actions helped to dismantle the provisions of the Treaty of Paris, which protected them from a one-on-one war with Russia.

Russia's entry into the war

In terms of combat training, the Russian army was superior to the enemy, but inferior to it in the quality of weapons (Turkish troops were armed with the latest British and American rifles).

The active support of the Russian army by the peoples of the Balkans and Transcaucasia strengthened the morale of the Russian troops, which included the Bulgarian militia, Armenian and Georgian police.

The Black Sea was completely dominated by the Turkish fleet. Russia, having achieved the right to the Black Sea Fleet only in 1871, did not have time to restore it by the beginning of the war.

General situation and plans of the parties

There were two possible theaters of combat: the Balkans and Transcaucasia. The Balkans were key, since it was here that one could count on the support of the local population (for the sake of whose liberation the war was fought). In addition, the successful exit of the Russian army to Constantinople brought the Ottoman Empire out of the war.

Two natural obstacles stood in the way of the Russian army to Constantinople:

• Danube, the Turkish bank of which was thoroughly fortified by the Ottomans. The fortresses in the famous “quadrangle” of fortresses - Rushchuk - Shumla - Bazardzhik - Silistria - were the most protected in Europe, if not in the whole world. The Danube was a deep river, the Turkish bank of which was thoroughly swamped, which significantly complicated the landing on it. In addition, the Turks had 17 armored monitors on the Danube, which could withstand an artillery duel with coastal artillery, which further complicated the crossing of the river. With proper defense, one could hope to inflict very significant losses on the Russian army.
• Balkan ridge, through which there were several convenient crossings, the main one of which was Shipkinsky. The defending side could meet the attackers in well-fortified positions both at the pass itself and at the exit from it. It was possible to go around the Balkan ridge along the sea, but then it would be necessary to take the well-fortified Varna by storm.

The Black Sea was completely dominated by the Turkish fleet, which forced the Russian army to organize supplies in the Balkans by land.

The war plan was based on the idea of ​​a lightning victory: the army had to cross the Danube on the middle reaches of the river, in the Nikopol-Sistov section, where the Turks had no fortresses, in an area populated by Bulgarians friendly to Russia. After the crossing, the army should have been divided into three equal groups: the first - blocking the Turkish fortresses in the lower reaches of the river; the second - acts against Turkish forces in the direction of Viddin; the third - crosses the Balkans and goes to Constantinople.

The Turkish plan provided for an active defensive course of action: concentrating the main forces (about 100 thousand people) in the “quadrangle” of fortresses - Rushchuk - Shumla - Bazardzhik - Silistria, luring the Russians who had crossed to the Balkans, deep into Bulgaria, and then defeating them by attacking their left flank and messages. At the same time, quite significant forces of Osman Pasha, about 30 thousand people, were concentrated in Western Bulgaria, near Sofia and Vidin, with the task of monitoring Serbia and Romania and preventing the connection of the Russian army with the Serbs. In addition, small detachments occupied the Balkan passes and fortifications along the Middle Danube.

Actions in the European theater of war

Crossing the Danube

The Russian army, by prior agreement with Romania, passed through its territory and in June crossed the Danube in several places. To ensure the crossing of the Danube, it was necessary to neutralize the Turkish Danube flotilla at the place of possible crossings. This task was accomplished by installing minefields on the river, covered by coastal batteries. Light mine boats transported by rail were also used.

• On April 29, Russian heavy artillery blew up the flagship Turkish corvette Lutfi-Jelil near Braila, killing it with its entire crew;
• On May 14, the monitor “Khivzi Rakhman” was sunk by mine boats of lieutenants Shestakov and Dubasov.

The Turkish river flotilla was upset by the actions of the Russian sailors and could not prevent the crossing of Russian troops.

• On June 10 (22), the Lower Danube detachment crossed the Danube at Galati and Braila and soon occupied Northern Dobruja.
• On the night of June 15 (27), Russian troops under the command of General M.I. Dragomirov crossed the Danube near Zimnitsa. The troops wore winter black uniforms to remain unnoticed in the dark, but, starting from the second echelon, the crossing took place under fierce fire. Losses amounted to 1,100 people killed and wounded.
• On June 21 (July 3), sappers prepared a bridge crossing the Danube in the Zimnitsa area. The transfer of the main forces of the Russian army across the Danube began.

The Turkish command did not take active steps to prevent the Russian army from crossing the Danube. The first line on the way to Constantinople was surrendered without serious battles.

Plevna and Shipka

The main forces of the army that crossed the Danube were not enough for a decisive offensive across the Balkan ridge. For this purpose, only the advanced detachment of General I.V. Gurko (12 thousand people) was allocated. To secure the flanks, the 45,000-strong Eastern and 35,000-strong Western detachments were created. The remaining forces were in Dobrudja, along the left bank of the Danube or on the way. The advance detachment occupied Tarnovo on June 25 (July 7), and on July 2 (14) crossed the Balkans through the Hainkoy Pass. Soon the Shipka Pass was occupied, where the created Southern detachment (20 thousand people, in August - 45 thousand) was advanced. The path to Constantinople was open, but there were not sufficient forces for an offensive in the Balkans. The advance detachment occupied Eski Zagra (Stara Zagora), but soon the Turkish 20,000-strong corps of Suleiman Pasha, transferred from Albania, arrived here. After a fierce battle near Eski Zagra, in which the Bulgarian militia distinguished itself, the advance detachment retreated to Shipka.

Successes were followed by failures. From the moment of crossing the Danube, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich actually lost control of his troops. The Western detachment captured Nikopol, but did not have time to occupy Plevna (Pleven), where Osman Pasha’s 15,000-strong corps approached from Vidin. The assaults on Plevna undertaken on July 8 (20) and July 18 (30) ended in complete failure and constrained the actions of the Russian troops (see Siege of Pleven).

Rebellion in Abkhazia

In May, mountaineers, with the support of Turkish emissaries, launched a rebellion in Abkhazia. After a two-day bombardment by the Turkish squadron and an amphibious landing, Sukhum was abandoned; by June, the entire Black Sea coast from Ochemchiri to Adler was occupied by the Turks. The June indecisive attempts of the head of the Sukhumi department, General P. P. Kravchenko, to recapture the city were unsuccessful. Turkish troops left the city only on August 19, after reinforcements from Russia and units withdrawn from the Primorsky direction approached the Russian troops in Abkhazia.

The temporary occupation of the Black Sea coast by the Turks affected Chechnya and Dagestan, where uprisings also broke out. As a result, 2 Russian infantry divisions were forced to stay there.

Actions in Transcaucasia

• On April 17, the Cossacks of Tergukasov’s detachment occupied Bayazet without a fight.
• On June 6, the Bayazet citadel, occupied by a Russian garrison of 1,600 people, was besieged by the troops of Faik Pasha (25 thousand people). The siege (referred to as the Bayazet seat) lasted until June 28, when it was lifted by the returning detachment of Terkugasov. During the siege, the garrison lost 10 officers and 276 lower ranks killed and wounded. After this, Bayazet was abandoned by Russian troops.
• The offensive of the Primorsky detachment developed extremely slowly, and after the Turks landed troops near Sukhum, General Oklobzhio was forced to send part of the forces under the command of General Alkhazov to help General Kravchenko, because of this, military operations in the Batumi direction took on a protracted positional character until the end of the war.

In July-August, there was a long period of inactivity in Transcaucasia, caused by the fact that both sides were waiting for reinforcements to arrive.

• On September 20, upon the arrival of the 1st Grenadier Division, Russian troops went on the offensive near Kars; by October 3, Mukhtar's army (25-30 thousand people) opposing them was defeated and retreated to Kars.
• On October 13, Russian units (Lazarev’s detachment) reached Kars and began siege operations.
• On October 23, Mukhtar's army was again defeated near Erzurum, which was also besieged by Russian troops from the next day.
• On November 6, after a three-week siege, Kars was captured by Russian troops.

After this important event, the main target of action seemed to be Erzurum, where the remnants of the enemy army were hiding. But here the Turks’ allies were the onset of cold weather and the extreme difficulty of delivering all kinds of supplies along mountain roads. Among the troops standing in front of the fortress, disease and mortality reached terrifying proportions. As a result, by January 21, 1878, when a truce was concluded, Erzerum could not be taken.

Conclusion of a peace treaty

Borders of the Balkan states and Russia according to the San Stefano Peace Treaty

Peace negotiations began after the victory at Sheinov, but were greatly delayed due to the intervention of England. Finally, on January 19, preliminary peace conditions were signed in Adrianople, and a truce was concluded with the definition of demarcation lines for both warring parties. However, the basic conditions of peace turned out to be inconsistent with the claims of the Romanians and Serbs, and most importantly, they aroused strong fears in England and Austria. The British government demanded new loans from Parliament to mobilize the army. In addition, on February 1, Admiral Gornby's squadron entered the Dardanelles. In response to this, the Russian commander-in-chief moved troops to the demarcation line the next day.

The statement of the Russian government that, in view of the actions of England, it was intended to occupy Constantinople, prompted the British to compromise, and on February 4 an agreement followed, according to which Gornby's squadron was to move 100 km from Constantinople, and the Russians were obliged to return to their demarcation line.

The borders established following the war remained in force until the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, with some changes:

• Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia merged into a single principality;
• Bulgaria declared itself a kingdom independent of Turkey, and Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had previously occupied.

The war marked Britain's gradual retreat from confrontation in relations with Russia. After the Suez Canal came under British control in 1875, the British desire to prevent Turkey from further weakening at any cost waned. English policy switched to protecting English interests in Egypt, which was occupied by Britain in 1882 and remained an English protectorate until 1922. The British advance in Egypt did not directly affect Russia’s interests, and accordingly, the tension in relations between the two countries gradually eased.

The transition to a military alliance became possible after the conclusion of a compromise on Central Asia in 1907, formalized by the Anglo-Russian Treaty of August 31, 1907. The emergence of the Entente, an Anglo-Franco-Russian coalition opposing the German-led alliance of the Central Powers, is counted from this date. The confrontation between these blocs led to the First World War in 1918.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 in art

Painting

• Balkan series by Vasily Vereshchagin

Fiction

Movie

Monuments of the Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

This war went down in Bulgarian history as "Russian-Turkish liberation war". On the territory of modern Bulgaria, where the main battles of this war took place, there are over 400 monuments to the Russians who fought for the freedom of the Bulgarian people.

Lesson on Russian history in 8th grade.

Teacher Kaloeva T.S. MBOU Secondary School No. 46. Vladikavkaz.

Topic: Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878.

Lesson type: Learning a new topic.

Goals:

Educational:

Find out the causes of the war.

the course and consequences of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878;

Find out the goals of the parties

Educational:

develop map skills

develop the ability to highlight the main points in the textbook text,

recite the material read, pose and solve problems.

Educational:

using the example of valor and courage of the Russian army to cultivate a sense of love and pride for the Motherland.

Basic concepts:

Berlin Congress - June 1878

Plevna

Nikopol

Shipka Pass

Lesson equipment:

Wall map “Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878”;

Presentation for the lesson.

projector;

screen;

computer;

Lesson plan:

Balkan crisis.

Strengths and plans of the parties.

Progress of military operations.

Fall of Plevna. A turning point in the war.

Berlin Congress.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II.Survey.

Name the main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II. What is foreign policy?(This is relationships with other states.

What are the main directions?(These are Middle Eastern, European, Far Eastern and Central Asian destinations, as well as the sale of Alaska.)

1.Middle Eastern direction. Russia regained the right to build fortresses and maintain a fleet on the Black Sea. Much credit for this belonged to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.M. Gorchakov, the “Iron Chancellor” of the Russian Empire.

2. European direction. In the 1870s. after the London Conference of 1871, a rapprochement between Russia and Germany occurs. In such a rapprochement, Russia could see a certain guarantee against an attack on it by Germany, which became extremely intensified after the victory over France. In 1873, an agreement was concluded between Russia, Germany and Austria, according to which, in the event of an attack on one of these countries, negotiations on joint actions began between the allies - the “Union of the Three Emperors”.

3 . Central Asian direction. In the 60-70s of the 19th century, Russian troops under the command of generals Chernyaev and Skobelev conquered the territory of the Khiva and Kokand Khanates, as well as the Bukhara Emirate. The influence of Russia in Central Asia, which was claimed by England, was established.

4 .Far Eastern direction. Russia's further liberation of the Far East and Siberia and the active actions of England and France in China forced the Russian government to turn to clarifying the borders with China.

5 . Selling Alaska. The decision to sell Alaska for $7.2 million. In addition, Russia sought to strengthen friendly relations with the United States.

What event in Russian foreign policy at that time could be called a “triumph of Russian diplomacy”?(Russia did not have the right to keep a navy in the Black Sea after the Crimean War. Russia, represented by Chancellor Gorchakov, sought to neutralize the Black Sea through diplomatic means, negotiated and took advantage of the contradictions between European powers. At the London Conference (March 1871) this issue was resolved positive. This was the “triumph of Russian diplomacy” and A.M. Gorchakov personally.)

III. Studying a new topic.

1.Balkan crisis. Remember what the “Eastern Question” is? (A range of problems related to the Ottoman Empire).

Russia's goal in the war:

1. Liberate the Slavic peoples from the Turkish yoke.

Reason for war: On the initiative of A.M. Gorchakov Russia, Germany and Austria demanded that Turkey equalize the rights of Christians with Muslims, but Turkey, encouraged by the support of England, refused.

Which Slavic peoples were under the rule of the Ottoman Empire?(Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina).

Causes of the war : Russia and the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples.

in spring1875 An uprising against the Turkish yoke began in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

A year later, in April1876 , an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. Turkish punitive forces suppressed these uprisings with fire and sword. Only in Bulgaria they cut out more30 thousands of people. Serbia and Montenegro in summer1876 g. started a war against Turkey. But the forces were unequal. The poorly armed Slavic armies suffered setbacks. In Russia, the social movement in defense of the Slavs was expanding. Thousands of Russian volunteers were sent to the Balkans. Donations were collected throughout the country, weapons and medicine were purchased, and hospitals were equipped. The outstanding Russian surgeon N.V. Sklifosovsky headed the Russian sanitary detachments in Montenegro, and the famous general practitioner S.P. Botkin- in Serbia. AlexanderIIcontributed10 thousand rubles in favor of the rebels. There were calls for Russian military intervention from everywhere.However, the government acted cautiously, recognizing Russia's unpreparedness for a major war. Reforms in the army and its rearmament have not yet been completed. They did not have time to recreate the Black Sea Fleet. Meanwhile, Serbia was defeated. The Serbian prince Milan turned to the king with a request for help. In October1876 Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum: immediately conclude a truce with Serbia. Russian intervention prevented the fall of Belgrade.

Exercise: the war unfolded on 2 fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasus.

Compare the strengths of the parties. Draw a conclusion about the readiness of Russia and the Ottoman Empire for war.

Strengths of the parties

Balkan Front

Caucasian Front

Russians

Turks

Russians

Turks

250,000 soldiers

338,000 soldiers

55,000 soldiers

70,000 soldiers

April 12, 1877 . – Alexander II signed a manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey

Working with the map.

The Balkans divided the territory of Bulgaria into North and South. The Shipka Pass connected the northern part of Bulgaria with the southern. This was a convenient route for troops and artillery to pass through the mountains. Through Shipka there was the shortest route to the city of Andrianopol, i.e. to the rear of the Turkish army.

Having crossed the Balkans, it was important for the Russian army to control all the fortresses of northern Bulgaria in order to prevent an attack by the Turks from the rear.

3. The course of military operations.

Working with the textbook: pp. 199-201.

We answer the questions:

1. When did the Russian army cross the Danube? - (in June 1877).

2.Who liberated the capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo? (team of I.V. Gurko).

3. When did Plevna fall? 9 in November 1877)

4.What was Skobelev called in the troops? ("White General")

4. Treaty of San Stefano.

The successes of the Russian troops, disagreements among the Turkish government, and the efforts of the national liberation movement in the Balkans forced the Sultan to propose to Alexander II to stop hostilities and begin peace negotiations.February 19, 1878 - signing of an agreement between Russia and Turkey.

According to the agreement: Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire, i.e. received the right to its own government, army, communication with Turkey was limited to the payment of tribute.

Western European states expressed their disagreement with the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. Austria-Hungary and England declared that he was violating the terms of the Paris Peace. Russia faced the threat of a new war, for which it was not prepared. Therefore, the Russian government was forced to agree to discuss a peace treaty with Turkey at the international congress in Berlin.

5. Berlin Congress and the results of the war.

June 1878 - Berlin Congress.

Bulgaria was divided into two parts:

Northern was declared a principality dependent on Turkey,

South - the autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia.

The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been significantly reduced.

Russia returned the Bayazet fortress to Turkey.

Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.

England received the island of Cyprus.

( The Berlin Congress worsened the situation of the Balkan peoples liberated by Russia from the Turkish yoke. His decisions showed the fragility of the alliance of the three emperors and revealed the struggle of the powers for dividing the territory of the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. However, as a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the Balkan peoples gained independence, and for those who remained under the rule of the Turks, the paths were open to fight for freedom.)

Guys, now you will work with the text. Find errors in it and write the correct answer.

Every major event leaves a mark on history and lives in the memory of mankind. The heroism and courage of the Russians and Bulgarians were immortalized in monuments. A majestic monument to the glory of Russian and Bulgarian soldiers in memory of the heroic events of those years was built on Shipka in Bulgaria.

Despite the forced concessions to Russia, the war in the Balkans became the most important step in the national liberation struggle of the South Slavic peoples against the Ottoman yoke. The authority of Russian military glory was completely restored. And this happened largely thanks to a simple Russian soldier, who showed steadfastness and courage in battle, amazing endurance in the most difficult conditions of a combat situation.We must always remember that the heroes of the Victory were connected by invisible threads with the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, as well as with Suvorov’s miracle heroes, the warriors of Dmitry Donskoy and Alexander Nevsky and all our great ancestors. And this continuity, no matter what, must be preserved among our people forever. And each of you, remembering these events, should feel like a citizen of a great state, whose name is Russia!

And each of us must remember these events, must feel like a citizen of a great state, whose name is Russia!

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

Balkan Front:

General Stoletov N.G. – defense of Shipka.

General Kridener N.P. - Nikopol was taken instead of the Plevna fortress.

General Skobelev M.D. - occupied the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.

General Gurko N.V. - liberated Tarnovo, captured the Shipka Pass, occupied Sofia and Adrianople.

General Totleben E.I. - liberated Plevna from the Turks.

Caucasian Front:

Loris-Melikov M.T. - occupied the fortresses of Bayazet, Ardahan, Kars.

At the end, the lesson is summarized. Grades are given for the lesson.

Homework: P§ 28. Make a chronological table of the war of 1877-1878. Read the documents on pp. 203-204, answer the questions.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

Historians highlight the increase in national self-awareness in the Balkan countries as the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities. This kind of sentiment in society was associated with the so-called April Uprising, which occurred in Bulgaria. The mercilessness and cruelty with which this rebellion was suppressed forced European states (together with the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for their brothers in faith who were in Turkey.

So, on the twenty-fourth of April 1877, Russia declared war on the Porte. Archbishop Paul, at a prayer service after the Chisinau parade, reads the manifesto of Alexander the Second, who announced the start of the war against the Ottoman Empire. Already in May of the same year, Russian troops were introduced onto Romanian soil.

The military reform of Alexander II also affected the preparedness and organization of the army. The Russian army consisted of almost seven hundred thousand people.

The army's transfer to Romania was made to eliminate the Danube fleet, which controlled most of the Danube crossings. The small Turkish river flotilla was unable to fight back and very soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops, which was the first step towards Constantinople. The next important step is the siege of Plevna, which capitulated on the tenth of December. After this, Russian troops of three hundred thousand people prepared for the offensive.

During the same period, Serbia resumed actions against the Porte, and on December 23, 1877, a detachment of General Romeiko-Gurko carried out a raid through the Balkans, thanks to which Sofia was taken.

On the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth of December, an important battle takes place at Sheinovo, the result of which is the defeat of the Turkish army of thirty thousand.

The main tasks of the Asian direction of the Russian-Turkish war were to ensure border security and the desire to break the concentration of the Turks on the European border.

Historians are accustomed to consider the Abkhaz rebellion that took place in May 1877 to be the beginning of the Caucasian campaign. During the same period, the city of Sukhum was abandoned by the Russians and it was only possible to return it in August. During the Transcaucasian operations, Russian troops captured many citadels and fortresses. However, in the second half of the summer of 1877, military operations “frozen” while awaiting reinforcements.

Beginning in the fall, Russian troops adhered exclusively to siege tactics. For example, this is how they took the city of Kars, the capture of which never took place due to the truce.

The most famous foreign policy event under Emperor Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which ended successfully for our country.
The so-called eastern question, the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Ottoman Empire to gain independence, remained open. After the end of the Crimean War, the foreign policy climate on the Balkan Peninsula worsened. Russia was concerned about the weak defense of its southern borders near the Black Sea, and the inability to protect its political interests in Turkey.

Causes of the war

On the eve of the Russian-Turkish campaign, most of the Balkan peoples began to express discontent, as they were under almost five hundred years of oppression over the Turkish Sultan. This oppression was expressed in economic and political discrimination, the imposition of foreign ideology and the widespread Islamization of Orthodox Christians. Russia, being an Orthodox state, strongly supported such a national rise of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Romanians. This became one of the main factors that predetermined the start of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The situation in Western Europe also became the basis for the clash between the two sides. Germany (Austria-Hungary), as a new strong state, began to claim dominance in the straits of the Black Sea, and tried in every possible way to weaken the power of England, France and Turkey. This coincided with Russia's interests, so Germany became its leading ally.

Occasion

The stumbling block between the Russian Empire and the Turkish state was the conflict between the South Slavic population and the Turkish authorities in 1875-1876. More precisely, these were anti-Turkish uprisings in Serbia, Bosnia, and, later, annexed Montenegro. The Islamic country suppressed these protests using the most brutal methods. The Russian Empire, acting as the patron of all Slavic ethnic groups, could not ignore these events, and in the spring of 1877 declared war on Turkey. It was with these actions that the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires began.

Events

In April 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube River and went to the side of Bulgaria, which at the time of the action still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of July, the Shipka Pass was occupied practically without much resistance. The Turkish side’s response to this was the transfer of an army led by Suleiman Pasha to take these territories. This is where the bloodiest events of the Russian-Turkish war unfolded. The fact is that the Shipka Pass was of enormous military importance; control over it provided free movement of the Russians to the north of Bulgaria. The enemy was significantly superior to the Russian army both in weapons and in human resources. On the Russian side, General N. Stoletov was appointed commander-in-chief. By the end of 1877, the Shipka Pass was taken by Russian soldiers.
But, despite the heavy defeats, the Turks were in no hurry to give up. They concentrated their main forces in the Plevna fortress. The siege of Plevna turned out to be a turning point in all armed battles of the Russian-Turkish war. Here luck was on the side of the Russian soldiers. Bulgarian troops also successfully fought on the side of the Russian Empire. The commanders-in-chief were: M.D. Skobelev, Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich and the Romanian King Carol I.
Also during this stage of the Russian-Turkish war the fortresses of Ardahan, Kare, Batum, Erzurum were taken; fortified area of ​​the Turks Sheinovo.
At the beginning of 1878, Russian soldiers approached the Turkish capital, Constantinople. The previously powerful and warlike Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Russian army and in February of the same year requested peace negotiations.

Results

The final stage of the Russian-Turkish conflict was the adoption of the San Stefano Peace Treaty on February 19, 1878. Under its terms, the northern part of Bulgaria received independence (an autonomous principality), and the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was confirmed. Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia with the fortresses of Ardahan, Kars and Batum. Turkey also obliged to pay indemnities to the Russian Empire in the amount of 1.410 billion rubles.

Only Russia was satisfied with the result of this peace treaty; everyone else was categorically dissatisfied with it, in particular, Western European countries (England, Austria-Hungary, etc.). Therefore, in 1878, the Berlin Congress was organized, at which all the terms of the previous peace treaty were revised. The Macedonian Republic and the eastern region of Romania were returned to the Turks; England, which did not take part in the war, received Cyprus; Germany received part of the lands that belonged to Montenegro under the Treaty of San Stefano; Montenegro was also completely deprived of its own navy; some of Russia's acquisitions were transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

The Berlin Congress (treaty) significantly changed the initial balance of power. But, despite some territorial concessions to Russia, the result for our country was victory.

1. The most significant foreign policy event of the reign of Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878, which ended in the victory of Russia. As a result of victory in this war:

- the prestige of Russia, which had been shaken after the Crimean War of 1853-1856, has increased and the position of Russia has been strengthened;

- the peoples of the Balkans were liberated from almost 500 years of Turkish yoke.

The main factors that predetermined the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878:

— the growth of Russia’s power as a result of ongoing bourgeois reforms;

— the desire to regain positions lost as a result of the Crimean War;

- changes in the international situation in the world in connection with the emergence of a single German state - Germany;

- the growth of the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples against the Turkish yoke.

On the eve of the war, a significant part of the Balkan peoples (Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians) were under the Turkish yoke for about 500 years, which consisted of economic exploitation of these peoples, preventing the formation of their statehood and normal independent development, suppression of culture, imposition of an alien culture and religion (for example, Islamization Bosnians and part of the Bulgarians). In the mid-1870s. In the Balkans, there was widespread dissatisfaction with the Turkish yoke and a high national upsurge, which Russia, as the leading Slavic state, claiming the protection of all Slavs, ideologically supported. Another factor that predetermined the war was the change in the situation in Europe due to the emergence of a new strong state in the center of Europe - Germany. Germany, united by O. von Bismarck in 1871 and defeating France during the war of 1870-1871, tried in every possible way to undermine the Anglo-French-Turkish system of European domination. This was in line with Russia's interests. Taking advantage of the defeat of France, the main ally of England and the enemy of Russia in the Crimean War, from Prussia, Russia in 1871 achieved the abolition of a number of conditions of the humiliating Treaty of Paris of 1856. As a result of this diplomatic victory, the neutral status of the Black Sea was canceled and Russia regained the right to restore the Black Sea Fleet .

2. The reason for the new Russian-Turkish war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Bosnia and Serbia in 1875 - 1876. Fulfilling the declared allied obligations to the “fraternal peoples,” Russia in April 1877 declared war on Turkey. Turkey, deprived of the help of its main allies - England and France, was unable to resist Russia:

- military operations were successful for Russia both in Europe and in the Caucasus - the war was fleeting and ended within 10 months;

- the Russian army defeated Turkish troops in the battle of Plevna (Bulgaria) and the Shipka Pass;

- the fortresses of Kare, Batum and Ardagan in the Caucasus were taken;

- in February 1878, the Russian army approached Constantinople (Istanbul), and Turkey was forced to ask for peace and make serious concessions.

3. In 1878, wanting to stop the war, Turkey hastily signed the Treaty of San Stefano with Russia. According to this agreement:

— Türkiye granted complete independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;

— Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina remained part of Turkey, but received broad autonomy;

- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina were obliged to pay tribute to Turkey in exchange for the complete demilitarization of these autonomies - Turkish troops were withdrawn from Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Turkish fortresses were destroyed - the actual presence of the Turks in these countries ceased;

— Russia returned Kare and Batum, it was allowed to culturally patronize the Bulgarians and Bosnians.

4. All leading European countries, including Russia’s main ally in Europe in the 1870s, were dissatisfied with the results of the San Stefano Peace Treaty, which sharply strengthened Russia’s position. - Germany. In 1878, the Berlin Congress was convened in Berlin on the issue of Balkan settlement. Delegations from Russia, Germany, England, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey took part in the congress. The purpose of the congress was to develop a pan-European solution to the Balkans. Under pressure from leading European countries, Russia was forced to give in and abandon the San Stefano Peace Treaty. Instead, the Berlin Peace Treaty was signed, which significantly reduced the results of victory for Russia. According to the Berlin Treaty:

- the territory of the Bulgarian autonomy was reduced by about 3 times;

— Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary and was part of it;

— Macedonia and Eastern Romania were returned to Turkey.

5. Despite Russia's concessions to European countries, victory in the war of 1877 - 1878 had great historical significance:

- the expulsion of Turkey from the European continent began;

- Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and in the future - Bulgaria, were liberated from the 500-year Turkish yoke and gained independence;

— Russia has finally recovered from its defeat in the Crimean War;

- the international prestige of Russia and Emperor Alexander II, who received the nickname Liberator, was restored;

- this war was the last major Russian-Turkish conflict - Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea.