Option 3: the smooth surface always glows only. Reflection of light by a surface

OPTION No. 1

no spaces, commas

(1) Algae are the main producers of organic substances in the aquatic environment, but if there are too many of them in the water, then the oxygen present in it is completely consumed by them and is not available to fish and animals. (2) Many inhabitants of such reservoirs die due to lack of oxygen. (3)(…) the main source of food for underwater fauna can cause its death.

1) The main source of food for all aquatic animals is algae.

2) The cause of death of underwater fauna can be an excess of algae, which absorb all the oxygen in the water.

3) A large amount of algae - the main source of food for underwater inhabitants - can cause the death of animals and fish, causing a lack of oxygen in the reservoir.

4) Algae are the main source of food for underwater animals and the main producer of organic matter in the aquatic environment.

5) Algae may die if the oxygen in the water is completely consumed by the fish and animals living in the reservoir.

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word SOURCE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

SOURCE, -a, husband.

1) Spring, key. Hot I. Mineral I.

2) What it comes from is drawn from smb. I. increased income. I.enlightenment and freethinking.

3) The one who gives communicates any information. Information from the correct I.

4) A written monument, a document on the basis of which scientific research is based (special).The oldest written I.

OFFERS

A) Due to unfavorable weather conditions, the yield of vegetables has decreased slightly.

B) Speaking about Pushkin, the critic found very precise words.

C) The handbook for accountants states in what cases deductions are made from wages and about the wages of certain categories of employees.

D) Everyone who read the novels of I.S. Turgenev, probably felt the strength of his artistic talent.

D) The young man watched the runaway train into the distance of the steppes.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

1) violation in the construction of sentences with indirect speech

2) violation of word order in a sentence

with..to struggle, to..strike without..nuclear, in..to..swim continuously..fast, pr..to be idle..inactive, to..say

(1) Compassion is an active helper.

(2) But what about those who don’t see, don’t hear, don’t feel when someone else is in pain and bad? (3) An outsider, as they consider everyone except themselves, and perhaps their family, to which, however, they are also often indifferent. (4) How to help both those who suffer from indifference and the indifferent themselves?

(5) From childhood, educate yourself—first of all, yourself—in such a way as to respond to someone else’s misfortune and rush to the aid of someone in trouble. (6) And neither in life, nor in pedagogy, nor in art should we consider sympathy as a demagnetizing sensitivity, a sentimentality alien to us.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

(7) Sympathy is a great human ability and need, a benefit and a duty. (8) People who are endowed with such an ability or who have alarmingly sensed a lack of it in themselves, people who have cultivated in themselves the talent of kindness, those who know how to transform sympathy into assistance, have a more difficult life than those who are insensitive. (9) And more restless. (10) But their conscience is clear. (11) As a rule, they have good children. (12) They are, as a rule, respected by others. (13) But even if this rule is broken and if those around them do not understand, and their children deceive their hopes, they will not deviate from their moral position.

(14) It seems to the insensitive that they feel good. (15) They are endowed with armor that protects them from unnecessary worries and unnecessary worries. (16) But it only seems to them that they are not endowed, but deprived. (17) Sooner or later - as it comes around, it will respond!

(18) I recently had the good fortune to meet an old, wise doctor. (19) He often appears in his department on weekends and holidays, not out of emergency, but out of spiritual need. (20) He talks to patients not only about their illness, but also about complex life topics. (21) He knows how to instill hope and cheerfulness in them. (22) Many years of observations showed him that a person who never sympathized with anyone, did not empathize with anyone’s suffering, when faced with his own misfortune, turns out to be unprepared for it. (23) He faces such a test pitiful and helpless. (24) Selfishness, callousness, indifference, heartlessness cruelly avenge themselves. (25) Blind fear. (26) Loneliness. (27) Belated repentance.

(28) One of the most important human feelings is sympathy. (29) And let it not remain just sympathy, but become action. (30) Assistance. (31) You must come to the aid of someone who needs it, who feels bad, although he is silent, without waiting for a call. (32) There is no radio receiver stronger and more sensitive than the human soul. (33) If you tune it to the wave of high humanity.

(According to S. Lvov)

* Lvov Sergey Lvovich(1922–1981) – prose writer, critic, publicist, author of numerous articles on Soviet and foreign literature, works of biographical and children’s literature.

6. Which of the statements correspond

1) Caring people are protected from unnecessary worries and unnecessary worries.

2) Sympathy is sentimentality that is alien to modern man.

3) Compassion must be cultivated in oneself from childhood.

4) People who are indifferent to other people's misfortunes easily cope with their own troubles.

5) Empathy must be effective.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

1) Sentences 5 - 6 contain answers to the question posed in sentence 4.

2) Sentence 17 provides a description.

3) Sentences 24–27 explain the content of sentences 22–23.

4) Sentences 28–31 present the reasoning.

5) Sentences 2-4 present the narrative.

8 . From sentences 10-16, write down antonyms (antonymous pair).

9 . Among sentences 28–33, find one that is related to the previous one using cognates. Write the number of this offer.

10. “The excited intonation in S. Lvov’s text is created primarily

skillfully used syntactic means: (A)______ (“this is the rule” in sentence 13), (B)______ (sentences 24–27) and (C)______ (for example, in sentences 2, 6). Vivid imagery is created by the trope – (D)______ (sentences 32, 33), reflecting in the final part of the text the author’s idea of ​​the role of compassion.”

List of terms:

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

Regional diagnostic work on the RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

OPTION No. 2

The answers to the tasks are a word, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write the answer in answer form No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, no spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1–3.

(1) Rus' was not always a single state. (2) For a long time it consisted of separate principalities ruled by princes who were at enmity with each other, fought, taking each other’s lands and wealth. (3)(…) time passed, and gradually the scattered principalities united into one powerful state.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The Russian state arose as a result of long wars of princes, each of whom defended their lands.

2) For a long time, individual Russian principalities were at enmity with each other.

3) After the unification of individual principalities that had previously been at odds with each other, Rus' became a powerful state.

4) The unification of Russian lands happened quickly.

5) Rus' as a state arose as a result of the unification of disparate principalities that had been at war with each other for a long time.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word EARTH. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the second (2) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

EARTH, -i, female

1) The third planet from the Sun that we inhabit. Circle Z.

2) The territory with land located in someone's possession. Rent Z.

Property on W.

3) Land, firmament. The earth was not visible from the ship.

4) Soil, ground, surface.Plow Z. Sit on Z.

5) A loose dark brown substance that is part of the crust of our planet.

Sand with earth. Lump Z.

6) Country, state, in general some kind large territory. Native Z. Russian Z. Foreign lands.

7) An obsolete name for the letter "Z".

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

5 . Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.

in..going, around..at pose..by, from..drive away and..pound, in..move the giver..giver, forth..shout rose..sk, pre..history

Read the text and complete tasks 6 - 10.

(1) Boys and girls at the age of seventeen now almost always look like adult “uncles” and “aunts”, but dig a little deeper - often such unpreparedness for adult life: irresponsibility (inability and unwillingness to answer for one’s actions), passivity, callousness, callousness...

(2) But where does all this suddenly come from? (3) And does it happen all of a sudden?

(4) One often hears: modern youth have not seen grief... (5) And this is almost reproached. (6) Is it only when they see grief that people become kinder? (7) Don’t these carriers grow up next to wonderful grandmothers, grandfathers, mothers, fathers, next to wonderful loved ones?

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

callousness, soullessness, who have kindness somewhere inside and for whom it is often in its infancy? (8) Will it develop over time? (9) And didn’t the relatives try to isolate themselves from the teenager with their actions, as if saying: here’s everything you need, here’s clothes, shoes, food, here’s money for you - just be the way we want you to be, and don’t hurt we have trouble... (10) Can such a “good” elevate a person - first sending him to study

send your child to a “prestigious” school, a “prestigious” university, then relax only at a “prestigious” resort, and then remind you of this at every convenient and inconvenient occasion? (11) Here, they say, take it, use it, but remember... (12) It is unlikely that such “good” will make you kinder. (13) It will most likely be the other way around.

(14) And one more thing. (15) Children receive the necessary knowledge in schools, “prestigious” and ordinary: in mathematics, physics, literature - a lot of things. (16) Children are taught music and drawing. (17) Children play sports - they are taught to be strong and beautiful. (18) But kindness, sympathy (the ability to feel, empathize together), tact, and responsibility, finally, can only be taught by close people. (19) Not formally close ones, but those whom you trust unconditionally, who understand you, who not only want to see you as a real Person, but also raise this Person in you.

(20)… One day my son asked one of his friends why his mother didn’t try to arrange her personal life. (21) He almost indignantly replied: “But she has me!..” (22) He took for granted that his young, beautiful, kind mother has no right to any other life other than taking care of him , worries about him.

(23) Now, ten years later, my son’s friend is already married, he has his own family, his own life, separate from his mother. (24) He received from a loved one everything he needed. (25) But was that maternal sacrifice justified? (26) He never thought about it. (27) He was not taught this.

(28) It’s scary when a person is left mentally alone. (29) For some reason, when you don’t have faith in one person, when you don’t have a close, smart friend, you gradually lose faith in other people. (30) It’s even harder for a teenager who is left alone. (31) Maybe he won’t be evil and cruel. (32) But he won’t be kind either.

(According to A. Likhanov)

* Likhanov Albert Anatolievich(born in 1935) – prose writer, publicist,

6. Which of the statements do not correspond content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

1) Only the closest people can teach children the ability to sympathize and empathize.

2) Modern youth look very mature.

3) If parents send a child to a “prestigious” school, he will grow up to be a kind and good person.

4) Parents themselves are to blame for the fact that their children grow up soulless.

5) To become kind and sympathetic, a young man must experience grief.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

7. Which of the following statements are incorrect? Please provide answer numbers.

1) Sentences 4–9 provide a description.

2) Proposition 18 is opposite in content to proposals 15 - 17.

3) Proposition 22 explains the content of sentence 21.

4) Sentence 22 includes a descriptive element.

5) Sentences 28 – 32 contain narration.

8 . From sentences 28 – 32, write down antonyms (antonymous pair).

9 . Among sentences 2–9, find one that is connected to the previous one using a personal pronoun. Write the number of this offer.

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 6 - 9. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert into the blanks (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write down the corresponding number in the table under each letter.

Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of task number 10, starting from the first cell, no spaces, commas or other additional characters. Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.

10. “The problem that A. Likhanov reflects on is one of the central ones in his work. Syntactic means of expression – (A)_____

(for example, in sentences 7, 15) - helps the author emphasize the most important aspects of this problem. Lexical means: (B)_____ (“uncles” and “aunts” in sentence 1) and (C)______ (“evil, cruel - kind” in sentences 31–32) in combination with a syntactic device such as (D)

_____ (sentences 6, 7) serve to enhance the emotional impact on the reader.”

List of terms:

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

Regional diagnostic work on the RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

OPTION No. 3

The answers to the tasks are a word, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write the answer in answer form No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, no spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1–3.

(1) A smooth surface always glows only in one position. (2) When the rays of light are reflected by a faceted surface, there are always areas on it illuminated by direct rays, thanks to which the entire stone sparkles. (3)(…) That’s why diamonds and other precious stones are made faceted: such a stone, no matter where we look at it, will always sparkle equally brightly.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Areas of a smooth surface illuminated by direct sunlight always glow brightly.

2) Precious stones are cut so that they sparkle in any position.

3) Diamonds and other precious stones are cut so that their surface glows brightly only in any one position.

4) When the surface of an object is uneven, it most often sparkles brightly.

5) Diamonds and other precious stones always sparkle brightly thanks to the faceted surface.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write this word down.

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word STONE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the second (2) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

STONE, -me, husband.

1) Any hard, non-malleable rock in the form of a continuous mass or individual pieces (single parts only). Sand stone houses. Pave the road

2) A separate piece of this breed.Rare K. Mountains of stones.

3) A rare and beautiful mineral used for jewelry.Ring with a blue stone.

4) Tombstone, gravestone.Epitaph on a stone.

5) Heavy, oppressive feeling (trans.).K. at heart. With a stone. on the heart.

6) Hardened formations of painful origin in internal organs. (plural only). Stones in the kidneys.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

4 . Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Write down your chosen numbers.

OFFERS

A) Those who turned to the poetry of B. Pasternak were stunned by the brightness of unexpected metaphors and the expressiveness of antitheses.

C) By doing a few breathing exercises, your speech will be clearer and more expressive.

D) Today’s issue of the newspaper is devoted to the problems of language, which have been discussed more than once in the press.

D) Due to early frosts, the reeds and sedges along the river were covered with wonderful ice growths.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

2) incorrect construction of sentences with indirect speech

3) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition

4) violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application

5) error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members

6) disruption of the connection between subject and predicate

7) incorrect construction of sentences with participial phrases

5 . Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.

by..assembly, o..loading pr..open, pr..nice n..turn, p..truly ra..col, too..too

under..play, inter..institutional

Read the text and complete tasks 6 - 10.

(1) In the morning, shaving in front of the mirror, with unexpected hostility I saw the pallor on my face, wrinkles under my eyes, which seemed to be smiling too kindly at someone, and, grimacing, I remembered how yesterday I met at the door of the laboratory with a young successful professor doing inexplicable things. fast career in science. (2) His career was not determined by a special mind or outstanding talent, but he was rapidly going uphill, defended his candidate’s thesis, was already writing a doctorate, amazing his fellow peers with his brisk promotion and ability to please his superiors.

(3) We didn’t love each other, we barely greeted each other from afar, our dislike was there even at the moment when we collided at the door, but when he saw me, he instantly smiled a happy smile, radiating the energy of joy and ardent admiration

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

this suddenness of the meeting, and squeezed my hand with the words:

(4) – Very, very glad to see you, colleague! (5) Just the other day I read your first-class article about Antarctica and really regretted that we weren’t working together on the same problem!

(6) I knew that he was lying, because he had nothing to do with my work, and I wanted to dryly answer with the accepted words of politeness “thank you”, “thank you”, but I also smiled a delighted smile, shook his hand, and it seemed: his At some point the frightened fingers tried to wiggle out of my fingers, and I, shaking his hand, said completely happily:

(7) – I heard they started a doctorate? (8) Well, this is great, don’t waste your time, I really like your seriousness, professor!

(9) I didn’t know what was happening to me, I spoke pleasantly flattering phrases, as if taking dictation, and felt that I was smiling the sweetest smile, felt even by my facial muscles. (10) And this feeling of a dog’s smile, the long shaking of his hand and the sound of his voice haunted me all day - oh, how then I winced, gritted my teeth, cursed with all my words a certain second person inside me, who in certain circumstances was stronger than reason and will .

(11) What was that? (12) Self-defense? (13) Prudence? (14) Slave instinct? (15) The young professor was not more talented, was not smarter than me, moreover, he occupied a position in the institute that depended on the research of my laboratory, and it did not depend at all on his work. (16) But why, with such voluptuous rapture, did I shake this careerist’s hand and say pleasant false words?

(17) In the morning, while shaving, looking at my face, I suddenly experienced a fit of rage against this close and hated person in the mirror, capable of pretending, flattering, cowardly, as if he hoped to live two lives and secure his entire earthly term at all the entrance doors.

(According to Yu. Bondarev)

*Yuri Vasilievich Bondarev(born in 1924) – prose writer, publicist, participant in the Great Patriotic War.

1) The career of the young successful professor was determined by his outstanding talent.

2) Colleagues were sincerely interested in each other's scientific achievements.

3) The hero of the story is disgusted with himself for his cowardice.

4) A person has only one life, and it must be lived sincerely, without pretense.

5) Every person has a slave instinct.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

7. Which of the following statements are true? Please provide answer numbers.

1) Sentence 1 contains a descriptive element.

2) Sentence 9 describes the human condition.

3) Sentences 7 – 8 contain the narrative.

4) Sentences 11–14 present the reasoning.

5) Sentence 15 answers the question posed in sentence 16.

8 . From sentences 4 - 6, write down synonyms (synonymous pair).

9 . Among sentences 1–4, find one that is connected to the previous one using a possessive pronoun and word forms. Write the number of this offer.

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 6 - 9. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text.

Some terms used in the review are missing. Replace the gaps (A, B, C, D) with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of task number 10, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas or other additional characters. Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.

10. “The internal conflict experienced by the hero requires the utmost

realistic description of human feelings, and for this the author of the text - writer Yuri Bondarev - uses a variety of means. Syntactic means of expression: (A)__________ (“he winced, gritted his teeth, scolded with all his words” in sentence 10), (B)_________

(sentences 12–14) and (B)__________ (“he had nothing to do with it” in sentence 6) - emphasize the internal state of the hero of the text and those aspects of the character of the young successful professor that aroused the hostility of the narrator. (D)_____ (sentences 4, 5, 7, 8) - this form of speech allowed Yuri Bondarev to recreate the real life situation in which the hero found himself.”

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

Regional diagnostic work on the RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

OPTION No. 4

The answers to the tasks are a word, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write the answer in answer form No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, no spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1–3.

(1) The likelihood that an ignorant person will suggest a deep scientific thought is negligible. (2)(…) What advice can an engineer, salesman, or accountant get acquainted with scientific discoveries from popular books for specialists working on the cutting edge of science?

(3) Natural sciences require long-term and serious preparation, the ability to change the system of views with each new discovery, revising familiar ideas.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Serious research in the field of natural sciences can only be carried out by professionals who are able to change their system of views with each new discovery.

2) The likelihood that an uninformed person will suggest a deep scientific idea is small if this person is not well acquainted with popular science literature.

3) The opinion of non-professionals should not be neglected: even an ignorant person can sometimes give good advice to specialists.

4) A person who becomes acquainted with scientific discoveries only from popular books cannot conduct serious research in the field of natural sciences.

5) Professionals working on the cutting edge of science may well take advice from an engineer, salesperson or accountant.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write this word down.

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word VIEW. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

LOOK, ah, husband.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

1) Direction, focus of the eyes on someone Follow with your gaze.

It flashed in his gaze.

2) Eye expression. With a kind and sad look.

3) Opinion, judgment about something Personal V. on the problem.

4) Way of thinking, beliefs, views (plural).Share views.

Give up your views.

4 . Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Write down your chosen numbers.

5 . Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.

be..painful, not..continued with..consent, pose..yesterday's pr..sident, pr..hail of roses..thorny, for..play on..throw, about..beat

Read the text and complete tasks 6 - 10.

(1) A blizzard raged in the yard, tore the shutters with ferocity and spread throughout the entire expanse of the steppe. (2) It was dead midnight. (3) Everyone fell asleep, except for the officer, who was talking in a whisper to his neighbor.

“(4) I am guilty before you,” said the officer, “I said something stupid.” (5) You seem to be angry with me.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

– (6) No, I wasn't angry. (7) Only I am a non-secular woman, I am not used to such pleasantries. (8) I know you laugh at the ladies of the district, and Pushkin laughed at them... (9) And truly, there is a lot of funny things in them, but, perhaps, at the same time, a lot of sad things. (10) Think about what is the fate of a young woman who knows only from books what is good in life? (11) Her husband is in the departing field. (12) He may be a good person... (13) But it’s not the same: it’s boring

V village, and it’s not just boring, but annoying, insulting somehow. (14) Everyone regrets the prisoner

V dungeon; no one will regret a woman who, from childhood, was sentenced to eternal exile, to eternal imprisonment. (15) Are you having fun in St. Petersburg?

– (16) It’s fun,” the officer said, sighing, “yes, it’s very fun, I’m having too much fun there... (17) I’m a secular person. (18) It’s just strange: I’m from excess, you’re from lack - we both lived to the same point, that is, to severe boredom. (19) You complain that in your lonely exile you have nowhere to turn your souls and hearts; We, who are always looking for the unattainable, feel that our soul and heart are suppressed within us. (20) You know the cold of loneliness, but you, thank God, do not yet know the cold of social life. (21) You know that you need to love, but we know that there is no one to love. (22) Hope and strength are boiling in you; we are oppressed by powerlessness and weakness.

– (23) Were you in love? – she asked barely intelligibly...

– (24) Of course! (25) Yes and how! (26) What's the point... (27) In the world, going for love means going for sure deception. (28) Love is the soul of the universe; but this soul is much cramped in the light, and do you know why? (29) Because vanity peeks out behind her. (30) I also sometimes thought that they loved me, but what happened? (31) They loved not me, but a ballroom gentleman, a social dandy, and I did not know how to cope with my rivals.

– (32) Really? - she said involuntarily. – (33) Who could they be?

– (34) You never know... (35) A ball gown, petty annoyance, stupid gossip, an enviable invitation, a fancy dress and a host of details that make up, so to speak, the whole essence of secular women.

– (36) So you don’t believe in love?

– (37) God forbid! (38) One cannot help but believe in love; but I'm just saying that there is no one to love. (39) Love requires so many conditions, so many happy accidents, so much spiritual freshness and innocence!

(40) He fell silent.

(According to V.A. Sollogub)

* Vladimir Alexandrovich Sollogub (1813–1882) - Russian writer.

6. Which of the statements do not correspond content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

1) You must believe in love, even if life conditions prevent it.

2) Love is the most important feeling, it is the soul of the universe.

3) There is no difference between the St. Petersburg and provincial lifestyles.

4) Only women from high society are capable of loving sincerely.

5) The cold of provincial loneliness, as well as the cold of masquerade social life, gives rise to boredom and disappointment.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

7. Which of the following statements are true? Please provide answer numbers.

1) Sentence 1 contains a description of the state of nature.

2) Propositions 11–14 contain the answer to the question posed in sentence 10.

3) Sentences 6-8 contain a description

4) Sentences 19-22 contain reasoning.

5) Sentences 34–35 present the narrative.

shutters (sentence 1) boiling (sentence 22) peeking out (sentence 29) dandy (sentence 31) outfit (sentence 35)

9 . Among sentences 8–14, find one that is connected to the previous one using a possessive pronoun. Write the number of this offer.

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 6 - 9. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text.

Some terms used in the review are missing. Replace the gaps (A, B, C, D) with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of task number 10, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

10. “V.A. Sollogub, a writer of the nineteenth century, sets before his

readers of problems that are understandable to our contemporaries. In the conversation between the officer and the lady, the St. Petersburg and provincial lifestyles are contrasted. (A)________ (“Fun..., very fun, too fun...” in sentence 16) is a stylistic device that helps to present the officer’s perception of life in St. Petersburg. A (B)________ (sentence 19) is a device that helps emphasize the contrast between the St. Petersburg and provincial lifestyles. However, the author draws the reader’s attention to something in common between St. Petersburg and the province. (B)________ (“severe boredom” in sentence 18) is a trope that helps to see this similarity. The officer's speech is emotional and hot. This conveys the syntactic device – (D)________ (sentences 24, 25).”

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

Regional diagnostic work on the RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

OPTION No. 5

The answers to the tasks are a word, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write the answer in answer form No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, no spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1–3.

(1) Over the past 100 years, the area of ​​deserts around the world has doubled. (2) Some areas have turned into deserts due to climate change, others, such as the Dust Bowl in America, due to the fact that agricultural plants destroyed their wild counterparts and destroyed the soil. (3)(…) if people continue to cultivate the soil or graze livestock in very dry areas, then even more areas will turn into desert.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The area of ​​deserts, which has doubled over the past 100 years, will increase unless people stop cultivating soils and grazing livestock in very dry areas of the Earth.

2) The Dust Bowl in America turned into a desert because agricultural plants destroyed their wild counterparts and destroyed the soil.

3) Climate change over the past 100 years has led to a doubling of desert areas.

4) Tillage and grazing in very dry areas can lead to weather changes in deserts.

5) Grazing of livestock and cultivation of the soil in dry areas will lead to the transformation of these areas into desert, the area of ​​​​which is steadily growing throughout the world.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write this word down.

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word SOIL. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

SOIL, -y, female.

1) The surface layer of the earth's crust in which plant life develops; Earth.Fertile P. Clay P.

2) The rock on which the mineral lies (mines).

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

3) What it is based on smb.; basis, basis (translated). Based on indisputable facts. Because of jealousy.

4) Region, sphere (translated). Political P.

5) Position, point of view (translated).Find common ground with smb.

4 . Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Write down your chosen numbers.

OFFERS

A) Language not only adapts to the life of its speakers, but also has a significant impact on it.

B) Those who know the poetry of A.T. Tvardovsky, felt its simplicity and transparency and at the same time the brightness and depth of the images created by the poet.

C) Exhibits from the best regional museums can be seen in the photo album “Treasures of Russian Art”.

D) When performing an exercise on a balance beam, the jump is usually low.

D) Thanks to modern technologies, scientists explored the depths of Lake Samotlor and found rich oil deposits under the muddy bottom.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

1) violation in the construction of sentences with a participial phrase

2) incorrect use of double (paired) conjunctions

3) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition

4) violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application

5) error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members

6) disruption of the connection between subject and predicate

7) incorrect construction of sentences with participial phrases

5 . Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.

ra..to be generous, be..taste post..infectious, to..to summarize by..dig, to..set up pr..attachment, etc..similar to..remember, pick up..

Read the text and complete tasks 6 - 10.

(1) There are many signs that distinguish a person from an animal. (2) I don’t mean that a person is smart, but an animal is stupid. (3) The animal is not at all stupid.

(4) An animal has a great mind, but its mind is always connected with a certain situation. (5) And a person is always in an unforeseen situation. (6) And here he has “two legs”: intellect and conscience. (7) Just as conscience without developed intellect is blind, so intellect without conscience is dangerous.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

(8) We live in very interesting times. (9) And although there are no uninteresting times, there are times in which historians, leaving blank pages, note that nothing happened. (10) And those pages that are completely covered are often devoted to a time in which life presents nothing easy. (11) She then demands a lot from a person.

(12) A person ceases to be a cog, many situations arise when the opportunity to choose appears: to act in one way or another. (13) Which one? (14) He has been given a conscience for this, and therefore he can be judged. (15) You can’t judge a stone for falling down, but don’t say to yourself: “I was in this situation, I didn’t want anything bad, but there were such circumstances, I couldn’t do otherwise...” (16) This is not true! (17) There are no circumstances when it is impossible to do otherwise. (18) And if we still have such circumstances, it means we have no conscience.

(19) Conscience is what dictates what to do when there is a choice. (20) But there is always a choice... (21) Choice is a difficult thing, so it’s easier to be a fool; a fool is not asked: “I was ordered, but what could I do?” (22) “They brought me, and you should try it yourself...”

(23) I will recall the words of the Decembrist Pushchin, a friend of Pushkin, spoken by him in a conversation with the Tsar. (24) The man whose hands were cuffed answered Nikolai’s question: “How did you decide to do such a thing?” - answered: “Otherwise I would consider myself a scoundrel.” (25) By this he wanted to say: I have a conscience, I have a choice - either these hands are in chains, or I will consider myself a scoundrel.

(26) History has shown that the high morality of the Decembrists helped them endure the most difficult trials that befell them in Siberia.

(27) So, what do people learn? (28) People learn Knowledge. (29) People learn Memory. (30) People learn Conscience. (31) And only in this case can we talk about human culture. (32) Of course, you can’t do it this way: I woke up today, wanted to become cultured and began to sympathize with the humiliated and insulted. (33) This does not happen, and the best intentions will not help here.

(34) We need to develop a soul.

(According to Yu.M. Lotman)

* Lotman Yuri Mikhailovich(1922–1993) – Russian literary critic,

Pushkinist, philologist, teacher, culturologist.

6. Which of the statements do not correspond content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

1) A person’s internal censor should be his conscience.

2) A person's intellect has nothing to do with his conscience.

3) Internal culture is not formed in a person suddenly - it is necessary to patiently develop the best spiritual qualities in oneself.

4) You should not condemn a person who has sacrificed his conscience: in some situations, circumstances justify unscrupulousness.

5) High moral qualities are manifested in difficult life situations.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

7. Which of the following statements are true? Please provide answer numbers.

1) Sentences 4–6 explain the content of what is said in sentence 1.

2) Sentence 19 contains a definition of the concept.

3) Sentences 20-22 contain a description.

4) Proposition 25 explains the content of sentence 24.

5) Sentences 28–34 present the narrative.

8 . What words are used figuratively in the text? Write them out.

history (sentence 26) leg (sentence 6) friend (sentence 23) cog (sentence 12) conscience (sentence 19)

9 . Among sentences 23–26, find one that is related to the previous one using a contextual synonym. Write the number of this offer.

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 6 - 9. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text.

Some terms used in the review are missing. Replace the gaps (A, B, C, D) with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of task number 10, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas or other additional characters. Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.

10. “Outstanding literary critic, philosopher, culturologist Yu.M. Lotman,

when thinking, he turns to historical examples. Comparing the past and present, Lotman makes convincing arguments. A variety of techniques help the philosopher invite the reader to joint reflection, one of which is (A)_________ (sentences 28–30). A (B) _________ (sentence 34) is a trope that creates an idea of ​​the moral principles of the author of the text. Techniques used by the author: (C) _________ (sentence 24), (D)

_________ (sentence 2) – enhance the persuasiveness, depth and polemical pathos of the author’s thoughts.”

List of terms:

Ministry of Education and Science of the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar Regional Institute of Additional Professional Pedagogical Education

At any given time, more than 2,000 thunderstorms flash lightning in different parts of the Earth. Every second, about 50 lightning strikes the surface of the earth, and on average, every square kilometer of it is struck by lightning six times a year. Even Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) showed that lightning striking the ground from thunderclouds is electrical discharges that transfer to it a negative charge of several tens of coulombs, and the amplitude of the current during a lightning strike ranges from 20 to 100 kA. High-speed photography showed that the lightning discharge lasts several tenths of a second and consists of several even shorter discharges. Lightning has long been of interest to scientists, but even today we know only a little more about their nature than 250 years ago, although we were able to detect them even on other planets.

Lightning is an eternal source of recharging the Earth's electric field

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Earth's electric field was measured using atmospheric probes. Its intensity at the surface turned out to be approximately 100 V/m, which corresponds to a total charge of the planet of about 400,000 C. The carrier of charges in the Earth's atmosphere are ions, the concentration of which increases with altitude and reaches a maximum at an altitude of 50 km, where under the influence of cosmic radiation an electrically conductive layer has formed - the ionosphere. Therefore, the Earth's electric field is the field of a spherical capacitor with an applied voltage of about 400 kV. Under the influence of this voltage, a current of 2-4 kA, the density of which is 1-2 × 10 -12 A/m 2, constantly flows from the upper layers to the lower ones, and energy is released up to 1.5 GW. And this electric field would disappear if there were no lightning! Therefore, in good weather, the electrical capacitor - the Earth - is discharged, and during a thunderstorm it is charged.

A person does not feel the Earth's electric field, since his body is a good conductor. Therefore, the Earth's charge is also on the surface of the human body, locally distorting the electric field. Under a thundercloud, the density of positive charges induced on the ground can increase significantly, and the electric field strength can exceed 100 kV/m, 1000 times its value in good weather. As a result, the positive charge of each hair on the head of a person standing under a thundercloud increases by the same amount, and they, pushing away from each other, stand on end.

Electrification - removal of “charged” dust

To understand how a cloud separates electrical charges, let’s remember what electrification is. The easiest way to charge a body is by rubbing it against another. Electrification by friction is the oldest method of producing electrical charges. The word “electron” itself, translated from Greek into Russian, means amber, since amber has always been negatively charged when rubbed against wool or silk. The magnitude of the charge and its sign depend on the materials of the rubbing bodies.

It is believed that a body, before it began to be rubbed against another, is electrically neutral. Indeed, if you leave a charged body in the air, then oppositely charged dust particles and ions will begin to stick to it. Thus, on the surface of any body there is a layer of “charged” dust that neutralizes the charge of the body. Therefore, electrification by friction is the process of partial removal of “charged” dust from both bodies. In this case, the result will depend on how much better or worse the “charged” dust is removed from rubbing bodies.

Cloud - a factory for the production of electrical charges

It's hard to imagine that a couple of the materials listed in the table are in the cloud. However, different “charged” dust can appear on bodies, even if they are made of the same material - it is enough that the surface microstructure is different. For example, when a smooth body rubs against a rough one, both will become electrified.

A thundercloud is a huge amount of steam, some of which has condensed into tiny droplets or floes of ice. The top of a thundercloud can be at an altitude of 6-7 km, and the bottom can hang above the ground at an altitude of 0.5-1 km. Above 3-4 km, the clouds consist of ice floes of different sizes, since the temperature there is always below zero. These pieces of ice are in constant motion, caused by rising currents of warm air from the heated surface of the earth. Small pieces of ice are more easily carried away by rising air currents than large ones. Therefore, “nimble” small pieces of ice, moving to the top of the cloud, constantly collide with large ones. With each such collision, electrification occurs, in which large pieces of ice are charged negatively, and small pieces are charged positively. Over time, positively charged small pieces of ice end up at the top of the cloud, and negatively charged large pieces of ice end up at the bottom. In other words, the top of a thunderstorm is positively charged and the bottom is negatively charged. Everything is ready for a lightning discharge, during which air breakdown occurs and the negative charge from the bottom of the thundercloud flows to the Earth.

Lightning - greetings from space and a source of X-ray radiation

However, the cloud itself is not able to electrify itself enough to cause a discharge between its lower part and the ground. The electric field strength in a thundercloud never exceeds 400 kV/m, and electrical breakdown in the air occurs at a voltage greater than 2500 kV/m. Therefore, for lightning to occur, something other than an electric field is needed. In 1992, Russian scientist Alexander Viktorovich Gurevich from the Physical Institute named after. P.N. Lebedev RAS (FIAN) suggested that cosmic rays - high-energy particles falling on the Earth from space at near-light speeds - could be a kind of ignition for lightning. Thousands of such particles bombard every square meter of the earth's atmosphere every second.

According to Gurevich's theory, a particle of cosmic radiation, colliding with an air molecule, ionizes it, resulting in the formation of a huge number of high-energy electrons. Once in the electric field between the cloud and the ground, the electrons are accelerated to near light speeds, ionizing their path and thus causing an avalanche of electrons moving with them towards the ground. The ionized channel created by this avalanche of electrons is used by lightning for discharge (see Science and Life No. 7, 1993).

Everyone who has seen lightning has noticed that it is not a brightly glowing straight line connecting the cloud and the ground, but a broken line. Therefore, the process of forming a conductive channel for a lightning discharge is called its “step leader”. Each of these “steps” is a place where electrons that accelerated to near-light speeds stopped due to collisions with air molecules and changed the direction of movement. Evidence for this interpretation of the stepwise nature of lightning is flashes of X-ray radiation, coinciding with the moments when lightning, as if stumbling, changes its trajectory. Recent studies have shown that lightning is a fairly powerful source of X-ray radiation, the intensity of which can be up to 250,000 electron volts, which is about twice that used in chest X-rays.

How to trigger a lightning strike?

It is very difficult to study what will happen in an unknown place and when. And this is exactly how scientists studying the nature of lightning have worked for many years. It is believed that the thunderstorm in the sky is led by Elijah the prophet and we are not given to know his plans. However, scientists have long tried to replace Elijah the prophet by creating a conductive channel between a thundercloud and the earth. To do this, Benjamin Franklin flew a kite during a thunderstorm, ending with a wire and a bunch of metal keys. By doing this, he caused weak discharges to flow down the wire, and was the first to prove that lightning is a negative electrical discharge flowing from the clouds to the ground. Franklin's experiments were extremely dangerous, and one of those who tried to repeat them, Russian academician Georg Wilhelm Richmann, died from a lightning strike in 1753.

In the 1990s, researchers learned how to summon lightning without endangering their lives. One way to trigger lightning is to fire a small rocket from the ground directly into a thundercloud. Along its entire trajectory, the rocket ionizes the air and thus creates a conducting channel between the cloud and the ground. And if the negative charge at the bottom of the cloud is large enough, then a lightning discharge occurs along the created channel, all parameters of which are recorded by instruments located next to the rocket launch pad. To create even better conditions for lightning to strike, a metal wire is attached to the rocket, connecting it to the ground.

Lightning: the giver of life and the engine of evolution

In 1953, biochemists Stanley Miller ( Stanley Miller) and Harold Urey ( Harold Urey) showed that one of the “building blocks” of life - amino acids - can be obtained by passing an electric discharge through water in which the gases of the Earth’s “primordial” atmosphere (methane, ammonia and hydrogen) are dissolved. 50 years later, other researchers repeated these experiments and obtained the same results. Thus, the scientific theory of the origin of life on Earth assigns a fundamental role to lightning strikes.

When short current pulses are passed through bacteria, pores appear in their shell (membrane), through which DNA fragments of other bacteria can pass in, triggering one of the mechanisms of evolution.

Why are thunderstorms very rare in winter?

F.I. Tyutchev, writing “I love thunderstorms in early May, when the first thunder of spring...” knew that there are almost no thunderstorms in winter. For a thundercloud to form, rising currents of moist air are necessary. The concentration of saturated vapors increases with increasing temperature and is maximum in summer. The temperature difference on which the ascending air currents depend is greater, the higher its temperature at the surface of the earth, since at an altitude of several kilometers its temperature does not depend on the time of year. This means that the intensity of the ascending currents is also maximum in summer. That’s why we most often have thunderstorms in the summer, but in the north, where it’s cold even in the summer, thunderstorms are quite rare.

Why are thunderstorms more common over land than over sea?

For a cloud to discharge, there must be a sufficient number of ions in the air below it. Air, consisting only of nitrogen and oxygen molecules, contains no ions and is very difficult to ionize even in an electric field. But if there are a lot of foreign particles in the air, for example dust, then there are also a lot of ions. Ions are formed by the movement of particles in the air in the same way as various materials are electrified by friction against each other.

Obviously, there is much more dust in the air over land than over oceans. That's why thunderstorms thunder over land more often. It has also been noticed that lightning strikes first of all in those places where the concentration of aerosols in the air is especially high - smoke and emissions from oil refining industry enterprises.

How Franklin deflected lightning

Fortunately, most lightning strikes occur between clouds and therefore pose no threat. However, it is believed that lightning kills more than a thousand people around the world every year. At least in the United States, where such statistics are kept, about 1,000 people suffer from lightning strikes every year and more than a hundred of them die. Scientists have long tried to protect people from this “punishment of God.” For example, the inventor of the first electric capacitor (Leyden jar), Pieter van Muschenbrouck (1692-1761), in an article on electricity written for the famous French Encyclopedia, defended traditional methods of preventing lightning - ringing bells and firing cannons, which he believed were quite effective. effective.

Benjamin Franklin, trying to protect the Capitol of the capital of the state of Maryland, in 1775 attached a thick iron rod to the building, which rose several meters above the dome and was connected to the ground. The scientist refused to patent his invention, wanting it to begin serving people as soon as possible.

The news of Franklin's lightning rod quickly spread throughout Europe, and he was elected to all academies, including the Russian one. However, in some countries the devout population greeted this invention with indignation. The very idea that a person could so easily and simply tame the main weapon of “God’s wrath” seemed blasphemous. Therefore, in different places people, for pious reasons, broke lightning rods. A curious incident occurred in 1780 in the small town of Saint-Omer in northern France, where the townspeople demanded that the iron lightning rod mast be demolished, and the matter came to trial. The young lawyer, who defended the lightning rod from the attacks of obscurantists, based his defense on the fact that both the human mind and his ability to conquer the forces of nature are of divine origin. Everything that helps save a life is for the good, the young lawyer argued. He won the case and gained great fame. The lawyer's name was Maximilian Robespierre. Well, now the portrait of the inventor of the lightning rod is the most coveted reproduction in the world, because it adorns the well-known hundred dollar bill.

How to protect yourself from lightning using a water jet and a laser

Recently, a fundamentally new method of combating lightning was proposed. A lightning rod will be created from... a jet of liquid that will be shot from the ground directly into thunderclouds. Lightning liquid is a saline solution to which liquid polymers are added: the salt is intended to increase electrical conductivity, and the polymer prevents the jet from “breaking up” into individual droplets. The diameter of the jet will be about a centimeter, and the maximum height will be 300 meters. When the liquid lightning rod is finalized, it will be equipped with sports and children's playgrounds, where the fountain will turn on automatically when the electric field strength becomes high enough and the probability of a lightning strike is maximum. A charge will flow down a stream of liquid from a thundercloud, making lightning safe for others. Similar protection against lightning discharge can be done using a laser, the beam of which, ionizing the air, will create a channel for an electrical discharge away from crowds of people.

Can lightning lead us astray?

Yes, if you use a compass. Herman Melville’s famous novel “Moby Dick” describes just such a case when a lightning discharge, which created a strong magnetic field, remagnetized the compass needle. However, the captain of the ship took a sewing needle, hit it to magnetize it, and replaced it with the damaged compass needle.

Can you be struck by lightning inside a house or airplane?

Unfortunately yes! Lightning current can enter a house through a telephone wire from a nearby pole. Therefore, during a thunderstorm, try not to use a regular phone. It is believed that talking on a radiotelephone or mobile phone is safer. During a thunderstorm, you should not touch the central heating and water pipes that connect the house to the ground. For the same reasons, experts advise turning off all electrical appliances during a thunderstorm, including computers and televisions.

As for airplanes, generally speaking, they try to fly around areas with thunderstorm activity. And yet, on average, one of the planes is struck by lightning once a year. Its current cannot affect passengers; it flows down the outer surface of the aircraft, but it can damage radio communications, navigation equipment and electronics.

Fulgurite - petrified lightning

During a lightning discharge, 10 9 -10 10 joules of energy are released. Most of it is spent creating a shock wave (thunder), heating the air, flashing light and other electromagnetic waves, and only a small part is released at the place where the lightning enters the ground. However, even this “small” part is enough to cause a fire, kill a person and destroy a building. Lightning can heat up the channel through which it moves up to 30,000 ° C, five times higher than the temperature on the surface of the Sun. The temperature inside the lightning is much higher than the melting point of sand (1600-2000°C), but whether the sand melts or not also depends on the duration of the lightning, which can range from tens of microseconds to tenths of a second. The amplitude of a lightning current pulse is usually equal to several tens of kiloamperes, but sometimes it can exceed 100 kA. The most powerful lightning strikes cause the birth of fulgurites - hollow cylinders of melted sand.

The word "fulgurite" comes from the Latin fulgur, which means lightning. The longest excavated fulgurites went underground to a depth of more than five meters. Fulgurites are also called melts of solid rocks formed by a lightning strike; they are sometimes found in large numbers on rocky mountain tops. Fulgurites, consisting of melted silica, usually appear as cone-shaped tubes as thick as a pencil or a finger. Their inner surface is smooth and melted, and the outer surface is formed by grains of sand adhering to the melted mass. The color of fulgurites depends on the mineral impurities in the sandy soil. Most are tan, gray or black in color, but greenish, white or even translucent fulgurites are also found.

Apparently, the first description of fulgurites and their connection with lightning strikes was made in 1706 by Pastor D. Herman ( David Hermann). Subsequently, many found fulgurites near people struck by lightning. Charles Darwin, during his trip around the world on the Beagle, discovered on the sandy shore near Maldonado (Uruguay) several glass tubes that went vertically down more than a meter into the sand. He described their sizes and associated their formation with lightning discharges. The famous American physicist Robert Wood received an “autograph” of the lightning that almost killed him:

“A severe thunderstorm passed, and the sky above us had already cleared. I walked across the field that separates our house from my sister-in-law's house. I had walked about ten yards along the path when suddenly my daughter Margaret called me. I stopped for about ten seconds and had barely moved on when suddenly a bright blue line cut through the sky, hitting the path twenty paces in front of me with the roar of a twelve-inch gun and raising a huge column of steam. I went further to see what kind of trail the lightning had left. Where the lightning had struck there was a patch of burnt clover about five inches in diameter, with a half-inch hole in the middle... I returned to the laboratory, melted eight pounds of tin and poured it into the hole... What I dug up when the tin hardened, it looked like a huge, slightly curved dog handle, heavy, as it should be, in the handle and gradually converging towards the end. It was a little longer than three feet” (quoted from V. Seabrook. Robert Wood. - M.: Nauka, 1985, p. 285).

The appearance of a glass tube in sand during a lightning discharge is due to the fact that there is always air and moisture between the grains of sand. The electric current of lightning in a fraction of a second heats the air and water vapor to enormous temperatures, causing an explosive increase in air pressure between grains of sand and its expansion, which Wood heard and saw, miraculously not becoming a victim of lightning. The expanding air forms a cylindrical cavity inside the molten sand. Subsequent rapid cooling fixes the fulgurite, a glass tube in the sand.

Often carefully dug out of sand, fulgurite is shaped like a tree root or branch with numerous shoots. Such branched fulgurites are formed when a lightning discharge strikes wet sand, which, as is known, has greater electrical conductivity than dry sand. In these cases, the lightning current, entering the soil, immediately begins to spread to the sides, forming a structure similar to the root of a tree , and the resulting fulgurite only repeats this shape. Fulgurite is very fragile, and attempts to remove adhered sand often lead to its destruction. This is especially true for branched fulgurites formed in wet sand.

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Lightning is truly a mysterious phenomenon, and the main mystery is where the energy comes from to produce electrical discharges called lightning. The sources of energy for the electrical and magnetic phenomena of the Earth are generally unclear. Existing in addition to lightning, a continuous direct electric current flows day and night, at any time of the year, at any point on the earth's surface, albeit with low intensity, approximately 3 x 10 to -12 degrees A/m per square meter, but certainly flows into the Earth. However, based on the entire surface of the Earth 5.21 billion sq km, even this insignificant current generates an overall impressive current value of 15 kA. With such a current and voltage in the upper layers of the atmosphere of the order of 400 kV, considering the Earth as a capacitor, it is not difficult to calculate that the earth’s charge would decrease 10,000 times in about 5 minutes. But this doesn't happen. Something is continuously recharging the earth's capacitor.
Konstantin Bogdanov’s version that the earth’s capacitor is recharged by a thunderstorm seems frivolous. Even K. Bogdanov himself writes at the end of the article that “During a lightning discharge, 10 in a tenth joules of energy are released,” thereby confirming that during lightning, a discharge occurs, and not a charge of the capacitor, and energy is released and not accumulated.
V.M. Muchnik in his book “Physics of Thunderstorms” (1974) analyzes various theories of the formation of a charge in the earth’s atmosphere and comes to the conclusion that none of the 14 existing theories provides an intelligible explanation for the phenomenon of generation of the earth’s electric charge. All theories analyzed by V.M. Muchnik are based on heat flows of the earth's atmosphere, carrying electrical charges from the earth's surface, or charges formed in the atmospheric processes themselves. In essence, it can be considered that the theories differ mainly in the way in which the key problem is hidden in them - the problem of generating electrical energy.
Atmospheric processes are too weak energetically to create the Earth's electric field. Moreover, they are local and temporary. In winter, there are no updrafts that could carry charge (or anything at all) into the upper atmosphere. We must not forget that only 5 minutes - and there is no charge of the Earth.
The version that lightning generates a charge, as already noted, contradicts the basics of physics. But this version does not explain the constancy of the Earth’s electric field, because studies show that above thunderclouds exactly the same electric current flows as everywhere else towards the Earth. A charge from a cloud at an altitude of 3-5 km, even if it, despite the absurdity of such an assumption, was formed there, cannot reach thousands of kilometers in an area of ​​good weather in order to create a constant electric current evenly distributed over the surface. On the earth's surface there is always winter somewhere, always good weather somewhere, vast cloudless territories, vast territories without thunderstorms and rising air currents.

Since intraterrestrial sources to maintain the charge of the terrestrial capacitor are not detected, one should turn to cosmic sources.
Apparently, it is quite possible to exclude all cosmic radiation from candidates for the source of the Earth’s electric field. They may well provoke a lightning discharge, but are unlikely to be able to maintain the charge of an earthly electrical capacitor. Neither from energy considerations, nor from stability considerations, nor due to the electrical non-polarity of the radiation.
What remains, as paradoxical as it may seem, is gravity. It is gravity, acting continuously, that continuously replenishes the charge of the earth's capacitor. Electric current through the atmosphere is a capacitor leak, and lightning represents a capacitor breakdown. As a result of this idea, everything falls into place. Lightning is just a manifestation of the nonlinearity of gravity. And gravity itself represents the flow of ether from space to the Earth, as well as to other space objects. A body (or any particle) with mass absorbs ether into itself and thereby creates a flow of ether inside itself, which carries away everything that is in its path, generating the effect of attraction.
It seems quite natural that rain clouds offer greater resistance to gravitational flow than the atmosphere in good weather. As soon as a powerful cloud system is formed, a screen appears in the path of the gravitational flow, electrically isolated from the surface of the earth, a local electric capacitor is formed with a relatively small gap between the plates and a high potential difference, which leads to its breakdown.
The cloud, shielding the flow of the gravitational field, creates under itself an area with steadily low pressure, which differs from the natural pressure in the areas of anticyclones. In addition, a change in the gravitational field flow relative to a certain average value, caused by cloudiness, gives rise to a counterclockwise rotation of a section of the atmosphere in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This is due to the rotation of the Earth and Coriolis acceleration. For anticyclones, the directions of rotation are opposite.

Naturally, the proposed approach to explaining lightning raises many of its own questions. For example, where does the absorbed ether go? How is the gravitational field converted into an electric field? Etc.
Where does the ether go?
Most likely, the “losses” of the ether go to the appearance of new particles in the form of radiation and particles with mass, which in fact represents the transformation of continuous ether into quantum objects, which is in principle confirmed by the increase in the mass of the Earth. The increase in the Earth's mass is usually explained by the settling of cosmic dust on the planet, the absorption of cosmic rays and other similar reasons. But there are data related to the increase in the size of the Earth that have no explanation yet. So prof. Yu. Kalinin from Krasnoyarsk provides data that real pressures in deep mines and boreholes are sometimes tens of times higher than calculated ones, which may indicate that the Earth is growing from the inside, and not from the outside. This is also evidenced by Yu.V. Chudinov, who substantiates the expansion of the Earth based on an analysis of deep-sea drilling materials. According to his data, the Earth 150 million years ago had a radius at least 10% less than its current one. Moreover, the growth of the Earth’s size comes from the inside, and not from the outside. However, modern science cannot theoretically explain where matter comes from inside the Earth. At the same time, science cannot explain the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Instead of recognizing that the Earth is literally bursting from the inside by the quantization of the ether, which manifests itself in the form of eruptions and earthquakes, scientists come up with tectonic movements, which also require, but do not yet have an explanation.

Answer

• Sergey, thanks for the “April Fools” comments. To answer them, I needed a couple of drawings. Therefore, I posted my letter to you on my page http://mbov1147.inauka.ru/.

  For ease of reading, the editors of Elements copied K. Bogdanov’s commentary into this discussion thread:

  

  Sergey, firstly, thank you for your comments, and secondly, let me answer your, as I understand it, main objection:
  « Konstantin Bogdanov’s version that the earth’s capacitor is recharged by a thunderstorm seems frivolous».

  Look at the diagram for recharging the Earth using lightning, which is shown at the very beginning of my letter, where on the left is a capacitor (C i-z, ionosphere-Earth) and its leakage resistance (R i-z), and on the right is a cloud capacitor C o, being charged through electrification by friction (alternating emf) and leakage resistance between the cloud and the ionosphere. When the capacitor C o is sufficiently charged for a discharge to occur between its bottom plate and the Earth, the circuit is closed and the capacitor C i-z begins to charge, i.e. A negative charge flows to the Earth.

  The capacity of C i-z is about 1 F, and the value of C o depends on the size and is approximately the same number of times less than C i-z as the surface of the Earth is greater than the area of ​​the cloud. C o may be 10 times greater than this estimate, given that the height of the cloud is still 10 times less than the height of the ionosphere above the Earth’s surface. Resistance R and-z is about 100 ohms. The resistance R i-o is again as many times greater than R i-z as the surface of the Earth is greater than the area of ​​the cloud.

  If we simulate the successive charges of a thundercloud and its discharges in such a scheme, then the changes in voltage between the Earth and the ionosphere, U and -z, will be similar to what is depicted by the blue curve in the figure below. In this case, the dotted line shows how the Earth's capacitor will be discharged without such recharging by lightning.

  

  During lightning, a discharge actually occurs between the lower plate of the cloud capacitor and the Earth, and very large energy is released. But it is precisely this discharge, increasing for a very short time the conductivity of the cloud-Earth jumper, that closes the circuit for charging the Earth. By the way, when an electrophore machine is operating, discharges are also observed on the brushes, during which energy is released, but the capacitor is still charged.

  Fortunately, there is nothing revolutionary in this “Bogdanov version”. You can find it in many reviews and books, starting with Franklin. After all, it was he who showed that the charge of lightning is negative.

  Thanks again for your comments.

  Konstantin Bogdanov

  Answer

How the gravitational field is converted into an electric one.
It has now been established that the physical vacuum has very specific physical characteristics. Vacuum as a medium has magnetic and electrical permeability, a finite speed of propagation - c, a finite value of the transmitted action in the form of Planck's constant;. This raises a number of considerations. Firstly, the understanding of vacuum as emptiness becomes unacceptable and contrary to common sense. Emptiness cannot limit the speed of light, cannot transport light in space, cannot transmit other types of interactions, and cannot limit permeability. It can be argued that the materiality of the physical vacuum is not sufficiently considered in official physics. At the same time, it is not very important what to call this environment surrounding the particles, and the building material for the particles: physical vacuum, ether, or something else, it is not so important. Secondly, the very fact of the presence of two constants, magnetic and electric, seems to indicate different permeability of the vacuum for magnetic and electric flows, which suggests the conclusion about their different physical nature. However, this conclusion needs to be tested.
To understand the essence of the physical characteristics that a vacuum has when it is permeable to magnetic and electric flow, it is advisable to begin by considering the dimensions of these constants. The electrical constant has the dimension F/m or (C/Wb) x s/m, which corresponds to 1/(Ohm x m/s), that is, the reciprocal value 1/epsilon 0 has the dimension Ohm x m/s. The magnetic constant Mu has the dimension H/m, or (Wb/C) x s/m, which corresponds to Ohm x s/m.
Both constants have resistance and speed in their dimensions. As a result, if these constant values ​​are multiplied by the speed of light - also a fundamental constant, we obtain some new constants. The first is equal to 376.73 Ohm, and the second is 1/376.73 Ohm-1
It is interesting that the quantitatively obtained value of vacuum resistance exactly coincides with the characteristic (wave) resistance of an ideal dielectric, which in essence is physical vacuum, or rather, apparently on the contrary - physical vacuum predetermines the characteristic resistance of an ideal dielectric.
But in this case it turns out to be important that multiplying the constants by the speed of light makes them reciprocal quantities and essentially identical in meaning. The performed operation of multiplying the electric and magnetic constants by the speed of light does not violate the dependencies established in physics; in principle, this operation can be derived from the known relation c2 = 1/ epsilon x Mu. The magnetic constant is converted into vacuum resistance, and the electrical constant is converted into conductivity (permeability) of vacuum, that is, into completely understandable characteristics of a physical object with dimensions Ohm and Cm. However, it follows from this that epsilon0 and Mu0 do not characterize magnetic and electric flow at all and their substantial specificity, but are transformed forms of resistance and conductivity of the vacuum. So what is the difference between magnetic and electric fluxes?
In any case, there is no substantive difference between them. Electric and magnetic fields are interconnected processes of changes in the characteristics of the ether-vacuum. And the flow of ether itself manifests itself as a force that demolishes everything that falls into this flow.
So no transformation of the gravitational field into an electric field is needed. The force of gravitational attraction is the effect caused by the flow of ether into the Earth. Lightning is a fluctuation in the flow of ether. The flow of ether, called gravity, and electric current are one and the same. Happy April 1st to you!

Answer

I liked the proposed electrical circuit illustrating the mechanism for recharging the Earth's electric field. The proposed circuit may well recharge something. It only has little relation to thunderstorms.
Firstly, the conductivity inside a thundercloud (according to V.M. Muchnik pp. 152, 153, 256) is 10 - 100 times higher than the conductivity of the atmosphere outside the cloud. The cloud should not be considered a capacitor, but rather a conductor. A capacitor can be considered the atmosphere between a cloud and the surface of the earth. And such a change in the proposed scheme breaks the whole idea.
Secondly, the positive potential at the top of the cloud does not yet indicate that the cloud is generating electricity. With an electric field strength of 100 V/m, and according to Muchnik 126 - 130 V/m, and a distance to the ionosphere of 50 - 80 km, the potential difference between the earth's surface and the lower surface of the ionosphere should be 5 - 10 million volts. So the more positive potential at the top of the cloud relative to the bottom is more likely a consequence of the cloud being in an external electric field than evidence of the cloud generating electricity.
Thirdly, and most importantly, what is an electricity generator? All theories that something rubbed against something and a potential difference arose explain only the transformation of one energy into another, into electrical energy. In the case of a cloud, we must not forget that it is ordinary fog, and the task is to explain how electricity is generated in the fog.
There is a lot of fog, there is not enough electricity.
Despite the absurdity of the idea that electrical energy arises in the fog, it arises in reality. And this needs to be explained. But there is no normal theory. And you shouldn’t pretend that this problem doesn’t exist, you shouldn’t mask the problem.
Some theory of thunderstorms and earthly electricity is needed; it should explain a number of points.
1) how do electrically charged particles appear in a cloud? After all, all the ingredients of the cloud in their original form are electrically neutral.
2) how differently charged particles move relative to each other.
3) why similarly charged particles are grouped, but in different places in space, forming huge electric field strengths.
4) where is the source of the earth's electric field?
Muchnik discusses many different theories of thunderstorms, but none provides an explanation. There is already no answer to the first question. All considered options for particle electrification occur, but only in a strong external electric field. Electrification of particles is possible, but only as a consumer of external energy, and not as a generator.
The following questions come down to banal entropy. Well, simple fog cannot generate electricity on its own. So where does it come from?

Answer

• Sergey,
  Yes, there is no fog there! In the clouds, especially at the top, there are pieces of ice - large and small. After all, it's cold there (<-10 С). Маленькие льдинки движутся вверх вместе с восходящими потоками воздуха, а крупные - вниз. Они сталкиваются и трутся между собой. От этого мелкие заряжаются положительно, а крупные отрицательно. И это было показано в экспериментах! Вот вам ответ на "момент" (1). Разносятся они в разные стороны - тяжёлые (отрицательные) вниз, а лёгкие (положительные) вверх. Это ответ на (2-3). Что касается (4),источника знмного электрического поля, так это сама Земля, заряжаемая молниями по схеме в моём письме. Энергия берётся от энергии восходящих потоков воздуха, т.е. от нагрева Земли Солнцем. Никакой "банальной энтропии"!

  It seems to me that you did not read the article, but immediately began to criticize. After all, all this is in the article itself. Or maybe I just explained it poorly.

  Thank you for your reaction to the article.
  K. Bogdanov

  Answer

  • Konstantin, greetings!
    Your explanation is quite clear. The only thing it's missing is an explanation of how positive charges from the top of the cloud get into the ionosphere. After all, there are more than 50 km of discharged air space, and there are no clouds, no charges, and for some reason conduction currents flow into the ground, as if there was no thunderstorm. Please explain this aspect. Just explain it and your entire scheme to the clouds and all the phenomena occurring there. They do not follow the instructions of your scheme.
    Lightning strikes the ground, sometimes positive, sometimes negative, and strikes not from the bottom of the cloud, but from different places and not necessarily to the ground.
    Raindrops, snowflakes, hailstones, drizzle, and grain fall to the ground, sometimes with a positive charge, sometimes with a negative charge, sometimes mixed together. And without any dependence on the sizes of these hydrometeors. (by the way, according to the encyclopedia, “fog is an accumulation of water droplets or ice crystals in the ground layer”). And not only at the moment of falling to the surface of the earth, but also in any layer of the cloud there is a mixture of positive and negative hydrometeors of different sizes.
    Particles of hydrometeors charged with different signs are detected when they were not yet going to fall, but somehow managed to charge without the fall of heavy ice floes, and there are generally “warm clouds” located completely in the region of positive temperatures, which organize lightning discharges without having its composition of ice floes.
    Turbulent eddies, ascending and descending convection currents occur in the clouds, which continuously mix all the ingredients of the clouds, including their charges. So you will not be able to deceive the laws of entropy. For every organizing process there is adequate dissipation.
    Clouds make poor capacitors, since their insulating properties are 1-2 orders of magnitude worse, and their conductivity is better than in the atmosphere outside the cloud. Therefore, when lightning strikes the ground, there will not be (and does not occur) a positive potential jump in the upper part of the cloud, as it should be for the “cloud = capacitor” hypothesis.
    All these phenomena require their own explanation, which is not in your concept. And in general, the clouds are so diverse that they cannot yet be fully explained in any of the existing theories. It’s only in TV shows that there is always a correct answer to any question. Science is all about looking for answers to questions that don’t yet have answers. You have touched upon one of these questions, or rather two (the nature of thunderstorms and the nature of earthly electricity), and are considering the possibility of solving them by combining them. This line of thought is interesting and generally worthy of attention. However, the solution to each problem must be scientifically correct.
    S. Zaikin.

    Answer

    • You seem to be very excited, and this letter even slightly offended me. Why should I explain something to you in front of everyone if you declare that all this is nonsense and I need to be “scientifically correct” in the future. What does the “TV show” and the fact that “science is looking for answers to questions” have to do with it? Sorry, but you also need to be able to write letters, especially when these letters are read.

      I am ready to answer all your questions, but personally, because... You will have to explain quite a lot, and it may not be interesting to others. Write me a letter at [email protected], I’ll give you my phone number and we’ll discuss everything if we RESPECT each other!

      Konstantin Yurievich Bogdanov

      Answer

      Konstantin Yurievich!
      Sorry that my comments were expressed to you in an ironic manner. After all, we are not in a lesson at school, where the teacher determines what is right and what is wrong. The problem of knowing the essence of thunderstorms has not been solved, but you are trying to present it as solved, thereby misinforming the public. The circuit proposed by you (or not by you, I don’t know) works quite well when it is made up of the appropriate electrical components, but a thunderstorm does not fit into it. There are many concepts trying to explain thunderstorms, more than a dozen, but none of them provides a complete explanation. The scientific community has even developed requirements for theories of lightning electricity that they must satisfy. If you're interested, I can send it.
      S. Zaikin.

      Answer

Quite recently, by historical standards, the Earth's electric field was discovered
and ionic currents flowing through the earth's atmosphere.
It was also found that the Earth with its upper conducting layers of the atmosphere - the ionosphere - represents
charged electrical capacitor. And the ion currents flowing through the earth’s atmosphere are discharge currents
charged capacitor Earth - ionosphere.
The total discharge current throughout the planet for some
conservative estimates are about 1800 A. (In reality, it is many times larger).
Despite such a significant discharge current, the potential difference across the capacitor plates does not change.
From this the absolutely correct conclusion was drawn: in nature
there is some kind of electricity generator that constantly recharges our global
capacitor, compensating the discharge current.
Then the search for this generator began.
In 1922, the famous physicist Charles Wilson suggested that
that such a generator is thunderstorm lightning, which charges the Earth with a negative charge.
The idea seemed very plausible. Indeed, all thunderstorm lightning, without exception, endures
negative charge from the clouds to the Earth.
All that remains is to find this generator in the indicated place - in a thundercloud. And the search began.
Another world famous physicist, Nobel Prize winner,
Richard Feynman supported Charles Wilson's idea. In the middle of the last century, in their widely
famous "Feynman Lectures on Physics" he
writes literally
following:
"Now we need
answer the question about the source of large negative
currents that must flow from the “top” to the earth’s surface in order
maintain its negative charge. Where are the batteries that do this?
It's a thunderstorm, or rather lightning. It turns out that lightning flashes do not “discharge” that difference
potentials that we talked about (and as it might seem at first glance).
Lightning supplies the Earth with a negative charge. If we saw lightning,
then you can bet ten to one that she brought a great
number of negative charges. It is thunderstorms that charge the Earth in
an average current of 1800 A of electricity, which is then discharged in areas
with good weather."
(End of quote.)
As can be seen from the above quote, R. Feynman has already given an answer to this
important question.
Few people will dare to object to such authority
in physics, like R. Feynman. And the search continues to this day and still the same
to no avail.

Source of negative charges.

Each thunderstorm cell pours hundreds of thousands of cubic meters onto the ground
water. Where does so much water come from in a thunderstorm cell?
This water first
evaporated from the surface of the Earth and everything that is on it: grass, bushes,
trees, lakes and rivers.
The lion's share of this amount of water goes to plants. Home for plants
the task is to extract as much water as possible from the ground and evaporate it into the atmosphere. And with this
They cope with the task perfectly.
But together with moisture they are sent into the atmosphere
a huge number of negative ions.
Why does this happen and where do negative ions come from?
The surface of the Earth is a lining
global electric capacitor. It is negatively charged.
The electric field of this charged capacitor pushes everything
negative charges upward, trying to snatch them from the earth
surfaces.
Evaporating water is very effective in helping negative charges
leave the earth's surface and enter the atmosphere. And the whole point is
that the water molecule has a pronounced electrical
polarity and therefore easily connects electrical
charges and holds them tightly. In this case it is negative
charges that are abundant on Earth. When a water molecule evaporates, it carries away
the negative charge captured by it.
From electrostatics it is known that charges are concentrated on various types
ribs and points of a charged body. The earth is just like that
charged body. On the earth's surface such
there are a huge number of points. This is grass in the fields, cereals, leaves of bushes
and trees and especially conifer needles. But they are the ones
evaporate the lion's share of water from plants, which, along with negative
charges enter the atmosphere. This process continues until
as long as there is an electric field at the earth's surface and
evaporation of water into the atmosphere.
The transition of negative charges from the earth's surface into the atmosphere
leads to a change in the electric field strength.
At the Earth's surface it decreases, and its maximum shifts upward
to the height of the surface negatively charged layer. According to these changes
one can judge the volumetric density of negative charges in the ground
layer of the atmosphere in a pre-storm situation.
Volume density of negative charges in the surface layer
atmosphere can reach 10 to the power of -8 degrees. per cubic meter.

Heated and humidified layer of air
near the earth's surface it becomes lighter than the air in the higher
layers and tends to rise up. In some place he makes his way
way up and rushes through this window. As soon as the window appeared, all
heated and humidified air from a large area of ​​the earth's surface
goes up through this window, forming a cloud of vertical development or
thundercloud.
But along with this air, all negative thoughts rise into the thundercloud.
charges attached to water vapor molecules.
Further development of the thundercloud occurs according to a well-known scenario.
The top of the cloud reaches altitudes of 12 km or more. Humid air cools down
water vapor condenses, cloudy water droplets merge and freeze.
Large drops of supercooled water and ice begin to fall down towards the rising
air currents, attaching small cloudy droplets of water.
But together with drops of water they join
their negative electrical charge to themselves!
The most important and completely natural thing happens
process: falling large drops and hail comb the entire cloud mass, collecting
all negative charges, and carry them to the lower part of the cloud, to the earth
surfaces. All cloud charges are now concentrated in one
small volume, which, under the influence of gravity, approaches
to the ground. As this approach increases, the electrical intensity increases
fields between the earth and this charged volume of the cloud. And as soon as
the field strength reaches a critical value,
electrical breakdown, and lightning strikes the ground, carrying it with it to the ground
excess negative electrical charge.
As can be seen from the above, lightning
does not charge the Earth with a negative charge. She's just
returns to Earth excess negative charges that were once
got into the cloud along with warm and moist air from the surface
Earth.

Electricity generator.

The second remains unclear
question: where is the generator that constantly charges
electricity global capacitor?
Apparently, such a generator is the Earth’s magnetic field,
which rotates together with the Earth in the flow of solar wind.
The solar wind is basically a stream of charged particles,
electrons and hydrogen ions. The speed of such particles lies within the limits
from 300 km/sec to 1300 km/sec. The Earth's magnetic field somehow
separates these charged particles.
As a result of the Earth's rotation, the eastern part of the magnetic field
(In relation to the Sun) always moves towards the solar wind,
and the western one runs away from him. This difference in speed is about
1 km/sec. Consequently, the Lorentz forces acting on moving
the charges will be different on the eastern and western sides of the magnetosphere.
It is very likely that this difference in the Lorentz force is precisely what
atmospheric potential generator.
Unfortunately, it's not enough yet
reliable data on this issue in order to
Consider in detail the design of this generator.

Answer

In my opinion, in order to talk about an atmospheric-terrestrial capacitor, you need to know about the mechanism of origin of the atmosphere itself.
Science keeps this a closely guarded secret.
I offer my vision of the mechanism of the origin of the atmosphere, but before that I will simply break down the previous theories as untenable: the theory of “updrafts” and the capacitor theory.

In order for something to rise in the ascending currents, you need at least an atmosphere!!! What are the rising currents in a vacuum? We are adults.

Now there is a condenser concept, but the condenser concept does not explain the origin of the atmosphere, I would even say it contradicts.
Forget for a moment that you are talented and turn on your logical thinking. Draw, preferably on paper, it will be clearer, one plate of the capacitor will be the abstract sphere of the Earth with a negative charge, then at a distance, say 15 centimeters, the other plate will be the ionosphere with a positive charge. Now guess where the positive and negative electrons will be? That's right, they will be polarized and the saturation of the plates with electrons or the voltage will be high in the immediate vicinity of the plates. Now, what will we have in the middle between the plates? That's right, neutral, there will be no electrons there or there will be a conflict - a short circuit. By what miracle can air molecules get into this neutral region, between the plates, and finally form an atmosphere? Nonsense, this should not happen in nature, it contradicts all existing laws, not to mention the distance between the plates (Earth - ionosphere), it simply will not exist and no amount of rotation will force the molecule to break away from the Earth, on the contrary, it will compact the Earth’s sphere with its centripetal forces forces.

I want to offer my theory of the origin of the atmosphere, but I do not at all pretend to accept it unconditionally. Rather, it is the mechanism of the origin of the atmosphere.
The earth has its own potential, we called it negative. Coulomb's law states that any body has its own electrostatic field (remember its like-charged balls repel and unlike-charged balls attract). In this case, we have one ball, this is the Earth with its negatively charged electrostatic field. We know that throughout the entire Earth this potential is approximately the same in power and sign (we do not yet take into account the Earth’s magnetic field, only the charge). If we measure voltage at different points (at different distances up from the Earth), then according to the STEP VOLTAGE law, we will have different indicators. The first to determine this potential difference was B. Franklin. Now we know that the potential difference increases in a natural sequence, one meter, one volt, and already between the Earth and the ionosphere, this potential difference is 200 kilovolts. According to the step voltage law, as the voltage (distance) increases, the tension between the two measured points decreases. (Read what step voltage is in any Internet search program.)
I hope that there is no doubt that everything that is on the Earth acquires its electrostatic charge, negative.
Each atom of any element from the periodic table acquires an electrostatic charge of the environment where it is located at the moment. I want to clarify that we are not talking about the internal structure of an atom, a molecule of a particular substance, but about the external charge.
Apparently their shells acquire an electrostatic charge.
Considering the above, it is very easy to imagine the mechanism of atmosphere formation.
Namely: An atom, a molecule of any substance, if separated in any way from the Earth, exists, at the moment, as an independent, negatively charged unit. As a result, we have two similarly charged bodies, the Earth and a molecule of any chemical element. Under the influence of repulsive, like-charged Coulomb forces, overcoming gravitational forces, the molecule is rapidly transferred to a height where Newton's gravitational forces and electrostatic like-charged Coulomb forces are equalized. Do you understand what a colossal difference in charges and how many kilometers the Earth will push away from its surface any molecule separated from the structure of the Earth? The distance depends on the molecular weight. If it is mercury, then it is not high, if it is helium or hydrogen, then it is about 250 kilometers or more. It’s not for nothing that there are neutral, positively and negatively charged hydrogen and helium atoms in space, but more on that below.
We got ATMOSPHERE!!!
It is only now, and not at any earlier time, before the formation of the atmosphere, that gas laws (upward flows) begin to operate, with the help of which the entire mass of molecules repelled from the Earth is mixed.
You may ask how atoms, molecules are separated from the Earth?
These are the processes of photosynthesis, these are the processes of evaporation, these are practically all processes of human life and processes occurring in nature, volcanic eruptions, etc.
It is difficult to imagine that in the negatively charged electrostatic field of the Earth, there could be anything, be it a field or a particle, even slightly different in the sign of the charge. Electricity leaves no chance for neighbors; conflict is inevitable. This begs the question. Where does the positively charged field in the ionosphere come from?
Without taking into account the knowledge of the law on electrostatic step voltage, it is impossible to explain. These are definitely the forces of electrostatic step voltage of another planet, which has the opposite potential, this is the Sun, which is not surprising, the Sun also has an atmosphere, which we call the “SOLAR WIND”. In the Earth's ionosphere, a meeting occurs between the negatively charged atmosphere of the Earth and the positively charged atmosphere of the Sun; as a result of this meeting, a conflict (short circuit) occurs, which manifests itself in the form of glow and the appearance of electrically neutral atoms, primarily hydrogen, as the lightest chemical element on the periodic table.
Now, armed with the knowledge of how the atmosphere originated, we can talk about rain, thunderstorms, lightning, and in general about all atmospheric processes and disasters. Let's try.

How are clouds formed? Science also keeps this secret.
It must be remembered that water molecules are electrostatically charged and therefore repel each other. Most likely, the dipole structure of the water molecule is to blame for the formation of cloud fog, but the fog itself cannot, under normal conditions, combine into raindrops.
Science suggests that the fog condenses on dust particles, of which there are countless numbers in the atmosphere, but I personally don’t believe this and have a different version.
Otherwise, this is not important for us, the main thing is that the cloud originates at an altitude of about 40 - 70 kilometers above the Earth and, therefore, is in a step voltage field with a potential of 40 - 70 kilovolts.
As the density increases, the cloud, under the influence of its own weight, descends, approaching the Earth. It is important to note here that everything depends on the place where the cloud forms and descends, that is, on the speed of approach to the Earth.
If this is a warm and humid place, then evaporation is active and the cloud does not have time to completely reformat its charge and retains somewhere around 25-50 kilovolts, taking into account losses when descending to the Earth.
The high-voltage potential of the cloud descending towards the Earth causes it to compress, the environment with a lower potential, but with a higher tension.
You need to clearly imagine this moment.
Around the cloud descending under the influence of its own weight is another, smaller potential, but please pay attention, the same potential.
There is no discharge, the core is ready for discharge, and the lower the cloud falls, the higher is this readiness and concentration of the core charge. There may be a clue to the mechanism of origin of ball lightning.
There may be many such nuclei in a thundercloud, but they coexist quite peacefully with each other until a certain time.
It is enough for one of the nuclei to change its potential due to a discharge to the Earth, and at the next moment a chain reaction occurs. The nuclei begin to discharge towards each other. We're getting a Katrina- or Gustavus-type cataclysm.
By the way, the discharge is only the initiator of the release of colossal energy, but more on that another time. I can guess how such cataclysms can be prevented.

Answer

ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Comparative characteristics, comments and evaluation of the scientific concept,
with the article by V. Goransky "Hypothesis of the origin of the atmosphere."

To compare the scientific concept with the article “Hypothesis of the origin of the atmosphere,” the scientific work presented in the book METEOROLOGY and CLIMATOLOGY by S. P. Khromov and M. A. Petrosyants was taken.
The fourth edition, revised and expanded, recommended by the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Higher Education, Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994.
In the opinion of my scientific adviser, this book fully and accurately reflects the modern scientific officially accepted concept of the atmosphere and the processes taking place in it, and is a generally recognized textbook for students and a guide in scientific research.

The first is the origin of the atmosphere.

Concept accepted by science.

The atmosphere is the air envelope of the Earth.
Science does not define how and in what way the atmosphere originated, and the mechanism of formation of the atmosphere is not indicated, but in fairness it must be said that in scientific circles the concept of a “capacitor” and the theory of upward flows based on gas laws are supported.

Comments.

The capacitor concept does not explain the origin of the atmosphere, I would even say it contradicts.
Forget for a moment about the official version and use your logical thinking. Draw, preferably on paper, it will be clearer, one plate of the capacitor will be the abstract sphere of the Earth with a negative charge, then at a distance, say 15 centimeters, the other plate will be the ionosphere with a positive charge. Where will the positive and negative electrons be located?
That's right, they will be polarized and the saturation of the plates with electrons or the voltage will be high in the immediate vicinity of the plates.
Now, what will we have in the middle between the plates?
That's right, neutral, there will be no electrons there or there will be a conflict - a short circuit. By what miracle can air molecules get into this neutral region, between the plates, and finally form an atmosphere?
Nonsense, this should not happen in nature, it contradicts all existing laws, not to mention the distance between the plates (Earth - ionosphere), it simply will not happen.
And no gas laws will force a molecule to break away from the Earth, because the most microscopic speck of dust, the lightest atom, has weight, and the gravitational forces of the Earth will not let go of either an atom or a speck of dust, even a micron, from its surface.
2

It turns out that it is not enough to determine the well-known truth that the atmosphere is an air shell, you need to find the mechanism due to which this air shell - the atmosphere - occurred.

"Hypothesis of the origin of the atmosphere" V. Goransky.

B. Franklin, in his experiment (thanks to which the lightning rod was invented), obtained the difference in electrical potentials between the Earth and a point in the earth's atmosphere, and he also proved that these charges are charged with the same name.
Subsequently, they were able to charge a Leyden jar with these similarly charged electrostatic potentials.
According to the latest atmospheric research data, scientific organizations have absolutely proven that with an increase in the distance from the Earth by one meter, the difference in electrical potential increases by one volt. That is, at a distance of one meter, one volt, at a distance of 100 meters, 100 volts, and at a distance of 200 kilometers (ionosphere) 200 kilovolts.
On the other hand, the intensity of the Earth's electrostatic field decreases with increasing distance, and if the intensity at a distance of one meter is 130V/m, then at the level of one kilometer it is 45V/m, and at the level of 20 kilometers it is less than 1V/m.

It was this fact that gave me the idea that the Earth’s electrostatic field has step voltage patterns.
The farther from the charge source, the higher the voltage and the lower the intensity of this charge.
Moreover, if we analyze the decreasing pattern of tension in the Earth's electrostatic field, we can see C. Coulomb's law in action.

Armed with data from a study of the Earth's electrostatic field, the laws of step voltage and C. Coulomb's law, we will try to imagine the mechanism of formation of the atmosphere.

Let's say we have a planet (Earth, Moon, Sun, it doesn't matter), with its own electrostatic field, but so far without an atmosphere.

There is no doubt that everything that the planet consists of has the same electrostatic charge as the planet itself, and if, under the influence of any factor, for example, a volcanic eruption, the molecules “teared off” from the main mass of the planet, then subsequently retain the charge of this planet.
That is, the electrostatic field of the “detached” molecule and the electrostatic field of the planet are of the same charge.
According to C. Coulomb's law, they must push off to a distance that can be determined by the formula of the law; it is enough to know the power of the electrostatic charge of the planet and the power of the electrostatic charge of the molecule.
In addition to the repulsive force, each molecule of any substance in the periodic table has its own weight, so a molecule separated from the planet will rise to a height where the repulsive force is equal to the weight of the molecule. That is, the heights for molecules of different substances will be different: the result is a “layer cake”.

And only now, when we have received a “layer cake” of molecules and atoms repelled from the planet with different chemical compositions, we can talk about processes such as convection, pressure differences, wind (gas laws). As a result of these processes, this entire “layer cake” is mixed and, as a result, we have an atmosphere.

Rays falling on a surface can be reflected from it, passed through or absorbed. Depending on this, surfaces are distinguished between shiny and matte, transparent and opaque, black and white. A surface that absorbs significantly more light rays than it reflects and “transmits” is perceived as black, and one that reflects most of the light incident on it appears white to us. If the majority of light rays pass through the layer of a substance unhindered, then it will be transparent.

The reflection of light rays from a surface obeys the well-known law discovered by I. Newton - the angle of incidence of the ray is equal to the angle of reflection, regardless of the nature of the material and the length of the light wave. If a luminous flux consisting of parallel rays falls on a smooth surface, then the reflected flux will also consist of parallel rays and appear as if emerging from this surface. A surface that reflects light in this way is called shiny. If a stream of such light enters the observer’s eye, then the surface that reflects it turns out to be invisible. In such cases they say: “she shines.” We constantly encounter this phenomenon in museums and at exhibitions, when a glazed picture shines or shines from many points of view, and it can be difficult to find a point of view from which it becomes clearly visible.

Bodies with a rough surface reflect light according to the same law as shiny ones. However, due to the fact that the surface of such bodies consists of microscopic surfaces located at different angles, light is reflected from it in different directions, diffuse reflection or scattering of light occurs. Such surfaces from different points of view appear the same in lightness, have no glare and are called matte. But you need to keep in mind that different materials reflect light differently. For example, glass, plastics, water have a so-called specular reflection, and metals give a softer reflection, even when polished.

Some surfaces do not reflect or transmit light, but emit it - such as the surface of a hot metal. Such surfaces will always be brighter than surfaces that reflect light. The individual characteristics of the combination of scattering and direct reflection of light by a given surface determine its character, “texture,” and make it possible to distinguish plaster from marble, oil white from gouache. We even distinguish objects with vision alone by the nature of their surface, by the combination of highlights and shadows that form a matte, semi-matte or glossy surface. We distinguish shine on the surface of an object and talk about metallic, diamond, glass, porcelain shine; we make this distinction based on some subtle signs that cannot be defined verbally. In painting, conveying the surface qualities of an object along with their color, lighting, shape and position in space is one of the most important tasks.

Achromatic colors

From a physics point of view, white light is a luminous flux consisting of waves of different lengths. Different surfaces greet the rays of light falling on them with different “hospitality”: some

surfaces, for example, absorb short-wave rays and reflect long-wave rays, while others do the opposite. With such selective absorption of light rays, the surface, as we say, receives a certain color, color. But there are surfaces that more or less uniformly absorb and reflect rays of all wavelengths. This indiscriminate absorption creates so-called gray surfaces. The more the surface is non-selective, that is, indifferent to the wavelength, reflects light rays, the whiter it will be, and, conversely, the smaller, the blacker it will be. Surfaces that uniformly reflect rays of all wavelengths are called achromatic. Achromatic colors have only one characteristic - lightness, which is mainly determined by the amount of light reflected from the surface.

Depending on the lighting and the ability of the surface to reflect light in one quantity or another, a gradual series of achromatic tones can be created, starting from white and ending with black. The paradoxical nature of the very name “achromatic color”, that is, “colorless color”, once again indicates the inseparable connection between light and color. And indeed, on the one hand, black, white, gray can be considered as something opposite to color, to everything colored, and on the other hand, we place black and white paints among other colors and, therefore, there is no reason not to consider them as color, just like other. For a painter, white, gray, black are the same colors as yellow, blue, etc., because they are used in a group of other colors as equal elements of color harmony and color. With all this, the division of colors into chromatic and achromatic is practically necessary. Arranged in order of decreasing lightness, achromatic colors form a series in which five main relatively specific steps can be distinguished: black, dark gray, gray, light gray and white. For scientific purposes, the achromatic series is taken to be much more differentiated. In Ostwald's color atlas it consists, for example, of 16 gradations, in Mansell's - 29, in Teplov's - 24. The degree of lightness of an achromatic tone is difficult to express absolutely. We can quite easily choose a lighter or darker one from two objects, but we cannot note how much darker it is. Therefore, lightness is measured using units that indicate the equality or inequality of two brightnesses.

The range of lightness from white to black in nature is thousands of times greater than the range of lightness between black and white paints under studio lighting conditions. This clearly shows that the ratios of brightness in nature cannot be transferred to the canvas in their absolute values, but require a kind of translation, which has long been noticed by artists. In a number of classic works of world painting we see amazing lighting effects that are striking in their truthfulness. The ways of this translation are diverse and do not yet fit into any formulas, even in the work of those artists whose slogan was the greatest closeness to nature.

Brightness and lightness

In everyday understanding, the difference between brightness and lightness is usually not noticed, and both concepts are considered almost equivalent. However, one can notice some difference in the use of these words, which also reflects the difference between these two phenomena. As a rule, the word “brightness” is used to characterize particularly light surfaces that are highly illuminated and reflect a large amount of light. So, for example, a sheet of paper or snow illuminated by the sun is spoken of as bright surfaces, and the walls of a room are spoken of as light. The word “brightness” is also often used to describe color, meaning such qualities of the latter as saturation or purity. Finally, the word "brightness" is primarily used to evaluate light sources.

In the natural science theory of color, the difference between the terms “brightness” and “lightness” is quite clear. Brightness is a physical concept, the value of which is characterized by the amount of light entering the eye of the average observer from a surface emitting or reflecting light. Lightness is a feeling of brightness, in which specific conditions of individual perception play an important role; This is a concept that primarily falls under the purview of psychology. The same physical, objective brightness can cause different sensations of lightness, and, conversely, the same lightness can correspond to different degrees of brightness.

The painter most likely deals directly with lightness, and not with brightness. In the work of both a painter and a draftsman, the ability to convincingly and artistically express light and color relationships largely depends on the sensitivity of the eye, which is fickle and can change under the influence of external and internal stimuli. The eye does not react to any irritation, but only to one that has reached a certain magnitude. Psychologists call this minimum difference between two degrees of brightness that the eye can notice the sensitivity threshold. In order to notice in nature and then express in the material the subtlest nuances of light and color, the artist’s eye must have a sufficiently high sensitivity, which is given by nature and develops in the learning process.

Threshold sensitivity changes when moving from one lighting condition to another. With a sharp change in lighting conditions, it decreases significantly for some time, and then, as the eye adapts to the new conditions, it begins to increase. Everyone knows well that if on a bright sunny day you enter a dimly lit room from the street, then for some time the eye is unable to discern almost anything in it and only gradually begins to see objects in the room. When working en plein air on a bright sunny day, it is easy to make the mistake of overly brightening or whitening the sketch, because in the process of working the eye gets used to the increased brightness. And, conversely, you can get very confused in lightness and color relationships in low light. It should be borne in mind here that in low light, in addition to the fact that the eye adapts to the reduced illumination, color tones and their saturation also change: blues in natural evening light seem brighter, reds, yellows - less saturated, more whitish, and at high brightnesses - yellowish.

A decrease in the sensitivity of the eye, on the contrary, noticeably affects its adaptation to a strongly illuminated picture plane. Adapting to bright light, the eye perceives all colors as significantly washed out, and in an effort to make them more saturated, the artist invariably ends up with falsehood, inconsistency and variegation. Only experience allows an artist to avoid such mistakes.

White

In scientific color science, the term “whiteness” is also used to assess the lightness qualities of a surface, which, in our opinion, is of particular importance for the practice and theory of painting. The term “whiteness” in its content is close to the concepts of “brightness” and “lightness”, however, unlike the latter, it contains a connotation of a qualitative characteristic and even, to some extent, aesthetic.

What is whiteness? R. Ivens explains this concept as follows: “If lightness characterizes the perception of brightness, then whiteness characterizes the perception of reflectivity.” The more a surface reflects the light falling on it, the whiter it will be, and theoretically, an ideal white surface should be considered a surface that reflects all rays falling on it; however, in practice such surfaces do not exist, just as there are no surfaces that would completely absorb the light incident on them. In practice, we call surfaces that reflect different amounts of light white. For example, we rate chalk soil as white soil, but as soon as you paint a square on it with zinc white, it will lose its whiteness. If we then paint the inside of the square with white that has even greater reflectivity, for example barite, then the first square will also partially lose its whiteness, although we will practically consider all three surfaces to be white. It turns out that the concept of “whiteness” is relative, but at the same time there is some kind of boundary from which we begin to consider the perceived surface to be no longer white.

The concept of whiteness can be expressed mathematically. The ratio of the light flux reflected by a surface to the flux incident on it (in percentage) is called “albedo” (from Latin albus - white). This relationship for a given surface is generally maintained under different lighting conditions, and therefore whiteness is a more constant quality of a surface than lightness. For white surfaces, the albedo will be 80-95%. The whiteness of various white substances can thus be expressed in terms of their reflectivity. V. Ostwald gives the following table of the whiteness of various white materials:

Barium sulfate (barite white) – 99%

Zinc white – 94%

Lead white – 93%

Gypsum – 90%

Fresh snow – 90%

Paper – 86%

A body that does not reflect light at all is called an absolute black body in physics. But the blackest surface we see will not be completely black from a physical point of view. Since it is visible, it reflects at least some amount of light and thus contains at least a negligible percentage of whiteness - just as a surface approaching ideal white can be said to contain at least a negligible percentage of blackness. We consider a surface to be practically black, in the perception of which details are indistinguishable due to the lack of physical stimulus. White and gray in nature have superficial qualities, and gray, the darker it is, to a lesser extent. Black is devoid of these qualities. Ivens defines the difference between white, gray and black as follows: “White is a phenomenon related entirely to the perception of surface; gray is the perception of the relative lightness of the surface, and black is the positive perception of the insufficiency of the stimulus to provide the proper level of vision.”

In the practice of painting, the concept of black is also very relative. The blackest spot in a painting has some whiteness and color tone. Various black colors, which can be mistaken for extreme blackness, turn out to be so only when perceived in isolation; when compared with each other, they, in addition, always reveal different color shades. Van Gogh, for example, counted up to 27 different black colors from Frans Hals. We almost never encounter purely achromatic black. The color of black paint is the standard of black for the artist, and the experience he has acquired in perception makes it possible to correlate all other tones with this blackness.

Constancy of whiteness

The concept of whiteness is related to the problem of the so-called constancy of perception, which is generally of exceptional importance for the theory of fine arts, and artistic and pedagogical practice in particular. The phenomenon of constancy, speaking schematically, boils down to the fact that, despite the inconstancy and variability of the light signals received by the retina, in perception we receive a more or less constant image corresponding to a real object. We will perceive a sheet of white paper as white both in a dimly lit room, and in sunlight, and under electric lighting, despite the fact that in fact it will have different degrees of lightness. The same is true for black surfaces. White paper in a darkened room reflects less light than black paper in bright sunlight; but we don't confuse black paper with white paper.

For the artist, therefore, the question comes down to the division in the perception of lightness or whiteness of the surface and its illumination at a given moment. If you offer a beginner to write on a sheet of white paper located in the shade, he will write it with pure white, just as he would write on a black surface with black paint. But let’s assume that the artist is faced with the task of conveying the whiteness of the surface as it appears to him in reality. This is only possible if he conveys its apparent lightness. For a white surface in the shadow and a black surface in the light, the artist uses gray tones, but in the painting they will be perceived as white and black surfaces. Here, the so-called relationships play a decisive role, that is, the entire context of the image, contrasts and a number of other points, which will be discussed below. Thus, seeing unconstantly, the painter gives the viewer the possibility of a constant perception of whiteness.

The degree of constancy of the perception of whiteness for white and black surfaces is not the same. The constancy of the perception of white surfaces is more pronounced; it decreases for gray tones - in other words, the higher the reflectivity of the surface, the more noticeable the constancy of its whiteness will be; The lower the reflectivity, the less effective this constancy is. The effect of constant lightness is most noticeable in familiar perceptual conditions. We do not notice a change in the whiteness of a sheet of paper in a room with normal lighting. The appearance of the effect of constancy of whiteness is also greatly influenced by our practical experience. For example, snow, which is well known to us from experience as white, will be perceived as white in a wide variety of lighting conditions. Blue shadows on the snow do not appear to us as blue snow, but as white snow in the shadows, colored by blue light. There is some analogy between the constancy of the perception of whiteness and the constancy of the perception of the size of an object - we do not notice, for example, perspective changes in the apparent sizes of objects when they are far from us, and clearly see their decrease at large distances.

The visual assessment of the whiteness of a surface depends, therefore, on the amount of light reflected by the surface and on the perceptual setting. We will return to this issue in connection with the perception of color and when considering light and color relationships in the image system.

Light and object shape

It is well known how significant the role of light is in the perception of the shape of an object. Surface and volume are factors independent of lighting in the only sense that we perceive them in any lighting. The appearance of an object can be characterized by a number of features that are variable and dependent on lighting conditions. These characteristics include lightness, color tone and its saturation, texture, and shape. It is interesting that a change in one of these characteristics leads to a change in others - for example, a change in illumination entails a change in the lightness of the surface, and with it its color also changes. Thus, none of these characteristics will be, in essence, independent, which is of particular importance for the problem of the integrity of perception and the integrity of the image.

Perception is always primarily aimed at the form, and not at the lighting. This predominance is so strong that it is, as a rule, not noticed by an untrained observer, and a certain effort is required in order to perceive the change in the intensity of illumination on the surface before the shape itself.

Natural chiaroscuro can be imagined as consisting of two layers: the lightness inherent in a given surface, and the light that “layers” on it. We have already said above that this has been the tradition of understanding light in painting for quite a long time. This long-standing tradition of understanding chiaroscuro as something external in relation to the object’s own lightness and color corresponds in artistic practice to understanding the lightness of an object as consisting of local color and chiaroscuro that arises during illumination. This is exactly how mesh was understood in the early Renaissance. Another feature is connected with this - the perception of lightness as transparency. Under natural conditions, a situation is possible in which objects or surfaces are viewed through some other object and between the eye and the observed surface, thereby creating some kind of environment that weakens the lightness of the surface in question - for example, if you look at an object through a tulle curtain or at a landscape through a veil of fog. In these cases, we clearly imagine that the lightness of the objects in question is weakened due to the influence of the layer lying on top of them. In painting, this layer corresponds to glaze, which can be considered as a kind of transparent medium superimposed on the local color of the object.

However, in reality, we just have a gray spot, which will be practically no different from a spot of paint obtained as a result of mechanical mixing, and when we perceive such a spot, no separation or stratification occurs if we localize attention only on it itself. Let's take the simplest image as an example: a dark vertical stripe, which is crossed by a lighter and relatively transparent horizontal stripe, so that the vertical stripe is visible through it. Such an image can be perceived in different ways: either as two stripes, differently oriented and placed on top of each other, or as five squares located in the same plane. Of course, the eye will perceive this situation as two stripes, and thus the chiaroscuro will be split into two spatial layers.

Rice. 6. Transparency effect is achieved by difference in tone

R. Arnheim explains this with his universal principle of simplicity, to which visual perception always strives: the perception of two intersecting stripes placed on top of each other is simpler and clearer than a combination of several elements in one plane. But there is another possible explanation for this phenomenon: visual perception strives for a certain completeness, tries to find an organic connection between the individual elements of the image.

In a painting, this effect of transparency, as we will call it, arises only thanks to the found color and lightness relationships. If we look only at the veil, then we will see nothing but the gray surface, but if we look at the same time at the veil and the area of ​​the body not covered by the veil, then we clearly perceive the transparency of the fabric and the surface behind it.

Chiaroscuro and perspective

Leonardo da Vinci spoke of the presence of “three perspectives, that is, the reduction of the figures of bodies, the reduction of their sizes and the reduction of their colors. Further,” he says, “of these three perspectives, the first comes from the eye, and the other two are produced by the air located between the eye and the object seen by that eye.”

According to modern terminology, we are talking here about linear, aerial and color perspectives, between which there is the same connection as between the shape of an object, its color and light and shade, for each of them explains the patterns of spatial changes in these basic features of the object form. We will talk about color perspective below, but here we will only note the relationship between linear and aerial perspectives. The basic law of this connection boils down to the fact that as we move away from us, objects lose the sharpness of their outlines and change their lightness. In this case, dark objects become lighter as they move away, and light objects, on the contrary, become darker.

Aerial perspective played a particularly prominent role in landscapes, where it serves as a very important means of expressing spatial depth. But not in all eras she enjoyed respect from artists and theorists. Schelling, for example, wrote about aerial perspective: “...a picture where aerial perspective is observed will remind us less that what we are contemplating is a work of art than one where this is not the case; but if this principle were made universal, there would be no art at all, and since it cannot be universal, then illusion, that is, the identification of truth with appearance up to sensory truth, cannot be the goal of art at all. Likewise, the ancients - according to everything we know about them - did not observe aerial perspective. In the same way, artists of the 14th and 15th centuries did not observe it, for example Pietro Perugino, Raphael’s teacher (paintings in Dresden). And in Raphael’s paintings, aerial perspective is only partially observed.”

Reading these lines, you need to keep in mind that before the Renaissance, painting did not, in essence, use chiaroscuro and linear perspective, and perhaps not only because it did not correspond to the aesthetic concepts of that time, but also because artists they were not known.

From the point of view of the development of the method of depiction itself, the discovery of the laws of perspective and, in particular, aerial perspective was progress that did not in the least hinder, as some modern theorists sometimes try to claim, the development of art. During the late Renaissance and beyond, many outstanding works were created in which central perspective, aerial perspective, and chiaroscuro are integral elements of the artistic form.

All living things strive for color.

I.V. Goethe. The doctrine of flowers.

Spectral colors

If for an artist, as we have already said, white and black are colors, then from a physical point of view this is not entirely true. Leonardo da Vinci to some extent anticipated the later discovery when he stated: “White is not a color, but it is capable of perceiving any color.” The great English physicist Isaac Newton experimentally managed to prove that white sunlight is a mixture of various colors. And today every schoolchild knows that if a narrow beam of sunlight is passed through a triangular prism, then an amazingly beautiful light effect appears on the screen located behind it - a successive series of bright colors, similar to the one that everyone has seen in the natural phenomenon of a rainbow.

Fascinated by the search for an analogy between color and sound, Newton divided the spectrum he obtained into seven parts corresponding to the seven tones of the musical diatonic scale and designated them with the words: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. This division of the spectrum was largely conditional and random, since it is possible to distinguish both a larger and smaller number of its parts, since the colors of the spectrum do not have clear boundaries, but gradually transform into one another. So, for example, between red and orange one can distinguish red-orange, between yellow and green - yellow-green or light green and others. It would be more consistent with the actual composition of the spectrum if it were divided into 6 parts. As the seventh, Newton singled out indigo, which would more correctly be considered only a variety of blue. Newton simultaneously discovered that white light consists of light rays that are refracted differently when passing through the same medium, and that this physical heterogeneity of the rays corresponds to the difference in the sensations of color that they cause when entering the human eye. He also drew attention to the fact that each of these colors occupies a different width in the spectrum.

Newton's experiments were important for the development of scientific views on nature in general and the nature of color in particular. They provided an objective basis for solving some problems of color theory in painting - for example, the theory of complementary colors, the theory of optical mixing of paints. Thus, in an area that seemed subjective and not amenable to any ordering, the road opened for strict scientific analysis.

According to modern views, the spectrum is formed by a stream of light rays with different wavelengths. If the stream consists of rays having the same wavelength, it is called monochromatic. Theoretically, a luminous flux consisting of, say, rays having a wavelength of 637 nm, causes a different sensation of color than a flux of rays of 638 nm. However, the eye does not respond to such minor changes in the wave composition of radiation, and one that contains different waves within approximately ±10 nm can be considered practically monochromatic.

Radiation consisting of waves of only one length or of waves forming a very narrow part of the spectrum corresponds to a certain fully saturated spectral color. In everyday reality, however, we have almost nothing to do with such spectral color; Usually the eye receives streams of mixed composition, consisting of waves of different lengths.

Table 1.

a) Continuous spectrum;

b) Conventional division of the spectrum into seven colors (according to Newton)

Fascinated by the search for an analogy between color and sound, Newton divided the spectrum he obtained into seven parts corresponding to the seven tones of the musical diatonic scale and designated them with the words: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. This division of the spectrum was largely conditional and random, since it is possible to distinguish both a larger and smaller number of its parts.

Each color spot in a picture can have a different lightness, color, purity, defined in color science, as already noted, by the terms “lightness”, “color tone”, “saturation”. For color theory, both natural science and art, these concepts are extremely important, since they are the basis for systematizing the entire wealth of color phenomena in nature and in art. It is impossible to do without these characteristics when understanding such fundamental concepts of the theory of painting as “color harmony,” “color,” and “picturesqueness.”

Table 2.

a) Changes in color tone (and lightness);

b) changes in lightness (and saturation);

c) changes in saturation (and lightness)

The sensation of “red” or “blue” color in this case is determined only by the predominance of rays with the corresponding wavelength in the stream; In addition to them, the light flux will also contain rays of other wavelengths, of a different “color,” only in smaller quantities. The more the rays of any one particular wavelength predominate, the purer the color will be; and vice versa - the less this predominance is, the more dirty and dull it will be. With a certain mixture of rays from the entire spectrum, that is, all wavelengths, we get white or gray color. Observations show that currents of different wave composition can produce sensations of the same color, and surfaces that appear identical in color can reflect currents of unequal wave composition. This phenomenon can be explained by the laws of optical color mixing, which will be discussed below.

#1: The bottom of a body of water always appears to be closer to the surface of the water to an observer in a boat. Explain this phenomenon.
ANSWER: The image of the lake bottom is formed on the retina of the eye from rays reflected from the bottom. When rays reflected from the bottom from water into air pass, the angle of incidence of the rays at the interface is less than the angle of refraction. Therefore, rays hitting the retina intersect “closer” to their exit point. This phenomenon can be verified by constructing an image of any point on the bottom.

No. 2: Why does the image of an object in water always look less bright than the object itself in the air?
ANSWER: Reflected rays from an object in water always lose part of their energy at the interface between these media (the result of reflection) and when they travel a certain distance in this medium. As a result, the intensity (energy) of the rays entering the observer’s eye decreases.

No. 3: Is it possible to transition from one medium to another without refraction? Indicate two possible options.
ANSWER: A) A ray of light falls perpendicular to the interface between two media.
B) The absolute refractive indices of the media are the same, for example glycerin and turpentine.

No. 4: In the center of a hollow, thick-walled glass ball there is a point source of light. Are rays of light passing through the walls of this sphere refracted?
ANSWER: Refraction does not occur, since the rays fall perpendicular to the element of the surface of the ball, i.e. along the radius, which is perpendicular to this element of the surface of the ball.

No. 5: Why is the bottom of the river located near a bridge visible to an observer on the bridge, but for an observer on the shore the same area may not be visible?
ANSWER: The eyes of an observer located on the bridge receive rays reflected from the bottom at an angle less than the maximum. For an observer located on the river bank, rays reflected from the bottom can fall on the interface at an angle greater than the limiting one. As a result, the river bottom may not be visible.

No. 6: In what cases does a glass prism deflect a ray incident on it not towards the base of the prism, but towards the refractive angle (the angle at the top of the prism)?
ANSWER: The absolute refractive index of the surrounding medium must be greater than the absolute index of the material from which the prism is made.

No. 7: Why is the foam formed in water (due to strong pressure) opaque, although it consists of water bubbles filled with air?
ANSWER: The opacity of an inhomogeneous medium is due to the fact that at each transition from one medium to another, in addition to refraction, reflection from the bubbles is also observed. As a result, the intensity of the rays entering the eye from the many bubbles is minimal and they appear opaque.

No. 8: Why does a diamond shine more than its glass imitation of the same shape?
ANSWER: The energy of reflected light, in addition to the angle of incidence, also depends on the absolute refractive index (the higher the refractive index, the greater the proportion of reflected energy). Different angles of incidence on the face of a diamond create images on the retina of the eye that change over time, which causes brilliance.

No. 9: Why do objects at the bottom of a reservoir seem to sway when there is gusts of wind?
ANSWER: The angle of incidence of rays on the surface of the water (due to vibrations) is constantly changing. Therefore, the angle of refraction also changes, and the angle of reflection from an object located at the bottom of the reservoir also changes accordingly. As a result, images of objects appear to be moving.

No. 10: Why does the apparent position of a star not coincide with its true position?
ANSWER: At different altitudes, the refractive index of air in the Earth's atmosphere is different. As a result, the trajectory of the beam is bent, so a beam hits the eye, the continuation of which is not the given star. This phenomenon is called atmospheric refraction.

No. 11: Why does a ball thickly covered with soot seem shiny when lowered into water and illuminated with light?
ANSWER: At the soot-water boundary, air is absorbed, resulting in complete reflection from this layer, which leads to the maximum intensity of the flux of rays entering the eye of the observer.

No. 12: Under what conditions does a transparent and colorless object become invisible in the rays of transmitted light?
ANSWER: This is only possible if the absolute refractive index of the surrounding medium is equal to the absolute refractive index of the observed object.

No. 13: Why do objects viewed through thick glass display cases sometimes appear distorted?
ANSWER: The optical density and thickness of the glass in different places of the display case can be different (due to its large size), which creates some mixing of parts of the item in question.

No. 14: Crushed glass is opaque, but when in water it becomes transparent again. Explain this phenomenon.
ANSWER: The energy of the reflected beam depends on the relative refractive index of the media, since glass and water have almost the same absolute refractive indices, the proportion of reflected energy from crushed glass sharply decreases, which leads to an increase in the energy of the transmitted beam.

No. 15: During the day, a mirage is sometimes observed in deserts - the observer sees the surface of a reservoir in the distance. Explain this phenomenon.
ANSWER: The heated layer of air directly adjacent to the asphalt has a lower density, and therefore a lower absolute refractive index, than that of the layers lying above. As a result, sand appears to reflect light just as well as the surface of water.

No. 16: How does the reflection of light from a transparent medium differ from total internal reflection, at the same angle of incidence in the same medium? Please indicate at least two differences.
ANSWER: A) Because in the case of total internal reflection, a refracted ray is also observed.
B) The intensity of the reflected beam, in the case of total internal reflection, is always less than when reflected from a transparent medium

No. 17: A scuba diver (who is far enough from the shore) can always see an object located on the shore. A person on the shore can only rarely see a scuba diver? Explain this fact.
ANSWER: All the rays reflected from an object on the shore fall into the scuba diver’s eye. The light rays reflected from the scuba diver mainly (due to the large distance) fall at angles greater than the maximum, as a result of which the human eye on the shore perceives minimal light energy.

No. 18: Why does a sharp bend in the light guide (light guide) lead to a sharp weakening of the energy of the light flux coming out of it?
ANSWER: At the point of bending, the angle of incidence becomes small and the light no longer undergoes complete reflection, but partially comes out of this system.

No. 19: Why is it that you can see much better when swimming underwater if you wear a mask?
ANSWER: The eye refracts light rays. If water touches the eye, then the light rays are refracted quite weakly, because The refractive index of water is close in value to the refractive index of the eye lens. While wearing a mask, there is air between the eye and the glass and the rays entering the eye are refracted as usual.

No. 20: Why are car headlight glasses made corrugated, i.e., consisting of small triangular prisms?
ANSWER: This set of prisms, the refractive angle of which is at the top, deflects the rays from the light source and deflects them down onto the road.

No. 21: Why does water that forms a fog or cloud appear opaque to an observer on the surface of the Earth, although the water is transparent to light rays?
ANSWER: Opacity is caused by the scattering of light in an inhomogeneous medium. With each transition from one medium to another, light is reflected, and the “fraction” of the reflected energy depends on the absolute refractive index of the medium and the angle of incidence. Due to the fact that the cloud is located quite high, the angles of incidence are small, and therefore the proportion of reflected energy is small. In the case of fog, which is located at a low altitude due to the high concentration of water molecules, the incident rays of light experience multiple reflections and despite the large angles of incidence, the absolute refractive index plays a significant role here.

No. 22: Why does the water appear darker to a passenger looking down from an airplane flying over the sea than in the distance?
ANSWER: If the observer looks down, then the angles of incidence of the rays are small, and therefore the angles of reflection are also small. As a result, a low-energy beam of rays hits the passenger's eye. Rays entering the observer's eye from more distant areas of the sea naturally strike at larger angles and therefore have greater energy.

No. 23: Why do drivers driving on the highway see puddles of water on the highway on sunny days?
ANSWER: The heated layer of air directly adjacent to the asphalt has a refractive index lower than that of the layers of air above. The result is total reflection and asphalt (which has a refractive index close to that of water) appears to reflect light just as well as water.

No. 24: Why do car headlight glasses have a corrugated surface on the inside?
ANSWER: The corrugated surface of the headlight glasses is a set of small prisms that collect the rays in the desired direction.

No. 25: Why do some fabrics shine and others don’t?
ANSWER: The fabric shines if the threads in it are arranged in the correct order parallel to each other and, as it were, form grooves on the surface of the fabric. At certain angles, such fabric reflects the light falling on it quite strongly. At other angles this reflection is weak. Therefore, when the fabric is turned in the rays of light, it reflects either better or worse - it shines.

#26: Why are the clouds mostly white? Why are thunderclouds black?
ANSWER: The water droplets in the cloud are quite large, and light is reflected from their outer surface. With this reflection, the light does not decompose into its component colors, but remains white. Very dense clouds appear black because they allow little sunlight to pass through - it is either absorbed by water droplets in the cloud or reflected upward.

No. 27: Why do the colors of wet objects, after rain, seem deeper, more saturated than dry ones?
ANSWER: A thin film of water covering a wet object reflects incident white light in one specific direction. The surface of an object no longer scatters white light in all directions, and its own color becomes dominant. Diffused light does not overlap with that reflected from the subject, and therefore the color appears more saturated.

#28: Point out the difference in lighting using a spotlight and using a car headlight.
ANSWER: The spotlight emits parallel beams, so it illuminates a small area, and the headlight has a diffuser that expands the light beam to illuminate the entire width of the road.

No. 29: Why soil, cardboard, wood, etc. do they appear darker when wetted?
ANSWER: Dry material has a rough surface, so the reflected light is scattered. If the material is wetted, then the light will be reflected specularly from the water film. In addition, having passed through this film, the light is partially absorbed and partially again diffusely reflected from the cardboard. But some of the rays will experience complete reflection and will not come out.

No. 30: Is it possible to glue two pieces of glass so that the glued area is invisible?
ANSWER: It is possible if the refractive index of the dried glue is equal to the refractive index of glass.

No. 31: Why is soot black, although rays from the entire solar spectrum fall on it?
ANSWER: Soot absorbs all rays.

No. 32: Some cars have additional yellow fog lights. For what?
ANSWER: Water droplets (fog) scatter red, orange and yellow light the least.

No. 33: Which lamps are preferable to install in stores where they sell fabrics: incandescent or fluorescent lamps?
ANSWER: Fluorescent lamps, because... Their radiation is closer in spectral composition to that of the sun.

No. 34: When making artificial mother-of-pearl buttons, minute shading is done on their surface. Why do they then acquire a rainbow color?
ANSWER: Hatching plays the role of a diffraction grating, giving a spectrum in reflected rays.

At the interface between two different media, if this interface significantly exceeds the wavelength, a change in the direction of light propagation occurs: part of the light energy returns to the first medium, that is reflected, and part penetrates into the second environment and at the same time refracted. The AO beam is called incident ray, and ray OD – reflected beam(see Fig. 1.3). The relative position of these rays is determined laws of reflection and refraction of light.

Rice. 1.3. Reflection and refraction of light.

The angle α between the incident ray and the perpendicular to the interface, restored to the surface at the point of incidence of the ray, is called angle of incidence.

The angle γ between the reflected ray and the same perpendicular is called reflection angle.

Each medium to a certain extent (that is, in its own way) reflects and absorbs light radiation. The quantity that characterizes the reflectivity of the surface of a substance is called reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient shows what part of the energy brought by radiation to the surface of a body is the energy carried away from this surface by reflected radiation. This coefficient depends on many factors, for example, on the composition of the radiation and on the angle of incidence. The light is completely reflected from a thin film of silver or liquid mercury deposited on a sheet of glass.

Laws of light reflection

The laws of light reflection were discovered experimentally in the 3rd century BC by the ancient Greek scientist Euclid. Also, these laws can be obtained as a consequence of Huygens’ principle, according to which every point in the medium to which a disturbance has reached is a source of secondary waves. The wave surface (wave front) at the next moment is a tangent surface to all secondary waves. Huygens' principle is purely geometric.

A plane wave falls on the smooth reflective surface of a CM (Fig. 1.4), that is, a wave whose wave surfaces are stripes.

Rice. 1.4. Huygens' construction.

A 1 A and B 1 B are the rays of the incident wave, AC is the wave surface of this wave (or the wave front).

Bye wave front from point C will move in time t to point B, from point A a secondary wave will spread across the hemisphere to a distance AD ​​= CB, since AD ​​= vt and CB = vt, where v is the speed of wave propagation.

The wave surface of the reflected wave is a straight line BD, tangent to the hemispheres. Further, the wave surface will move parallel to itself in the direction of the reflected rays AA 2 and BB 2.

Right triangles ΔACB and ΔADB have a common hypotenuse AB and equal legs AD = CB. Therefore they are equal.

Angles CAB = = α and DBA = = γ are equal because these are angles with mutually perpendicular sides. And from the equality of triangles it follows that α = γ.

From Huygens' construction it also follows that the incident and reflected rays lie in the same plane with the perpendicular to the surface restored at the point of incidence of the ray.

The laws of reflection are valid when light rays travel in the opposite direction. As a consequence of the reversibility of the path of light rays, we have that a ray propagating along the path of the reflected one is reflected along the path of the incident one.

Most bodies only reflect the radiation incident on them, without being a source of light. Illuminated objects are visible from all sides, since light is reflected from their surface in different directions, scattering. This phenomenon is called diffuse reflection or diffuse reflection. Diffuse reflection of light (Fig. 1.5) occurs from all rough surfaces. To determine the path of the reflected ray of such a surface, a plane tangent to the surface is drawn at the point of incidence of the ray, and the angles of incidence and reflection are constructed in relation to this plane.

Rice. 1.5. Diffuse reflection of light.

For example, 85% of white light is reflected from the surface of snow, 75% from white paper, 0.5% from black velvet. Diffuse reflection of light does not cause unpleasant sensations in the human eye, unlike specular reflection.

- this is when light rays incident on a smooth surface at a certain angle are reflected predominantly in one direction (Fig. 1.6). The reflective surface in this case is called mirror(or mirror surface). Mirror surfaces can be considered optically smooth if the size of irregularities and inhomogeneities on them does not exceed the light wavelength (less than 1 micron). For such surfaces, the law of light reflection is satisfied.

Rice. 1.6. Specular reflection of light.

Flat mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface is a plane. A flat mirror makes it possible to see objects in front of it, and these objects appear to be located behind the mirror plane. In geometric optics, each point of the light source S is considered the center of a diverging beam of rays (Fig. 1.7). Such a beam of rays is called homocentric. The image of point S in an optical device is the center S’ of a homocentric reflected and refracted beam of rays in various media. If light scattered by the surfaces of various bodies falls on a flat mirror and then, reflected from it, falls into the eye of the observer, then images of these bodies are visible in the mirror.

Rice. 1.7. An image created by a plane mirror.

The image S’ is called real if the reflected (refracted) rays of the beam intersect at point S’. The image S’ is called imaginary if it is not the reflected (refracted) rays themselves that intersect, but their continuations. Light energy does not reach this point. In Fig. Figure 1.7 shows an image of a luminous point S, which appears using a flat mirror.

Beam SO falls on the CM mirror at an angle of 0°, therefore, the angle of reflection is 0°, and this ray, after reflection, follows the path OS. From the entire set of rays falling from point S onto a flat mirror, we select the ray SO 1.

The SO 1 beam falls on the mirror at an angle α and is reflected at an angle γ (α = γ). If we continue the reflected rays behind the mirror, they will converge at point S 1, which is a virtual image of point S in a plane mirror. Thus, it seems to a person that the rays are coming out of point S 1, although in fact there are no rays leaving this point and entering the eye. The image of point S 1 is located symmetrically to the most luminous point S relative to the CM mirror. Let's prove it.

Beam SB incident on the mirror at an angle of 2 (Fig. 1.8), according to the law of light reflection, is reflected at an angle of 1 = 2.

Rice. 1.8. Reflection from a flat mirror.

From Fig. 1.8 you can see that angles 1 and 5 are equal – like vertical ones. The sums of the angles are 2 + 3 = 5 + 4 = 90°. Therefore, angles 3 = 4 and 2 = 5.

Right triangles ΔSOB and ΔS 1 OB have a common leg OB and equal acute angles 3 and 4, therefore, these triangles are equal in side and two angles adjacent to the leg. This means that SO = OS 1, that is, point S 1 is located symmetrically to point S relative to the mirror.

In order to find the image of an object AB in a flat mirror, it is enough to lower perpendiculars from the extreme points of the object onto the mirror and, continuing them beyond the mirror, set aside a distance behind it equal to the distance from the mirror to the extreme point of the object (Fig. 1.9). This image will be virtual and life-size. The dimensions and relative position of the objects are preserved, but at the same time, in the mirror, the left and right sides of the image change places compared to the object itself. The parallelism of light rays incident on a flat mirror after reflection is also not violated.

Rice. 1.9. Image of an object in a plane mirror.

In technology, mirrors with a complex curved reflecting surface, for example, spherical mirrors, are often used. Spherical mirror- this is the surface of the body, having the shape of a spherical segment and specularly reflecting light. The parallelism of rays when reflected from such surfaces is violated. The mirror is called concave, if the rays are reflected from the inner surface of the spherical segment. Parallel light rays, after reflection from such a surface, are collected at one point, which is why a concave mirror is called collecting. If the rays are reflected from the outer surface of the mirror, then it will convex. Parallel light rays are scattered in different directions, so convex mirror called dispersive.