Territories of the Crimean Khanate. The annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire and modern geopolitics Chapter 27 part 5

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquests in the 13th century. A huge feudal state of the Golden Horde (Ulus Juchi) arose, the founder of which was Batu Khan.

In 1239, during the Mongol-Tatar expansion to the west, the Crimean Peninsula with the peoples living there - Kipchaks (Cumans), Slavs, Armenians, Greeks, etc. - found itself occupied by the Genghisid troops. From the end of the 13th century. Feudal rule was established in Crimea, dependent on the Golden Horde.

At the same time, in the 13th century, with the participation of the crusaders, colony-cities (Kerch, Sugdeya (Sudak), Chembalo (Balaclava), Chersonese, etc.) of Italian (Genoese and Venetian) merchants arose en masse on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In the 70s of the 13th century. with the permission of the Great Mongol Khan himself, the large Genoese colony of Kafa (modern Feodosia) was founded. There was a constant struggle between the Genoese and Venetian merchants for control and influence over the Italian colonies of Crimea. Timber, grain, salt, furs, grapes, etc. were exported from the colonies. The Tatar feudal nobility conducted an active trade in slaves through the Italian colonies. The Italian cities in Crimea were in vassal dependence on the Tatar feudal lords and paid them tribute, being subject to repression by the latter in case of resistance.

At the beginning of the 15th century, with the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Hadji Giray (founder of the dynasties of the Crimean and later Kazan khans) seized power in Crimea and declared himself khan. He was virtually independent of the Golden Horde, in which, due to dynastic feuds between the Chinggisids, the process of disintegration had already begun. The year of foundation of the independent Crimean Khanate in historiography is considered to be 1443. The Lower Dnieper region also became part of the Khanate. The largest and most influential Crimean uluses were the uluses of the families Kipchak, Argyn, Shirin, Baryn and others. The main activity of the Crimean feudal lords was horse breeding, cattle breeding and slave trading.

Vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks occupied the Balkan Peninsula and captured the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits. The Republic of Genoa was bound by allied obligations with Byzantium. After the fall of the main citadel of the once powerful Byzantine Empire, all Italian colonies in Crimea were under the threat of occupation by the Ottomans.

In 1454, the Turkish fleet approached the Crimean Peninsula, bombarded the Genoese colony of Akkerman and besieged Cafa from the sea. The Crimean Khan immediately met with the admiral of the Sultan's fleet; he concludes an agreement with the Ottomans and announces joint action against the Italians.

In 1475, the Turkish fleet again besieged Cafa, bombarded it and forced the Genoese to surrender the city. After this, the Turks captured the entire coastal strip of Crimea, including part of the Azov coast, declared it the possessions of the Turkish Sultan, transferred power to the Turkish Pasha and transferred significant military forces to the sanjak (military-administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire) newly proclaimed by the Turks on the coast of Crimea with its center in Kafe .

The northern part of the steppe Crimea and the territories in the lower reaches of the Dnieper came into the possession of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray (1468–1515), who became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. The capital of the Crimean Khanate was moved to Bakhchisarai.

Union with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. XV century

This period in the history of the Crimean Khanate during the reign of Mengli Giray is associated with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Taking advantage of the hostile relations between the Crimean Khanate and the White Horde, the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III entered into an alliance with Mengli Giray. The latter in 1480 sent his army to the possessions of the Polish king Casimir IV, who was an ally of the White Horde Khan Akhmat, who marched with an army against Moscow, thereby preventing the coalition of the Polish-Lithuanian state and the White Horde in the war with the Great Moscow Principality. As a result of the successful allied actions of Mengli Giray, the Moscow principality was finally freed from the Tatar yoke and began to create a centralized state.

Confrontation with the Russian kingdom. 16th – first half of the 17th centuries.

The Ottoman Empire's capture of the southern coast of Crimea created a serious threat to Rus' from the Crimean Tatar khans, who carried out predatory raids, capturing slaves for the huge Turkish slave market. In addition, the Kazan Khanate became a support for Turkey and the Crimean Khanate in their further expansion against the Russian principalities, especially after the accession to the Kazan throne of a representative of the Girey dynasty of khans, who were the conductors of Turkey’s foreign policy aggressive plans. In this regard, subsequent relations between Rus' (later the Russian Empire) and the Crimean Khanate were openly hostile.

The territories of Russia and Ukraine were constantly attacked by the Crimean Khanate. In 1521 the Krymchaks besieged Moscow, and in 1552 - Tula. Attacks by the Crimean Khan on the young Russian Empire became more frequent during the Livonian War (1558–1583). In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray I besieged and then burned Moscow.

After the death of the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, the outbreak of long-term unrest and Polish intervention, the Crimean khans aggravated the situation with constant raids on Russian territories, devastation and the kidnapping of a huge number of people for subsequent sale into slavery in the Ottoman Empire.

In 1591, Russian Tsar Boris Godunov repelled another attack on Moscow by the Crimean Khan Gazi Giray II.

During the Russian-Polish War of 1654–1667, the Crimean Khan took the side of the Ukrainian Hetman Vygovsky, who went over with part of the Cossacks to the side of the Polish-Lithuanian state. In 1659, at the Battle of Konotop, the combined troops of Vygovsky and the Crimean Khan defeated the advanced elite detachments of the Russian cavalry of princes Lvov and Pozharsky.

In the second half of the 17th century, during the Russian-Turkish War of 1676–1681 and the Chigirin campaigns of the Turkish Sultan of 1677–1678 in Right Bank and Left Bank Ukraine, the Crimean Khanate took an active part in the war with Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire.

Expansion of Russia in the Crimean direction in the second half of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries.

In 1687 and 1689, during the reign of Queen Sophia, there were two unsuccessful campaigns of Russian troops in Crimea under the leadership of Prince V. Golitsyn. Golitsyn's army approached Perekop along the steppe previously scorched by the Tatars, and was forced to return back.

After the accession of Peter I to the throne, Russian troops carried out a series of Azov campaigns and in 1696 stormed the Turkish, well-fortified fortress of Azov. Peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey. The independence of the Crimean Khanate in the sphere of foreign policy was significantly limited - the Crimean Khan was prohibited by agreement from making any raids on territories controlled by the Russian Empire.

Khan Devlet Giray II, finding himself in a difficult situation, tried to provoke the Turkish Sultan, inciting him to war with Russia, which was busy solving its northern problem in the war with the Kingdom of Sweden, but aroused the Sultan’s anger, was removed from the Khan’s throne, and the Crimean army was dissolved.

The successor of Devlet Giray II was Khan Kaplan Giray, appointed by the Sultan. However, in view of Russia's serious successes in the Northern War, the Ottoman Sultan Ahmad III again places Devlet Giray II on the Crimean throne; arms the Crimean army with modern artillery and allows negotiations to begin with the Swedish king on a military alliance against Russia.

Despite the betrayal of the Zaporozhye Sich under the leadership of Hetman Mazepa, and the latter’s request to accept Right Bank Ukraine as the citizenship of the Crimean Khan, Russian diplomacy worked perfectly: through persuasion and bribery of Turkish ambassadors, they managed to persuade the Sultan not to go to war with Russia and refuse to accept the Zaporozhye Sich into the Crimean Khanate .

Tensions continued to rise between the Ottoman and Russian empires. After the victorious Battle of Poltava in 1709, Peter I demanded that the Sultan hand over the Swedish king Charles XII, who had fled to Turkey, threatening, otherwise, to build a number of fortified fortresses along the border with the Ottoman Empire. In response to this ultimatum of the Russian Tsar, in 1710 the Turkish Sultan declared war on Peter I; This was followed in 1711 by the very unsuccessful Prut campaign of Russian troops. The Crimean Khan with his 70 thousand army took part in the war against the Russian Tsar on the side of the Turks. The fortified fortress of Azov and the coast of the Azov Sea were returned to Turkey. However, already in 1736, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Minikh invaded the territory of the Crimean Peninsula and captured the capital of the Khanate, Bakhchisarai. An epidemic that broke out in Crimea forced the Russian army to leave the peninsula. The following year, 1737, the Russian army of Field Marshal Lassi crossed Sivash and again captured the peninsula. However, Russian troops failed to gain a foothold in Crimea this time either.

Conquest of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century.

During the next Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774, in 1771 the Russian army under the command of Prince Dolgorukov again occupied the entire Crimea. Sahib Giray II is appointed Khan instead of Maksud Giray Khan, who fled to Istanbul. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded between Russia and Turkey, according to which the Crimean Khanate was freed from vassal dependence on the Turkish Sultan, and Russia received the right to retain the fortresses of Yenikale, Kerch, Azov and Kinburn. Despite its formal independence, the Crimean Khanate turned from a vassal of the Turkish Sultan into a state association dependent on the Russian Empress.

In 1777, the commander of the Russian army, Field Marshal Rumyantsev, elevated Shagin Giray to the khan's throne. However, in 1783, the last khan of the Crimean Girey dynasty abdicated the throne, and the once powerful Crimean Khanate ceased to exist, finally becoming part of the Russian Empire. Shagin Giray flees to Istanbul, but is soon executed by order of the Turkish Sultan.

In 1797, Russian Emperor Paul I established the Novorossiysk province, which included the Crimean peninsula.

Thus, the Crimean Khanate is the last major state formation that arose after the Great Mongol-Tatar conquest of Eastern Europe by the Genghisids in the 13th century. and the collapse of the Golden Horde. The Crimean Khanate lasted for 340 years (1443–1783).

The Crimean Khanate existed for just over three hundred years. The state, which arose from the fragments of the Golden Horde, almost immediately entered into a tough confrontation with its neighbors surrounding it. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Duchy of Moscow - they all wanted to include Crimea in their sphere of influence. However, first things first.

Forced alliance

The first penetration of the Tatar conquerors into Crimea is recorded by a single written source - the Sudak Synaxar. According to the document, the Tatars appeared on the peninsula at the end of January 1223. The warlike nomads did not spare anyone; very soon the Polovtsians, Alans, Russians and many other peoples were subjected to their blows. The large-scale aggressive policy of the Chingizids was an event of global significance, covering many states.

In a fairly short period of time, the conquered peoples adopted the customs and traditions of their new masters. Only the internal strife that engulfed the Golden Horde could shake its power. The transformation of one of its uluses into an independent state, known in historiography as the Crimean Khanate, became possible thanks to the help of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Litvins did not bow their heads to the yoke. Despite the destructive raids of nomads (and the Russian princes incited by them), they continued to courageously defend their independence. At the same time, the Principality of Lithuania tried not to miss the opportunity to pit its sworn enemies against each other.

The first ruler of the Crimean Khanate, Hadji Giray, was born in the Belarusian city of Lida. A descendant of forced emigrants who staged an unsuccessful rebellion, he enjoyed the support of the Lithuanian princes, who relied on him. The Poles and Litvins rightly believed that if they managed to place a descendant of the Crimean emirs on the ulus of their ancestors, this would be another significant step in the destruction of the Golden Horde from within.

Hadji-Girey

One of the main features of the Middle Ages was the relentless struggle of various appanage principalities, which plunged their own people into darkness and horror. All medieval states passed through this inevitable stage of their historical development. The Ulus of Jochi as part of the Golden Horde was no exception. The formation of the Crimean Khanate became the highest expression of separatism, which undermined the mighty power from within.

The Crimean ulus became significantly isolated from the center due to its own noticeable strengthening. Now the southern coast and mountainous regions of the peninsula were under his control. Edigei, the last of the rulers who maintained at least some order in the conquered lands, died in 1420. After his death, unrest and unrest began in the state. Vainglorious beys carved out the state at their own discretion. The Tatar emigration in Lithuania decided to take advantage of this circumstance. They united under the banner of Hadji Giray, who dreamed of returning the possessions of their ancestors.

He was a smart politician, an excellent strategist, who was supported by the Lithuanian and Polish nobility. However, not everything in his situation was cloudless. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, he was in the position of an honorary hostage, although he had his own castle and surrounding area in the city of Lida.

Power came to him unexpectedly. Devlet-Berdi, Hadzhi-Girey's uncle, dies without leaving any heirs in the male line. Here they again remembered the descendant of the great Crimean emirs. The nobility sends an embassy to the lands of the Litvins to persuade Casimir Jagiellon to release his vassal Hadzhi Giray to the khanate in Crimea. This request is granted.

Construction of a young state

The heir's return was triumphant. He expels the Horde governor and mints his own gold coins in Kirk-Erk. Such a slap in the face could not be ignored in the Golden Horde. Soon, hostilities began, the purpose of which was to pacify the Crimean yurt. The forces of the rebels were clearly small, so Hadji Giray surrendered Solkhat, the capital of the Crimean Khanate, without a fight, and he retreated to Perekop, going on the defensive.

Meanwhile, his rival Khan of the Great Horde, Seyd-Ahmed, made mistakes that cost him the throne. To begin with, he burned and plundered Solkhat. By this act, Seyd-Ahmed greatly alienated the local nobility. And his second mistake was that he did not give up trying to harm the Litvins and Poles. Hadji Giray remained a loyal friend and defender of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the end, he defeated Seyd-Ahmed when he once again carried out a predatory raid on the southern Lithuanian lands. The army of the Crimean Khanate surrounded and killed the troops of the Great Horde. Seyd-Ahmed fled to Kyiv, where he was safely arrested. The Litvins traditionally settled all captured Tatars on their lands, gave them allotments and liberties. And the Tatars turned from former enemies into the best and most loyal warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

As for the direct descendant of Genghis Khan, Hadji-Girey, in 1449 he moved the capital of the Crimean Khanate from Kyrym (Solkhat) to Kyrk-Erk. Then he began to carry out reforms to strengthen his state. To begin with, I simplified the complex system of ancient customs and laws. He brought representatives of the most noble and influential families closer to him. He paid special attention to the heads of the nomadic Nogai tribes. They were a special category of persons responsible for the military power of the state, protecting it at the borders.

The management of the yurt had democratic features. The heads of the four noble families had extensive powers. Their opinion had to be listened to.

Hadji Giray, sparing no effort, supported Islam, strengthening the spiritual and cultural development of his young power. He did not forget about Christians. He helped them build churches, pursuing a policy of religious tolerance and peacefulness.

Thanks to thoughtful reforms carried out over almost 40 years, the provincial ulus has flourished, becoming a strong power.

Geographical location of the Crimean Khanate

Vast territories were part of one of the most powerful states of that time. In addition to the peninsula itself, which was the central part of the country, there were also lands on the continent. To better imagine the scale of this power, it is necessary to briefly list the regions that were part of the Crimean Khanate and tell a little about the peoples who inhabited it. In the north, immediately beyond Ork-Kapu (the fortress that covered the only land route to Crimea) lies Eastern Nogai. In the northwest - Yedisan. In the west there was an area called Budzhak, and in the east - Kuban.

In other words, the territory of the Crimean Khanate covered modern Odessa, Nikolaev, Kherson regions, part of Zaporozhye and most of the Krasnodar region.

Peoples who were part of the Khanate

To the west of the Crimean peninsula, between the Danube and Dniester rivers, was an area known in history as Budzhak. This area without mountains and forests was inhabited mainly by Budzhak Tatars. The lands of the plain were extremely fertile, but the local population experienced a shortage of drinking water. This was especially true in the hot summer. Such geographical features of the area left their mark on the life and customs of the Budzhak Tatars. For example, digging a deep well there was considered a good tradition.

The Tatars, with their characteristic directness, solved the shortage of timber by simply forcing representatives of one of the Moldavian tribes to harvest wood for them. But the Budjaks were not only involved in war and campaigns. They were primarily known as farmers, herders and beekeepers. However, the region itself was turbulent. The territory constantly changed hands. Each of the parties (Ottomans and Moldovans) considered these lands to be theirs, until at the end of the 15th century they finally became part of the Crimean Khanate.

Rivers served as natural boundaries between the khan's regions. Edisan, or Western Nogai, was located in the steppes between the Volga and Yaik rivers. In the south, these lands were washed by the Black Sea. The territory was inhabited by the Nogais of the Edisan Horde. In their traditions and customs, they differed little from other Nogais. The bulk of these lands were occupied by plains. Only in the east and north were there mountains and valleys. The vegetation was sparse, but it was enough for grazing cattle. In addition, the fertile soil produced a bountiful harvest of wheat, which brought the main income to the local population. Unlike other regions of the Crimean Khanate, there were no problems with water here due to the abundance of rivers flowing in this area.

The territory of Eastern Nogai was washed by two seas: in the southwest by the Black Sea, and in the southeast by the Azov Sea. The soil also produced a good crop of cereals. But in this area there was a particularly acute shortage of fresh water. One of the distinctive features of the Eastern Nogai steppes was the mounds that were everywhere - the final resting places of the most notable people. Some of them appeared in Scythian times. Travelers left a lot of evidence about the stone statues on top of the mounds, whose faces were always facing the East.

The Little Nogais, or Kubans, occupied part of the North Caucasus near the Kuban River. The south and east of this region bordered the Caucasus. To the west of them were the Jumbuluks (one of the peoples of Eastern Nogai). Borders with Russia in the north appeared only in the 18th century. This area, due to its geographical location, was distinguished by its natural diversity. Therefore, the local population, unlike their steppe tribesmen, did not lack not only water, but also forests, and the orchards were famous throughout the region.

Relations with Moscow

If we analyze the history of the Crimean Khanate, the conclusion involuntarily suggests itself: this power was practically not fully independent. At first, they had to conduct their policy with an eye on the Golden Horde, and then this period gave way to a direct one from the Ottoman Empire.

After the death of Hadji Giray, his sons fought among themselves in a struggle for power. Mengli, who won this fight, was forced to reorient policy. His father was a loyal ally of Lithuania. And now she has become an enemy because she did not support Mengli-Girey in his struggle for power. But with the Moscow Prince Ivan III, they found common goals. The Crimean ruler dreamed of gaining supreme power in the Great Horde, and Moscow systematically sought independence from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. For some period of time, their common goals coincided.

The policy of the Crimean Khanate was to skillfully use the contradictions that existed between Lithuania and Moscow. alternately took the side of one neighbor and then the other.

Ottoman Empire

Hadji Giray did a lot for the development of his brainchild - a young power, but his offspring, not without the influence of powerful neighboring states, plunged their people into a fratricidal war. In the end, the throne went to Mengli-Girey. In 1453, a fateful event for many nations happened - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. The strengthening of the caliphate in this region had a huge impact on the history of the Crimean Khanate.

Not all representatives of the old nobility were satisfied with the results of the struggle for power between the sons of Hadji Giray. Therefore, they turned to the Turkish Sultan asking for help and support. The Ottomans only needed a reason, so they happily intervened in this conflict. The events described took place against the backdrop of a large-scale offensive by the caliphate. The possessions of the Genoese were in danger.

On May 31, 1475, the Sultan's vizier Ahmed Pasha attacked the Genoese city of Cafu. Mengli-Girey was among the defenders. When the city fell, the ruler of the Crimean Khanate was captured and taken to Constantinople. While in honorable captivity, he had the opportunity to repeatedly talk with the Turkish Sultan. During the three years he spent there, Mengli-Girey was able to convince his hosts of his own loyalty, so he was sent home, but with conditions that seriously limited the sovereignty of the state.

The territory of the Crimean Khanate became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Khan had the right to hold court over his subjects and establish diplomatic relations. However, he could not resolve key issues without the knowledge of Istanbul. The Sultan determined all foreign policy issues. The Turkish side also had leverage over the obstinate: hostages from among the relatives at the palace and, of course, the famous Janissaries.

Life of the Khans under the influence of the Turks

The Crimean Khanate in the 16th century had powerful patrons. Although the Tatars retained the custom of choosing a ruler at the kurultai, the Sultan always had the last word. At first, this state of affairs completely satisfied the nobility: having such protection, one could feel safe while concentrating on the development of the state. And it really flourished. The capital of the Crimean Khanate was moved again. The famous Bakhchisarai became it.

But the need to listen to the Divan - the State Council - added a fly in the ointment for the Crimean rulers. One could easily pay for disobedience with one’s life, and a replacement would be found very quickly from among relatives. They will be very willing to take the empty throne.

Russian-Turkish War 1768 - 1774

The Russian Empire needed access to the Black Sea as an air outlet. The prospect of clashing in this struggle with the Ottoman Empire did not frighten her. Much has already been done by the predecessors of Catherine II in order to continue expansion. Astrakhan and Kazan were conquered. The Russian soldiers harshly suppressed any attempt to recapture these new territorial acquisitions. However, it was not possible to develop the success due to poor material support of the Russian army. A bridgehead was needed. Russia received it in the form of a small region in the Northern Black Sea region. It turned out to be Novorossiya.

Fearing the strengthening of the Russian Empire, Poland and France dragged the Supreme Caliph into the war of 1768-1774. During this difficult time, Russia had only two of its most loyal allies: the army and the navy. Impressed by the actions of the Russian heroes on the battlefield, the caliphate very soon began to shake. Syria, Egypt, and the Greeks of the Peloponnese rebelled against the hated Turkish occupiers. The Ottoman Empire could only capitulate. The result of this company was the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty. Under its terms, Yenikale also became part of the Russian Empire, its fleet could sail the Black Sea, and the Crimean Khanate became formally independent.

The fate of the peninsula

Despite the victory in the recent war with Turkey, the foreign policy goals of the Russian Empire in Crimea were not achieved. Understanding this forced Catherine the Great and Potemkin to develop a secret manifesto on the acceptance of the Crimean peninsula into the fold of the Russian state. It was Potemkin who had to personally lead all preparations for this process.

For these purposes, it was decided to hold a personal meeting with Khan Shahin-Girey and discuss various details about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia. During this visit, it became obvious to the Russian side that the majority of the local population was not eager to take the oath of allegiance. The Khanate was experiencing a severe economic crisis, and the people hated their legitimate head of state. Shahin-Girey was no longer needed by anyone. He had to abdicate the throne.

Meanwhile, Russian troops hastily converged on Crimea with the task of quelling discontent if necessary. Finally, on July 21, 1783, the Empress was informed about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia.

Capitals of the Khanate

The main city of the Crimean Yurt was the city of Kyrym, also known as Solkhat (modern Old Crimea), which became the capital of Khan Oran-Timur in 1266. According to the most common version, the name Kyrym comes from Chagatai qırım- pit, trench, there is also an opinion that it comes from the Western Kipchak qırım- “my hill” ( qır- hill, hill, -ım- affix of belonging to the first person singular).

When a state independent from the Horde was formed in Crimea, the capital was moved to the fortified mountain fortress of Kyrk-Era, then to Salachik, located in the valley at the foot of Kyrk-Era, and finally, in 1532, to the newly built city of Bakhchisarai.

Story

Background

During the Horde period, the supreme rulers of Crimea were the khans of the Golden Horde, but direct control was exercised by their governors - emirs. The first formally recognized ruler in Crimea is considered to be Aran-Timur, the nephew of Batu, who received this region from Mengu-Timur. This name then gradually spread to the entire peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Kyrk-Eru and Bakhchisarai.

The multinational population of Crimea then consisted mainly of the Kipchaks (Cumans) who lived in the steppe and foothills of the peninsula, whose state was defeated by the Mongols, Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages, as well as Rusyns who lived in some trading cities. The Crimean nobility was mainly of mixed Kipchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule, although it had positive aspects, was generally burdensome for the Crimean population. In particular, the rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai's campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in Crimea.

There are legends, unconfirmed by Crimean sources, that in the 14th century Crimea was allegedly repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then allegedly invaded Crimea, devastated Chersonesus and captured all valuable church objects there. A similar legend exists about his successor named Vytautas, who in 1397 allegedly reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for the fact that during the Horde unrest at the end of the 14th century, he provided refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Edigei, and made peace.

Gaining independence

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Wars with the Russian Kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early period

Since the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on the Russian Kingdom and Poland. The Crimean Tatars and Nogais were fluent in raid tactics, choosing a path along watersheds. The main route to Moscow was the Muravsky Way, which ran from Perekop to Tula between the upper reaches of the rivers of two basins, the Dnieper and the Seversky Donets. Having gone 100-200 kilometers into the border region, the Tatars turned back and, spreading wide wings from the main detachment, engaged in robbery and the capture of slaves. The capture of captives - yasyr - and the trade in slaves were an important part of the economy of the Khanate. Captives were sold to Turkey, the Middle East and even European countries. The Crimean city of Kafa was the main slave market. According to some researchers, more than three million people, mostly Ukrainians, Poles and Russians, were sold in the Crimean slave markets over two centuries. Every year, Moscow gathered up to 65 thousand warriors in the spring to carry out border service on the banks of the Oka until late autumn. To protect the country, fortified defensive lines were used, consisting of a chain of forts and cities, ambushes and rubble. In the southeast, the oldest of these lines ran along the Oka from Nizhny Novgorod to Serpukhov, from here it turned south to Tula and continued to Kozelsk. The second line, built under Ivan the Terrible, ran from the city of Alatyr through Shatsk to Orel, continued to Novgorod-Seversky and turned to Putivl. Under Tsar Fedor, a third line arose, passing through the cities of Livny, Yelets, Kursk, Voronezh, Belgorod. The initial population of these cities consisted of Cossacks, Streltsy and other service people. A large number of Cossacks and service people were part of the guard and village services, which monitored the movement of the Crimeans and Nogais in the steppe.

In Crimea itself, the Tatars left little yasyr. According to the ancient Crimean custom, slaves were released as freedmen after 5-6 years of captivity - there is a number of evidence from Russian and Ukrainian documents about returnees from Perekop who “worked out”. Some of those released preferred to remain in Crimea. There is a well-known case, described by the Ukrainian historian Dmitry Yavornitsky, when the ataman of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, Ivan Sirko, who attacked Crimea in 1675, captured huge booty, including about seven thousand Christian captives and freedmen. The ataman asked them whether they wanted to go with the Cossacks to their homeland or return to Crimea. Three thousand expressed a desire to stay and Sirko ordered to kill them. Those who changed their faith while in slavery were released immediately, since Sharia law prohibits holding a Muslim in captivity. According to Russian historian Valery Vozgrin, slavery in Crimea itself almost completely disappeared already in the 16th-17th centuries. Most of the prisoners captured during attacks on their northern neighbors (their peak intensity occurred in the 16th century) were sold to Turkey, where slave labor was widely used, mainly in galleys and in construction work.

XVII - early XVIII centuries

On January 6-12, 1711, the Crimean army left Perekop. Mehmed Giray with 40 thousand Crimeans, accompanied by 7-8 thousand Orlik and Cossacks, 3-5 thousand Poles, 400 Janissaries and 700 Swedes of Colonel Zulich, headed to Kiev.

During the first half of February 1711, the Crimeans easily captured Bratslav, Boguslav, Nemirov, the few garrisons of which offered virtually no resistance.

In the summer of 1711, when Peter I set off on the Prut Campaign with an army of 80 thousand, the Crimean cavalry numbering 70 thousand sabers, together with the Turkish army, surrounded Peter’s troops, which found themselves in a hopeless situation. Peter I himself was almost captured and was forced to sign a peace treaty on conditions that were extremely unfavorable for Russia. As a result of the Treaty of Prut, Russia lost access to the Sea of ​​Azov and its fleet in the Azov-Black Sea waters. As a result of the Prut victory of the united Turkish-Crimean wars, Russian expansion in the Black Sea region was stopped for a quarter of a century.

The Russian-Turkish War of 1735-39 and the complete devastation of Crimea

The last khans and the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, a widespread uprising occurred in Crimea. Turkish troops landed in Alushta; the Russian resident in Crimea, Veselitsky, was captured by Khan Shahin and handed over to the Turkish commander-in-chief. There were attacks on Russian troops in Alushta, Yalta and other places. The Crimeans elected Devlet IV as khan. At this time, the text of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty was received from Constantinople. But the Crimeans even now did not want to accept independence and cede the indicated cities in Crimea to the Russians, and the Porte considered it necessary to enter into new negotiations with Russia. Dolgorukov's successor, Prince Prozorovsky, negotiated with the khan in the most conciliatory tone, but the Murzas and ordinary Crimeans did not hide their sympathies for the Ottoman Empire. Shahin Geray had few supporters. The Russian party in Crimea was small. But in Kuban he was proclaimed khan, and in 1776 he finally became khan of Crimea and entered Bakhchisarai. The people swore allegiance to him.

Shahin Giray became the last Khan of Crimea. He tried to carry out reforms in the state and reorganize governance along European lines, but these measures were extremely late. Soon after his accession, an uprising against the Russian presence began. The Crimeans attacked Russian troops everywhere, killing up to 900 Russians, and plundered the palace. Shahin was embarrassed, made various promises, but was overthrown, and Bahadir II Giray was elected khan. Türkiye was preparing to send a fleet to the shores of Crimea and start a new war. The uprising was decisively suppressed by Russian troops, Shahin Giray mercilessly punished his opponents. A.V. Suvorov was appointed Prozorovsky’s successor as commander of the Russian troops in Crimea, but the khan was very wary of the new Russian adviser, especially after he deported all Crimean Christians (about 30,000 people) to the Azov region in 1778: Greeks - to Mariupol, Armenians - to Nor-Nakhichevan.

Only now Shahin turned to the Sultan as the caliph for a letter of blessing, and the Porte recognized him as khan, subject to the withdrawal of Russian troops from Crimea. Meanwhile, in 1782, a new uprising began in Crimea, and Shahin was forced to flee to Yenikale, and from there to Kuban. Bahadir II Giray, who was not recognized by Russia, was elected khan. In 1783, Russian troops entered Crimea without warning. Soon Shahin Giray abdicated the throne. He was asked to choose a city in Russia to live in and was given a sum for his relocation with a small retinue and maintenance. He lived first in Voronezh, and then in Kaluga, from where, at his request and with the consent of the Porte, he was released to Turkey and settled on the island of Rhodes, where he was deprived of his life.

There were “small” and “large” divans, which played a very serious role in the life of the state.

A council was called a “small divan” if a narrow circle of nobility took part in it, resolving issues that required urgent and specific decisions.

The “Big Divan” is a meeting of “the whole earth”, when all the Murzas and representatives of the “best” black people took part in it. By tradition, the Karaches retained the right to sanction the appointment of khans from the Geray clan as sultan, which was expressed in the ritual of placing them on the throne in Bakhchisarai.

The state structure of Crimea largely used the Golden Horde and Ottoman structures of state power. Most often, the highest government positions were occupied by the sons, brothers of the khan or other persons of noble origin.

The first official after the khan was the Kalga Sultan. The khan's younger brother or another relative was appointed to this position. Kalga ruled the eastern part of the peninsula, the left wing of the khan's army and administered the state in the event of the death of the khan until a new one was appointed to the throne. He was also the commander-in-chief if the khan did not personally go to war. The second position - nureddin - was also occupied by a member of the khan's family. He was the governor of the western part of the peninsula, chairman of small and local courts, and commanded smaller corps of the right wing on campaigns.

The mufti is the head of the Muslim clergy of Crimea, an interpreter of laws, who has the right to remove judges - qadis, if they judged incorrectly.

Kaymakans - in the late period (end of the 18th century) governing the regions of the Khanate. Or-bey is the head of the Or-Kapy (Perekop) fortress. Most often, this position was occupied by members of the khan family, or a member of the Shirin family. He guarded the borders and watched over the Nogai hordes outside the Crimea. The positions of qadi, vizier and other ministers are similar to the same positions in the Ottoman state.

In addition to the above, there were two important female positions: ana-beim (analogous to the Ottoman post of valide), which was held by the mother or sister of the khan, and ulu-beim (ulu-sultani), the senior wife of the ruling khan. In terms of importance and role in the state, they had the rank next to nureddin.

An important phenomenon in the state life of Crimea was the very strong independence of noble bey families, which in some way brought Crimea closer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The beys ruled their possessions (beyliks) as semi-independent states, administered justice themselves and had their own militia. The beys regularly took part in riots and conspiracies, both against the khan and among themselves, and often wrote denunciations against the khans they did not please the Ottoman government in Istanbul.

Public life

The state religion of Crimea was Islam, and in the customs of the Nogai tribes there were some vestiges of shamanism. Along with the Crimean Tatars and Nogais, Islam was also practiced by the Turks and Circassians living in Crimea.

The permanent non-Muslim population of Crimea was represented by Christians of various denominations: Orthodox (Hellenic-speaking and Turkic-speaking Greeks), Gregorians (Armenians), Armenian Catholics, Roman Catholics (descendants of the Genoese), as well as Jews and Karaites.

Notes

1. Budagov. Comparative dictionary of Turkish-Tatar dialects, T.2, p.51
2. O. Gaivoronsky. Lords of two continents.t.1.Kiev-Bakhchisarai. Oranta.2007
3. Thunmann. "Crimean Khanate"
4. Sigismund Herberstein, Notes on Muscovy, Moscow 1988, p. 175
5. Yavornitsky D.I. History of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Kyiv, 1990.
6. V. E. Syroechkovsky, Muhammad-Gerai and his vassals, “Scientific Notes of Moscow State University,” vol. 61, 1940, p. 16.

The Crimean Khanate is a state entity that existed from 1441 to 1783.

The Crimean Khanate was formed as a result of the fragmentation of the Golden Horde. As a state completely independent from anyone, the Crimean Khanate did not last long.

Already in 1478, the Khanate’s large neighbor, the Ottoman Empire, made a military campaign into the territory of Crimea. Its result was the establishment of vassal dependence of the Crimean Khan on the Ottoman emperor.

Crimean Khanate on the map

History of the formation of the Crimean Khanate

In the 15th century, the Golden Horde was on the verge of collapse and the Crimean Khanate had already settled quite firmly on the territory of the peninsula. In 1420, the Khanate was practically separated from the Golden Horde and became an almost independent state.

After the death of the Khan of the Golden Horde in 1420, a struggle for power began in the Khanate and was won by the future founder of the dynasty, Hadji I Giray. Already in 1427, Giray declared himself the ruler of the Khanate. And only in 1441 the people declared him khan, after which Hadji Giray sat on the throne.

The Golden Horde was so weakened that it was no longer able to field troops against the rebel Crimean Khanate. The year 1441 is considered the beginning of the existence of a new state, when the full-fledged Crimean Khan began to rule.

The rise of the Crimean Khanate

In 1480, the Tatars captured Kyiv, severely destroyed the city and plundered it, earning the satisfaction of the Moscow prince Ivan III. Diplomatic and trade relations are established between the Moscow kingdom and the khanate. At the end of the 70s, the Tatars attacked the Byzantine principality of Theodoro, the last stronghold of the empire. Under their onslaught, the principality was destroyed, and the lands were included in the Khanate.

In the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate reached the peak of its power. The khans pursued an active foreign policy, oriented towards wars of conquest and numerous predatory raids, mainly against Poland and the Russian kingdom. The main goal of the raids was not just booty, but living people who were turned into slaves. The khans took slaves to the slave city of Kafa, from where they were sold in most cases to the Ottoman Empire.

warriors of the Crimean Khanate photo

The production of slaves was an important economic activity for any Tatar warrior. In the Crimean Khanate itself, slavery was greatly limited; they were released after six years according to customs.

In 1571, the Khanate gained military power and, despite the agreement with Muscovy, made a daring campaign, the reward being the capital of the state - Moscow. The Tatars captured Moscow, after which they plundered and burned it. In addition, the Tatars killed about a hundred thousand inhabitants and took fifty thousand prisoners. This was a serious blow for Moscow. A year later, the kingdom took revenge, but still paid a large tribute to the Tatars every year, until the accession of the young Peter I to the throne.

In the middle of the 17th century, the Tatars helped Bogdan Khmelnitsky in the war against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During their campaigns they capture large amounts of booty and prisoners. However, at the decisive moment, the Tatars betray the Cossacks and return home, which became the reason for the defeat of Bogdan Khmelnitsky’s national liberation war. Until the end of the century, the Tatars, together with the Ottomans, participated in a series of wars against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (successfully) and the Muscovite kingdom (less successfully).

Crimean Khanate and Russia

During the Northern War between Moscow and Sweden, the Tatars take the side of Sweden and the Cossacks, who were allies of the Swedish king. During the Battle of Poltava, the Tatars were forbidden to go to war against Moscow, but already in 1711 they set out with a large army to plunder Russian cities.

The young Tsar Peter I tried to defeat the Tatar army, but they surrounded the Tsar, and Peter was almost captured. The Moscow Tsar was forced to pay a large ransom and conclude a peace with the Tatars that was unfavorable for his state. This was the last rise of the Crimean Khanate - in subsequent years, Peter I would prepare a new type of army and create a powerful dynasty that would destroy the Khanate.

Undermining the power of the Khanate

In 1735-1738, the Crimean Khan was absent with his army, and the Russian army took advantage of this situation - Crimea was completely plundered, and the Khan returned to the ashes. In 1736, the Russian army attacks Bakhchisarai and burns it, and kills all the inhabitants who did not manage to escape. After the first campaign, hunger and disease reigned in Crimea, and only they became the reasons that the Russian army refused to go on another campaign.

In the period from 1736 to 1738, the economy of the Khanate was almost completely destroyed - a huge part of the population was exterminated, and the rest was under threat of death from cholera. The most important cities for the state also lay in ruins.

Crimean Khanate. captured photos

In 1768, the Crimean Khanate, together with the Ottoman Porte, waged war against the Russian Empire, which at that moment was already ruled by the ambitious Catherine II. During the fighting, the Tatars suffer a crushing defeat, which calls into question the existence of the state at all. However, Catherine, for a number of reasons, did not want to completely liquidate the Khanate, but only demanded that the Ottoman Empire renounce vassalage over the Crimean Khan.

During the war, the territory of the Khanate was once again plundered and the cities burned. In addition, the southern part of the peninsula came under the control of the Ottoman Empire, which was no longer an ally of the Khanate.

Rulers

The most famous khans were:

• Haji I Giray, the founder of the Crimean Khanate and the ancestor of the dynasty, managed to create a strong state;
• Mengli I Giray - during his reign, the Khanate established close relations with the Ottoman Empire, was the grandfather of Suleiman the Magnificent;
• Sahib I Giray - during his reign he built the future capital of the state - Bakhchisarai;
• Islyam III Giray - participated in the national liberation war of Bohdan Khmelnitsky and the independence of the Zaporozhye liberties against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Culture

From the very beginning of their existence, the Crimean Tatars were believers of Islam. However, in most of the Nogai tribes, which were also part of the Khanate, old pagan traditions still remained, including shamanism. Despite the fact that the Tatars were considered an exclusively nomadic people, they still built cities and defensive fortresses.

Crimean Khanate. embroidered belts photo

Although the Tatars loved to live in the middle of an open field where they raised cattle, many still preferred to live in cities where they were protected by walls. The Tatars were actively engaged in winemaking, smelting iron and making high-quality sabers. Women weaved, embroidered, sewed.

Being deeply religious, the khans built a huge number of mosques. More than one and a half thousand mosques were built in Crimea alone before the 18th century.

Wars

In the Crimean Khanate, war was a way of survival, so absolutely all male representatives were liable for military service: from small to large feudal lords. For a long period of time, the Crimean Khanate did not create regular troops. During the hostilities, the Crimean Khan called up the entire male population of the khanate and went to war with a huge militia army.

Every boy had to learn military craft from an early age. The most important point of his training was horse riding, because the Tatars fought on horseback. The Crimean Tatars rarely attacked regular armies first, but only raided neighboring territories and only if they were sure that the raid would end successfully.

Poor people willingly wanted to go on a campaign, because the loot that they got during the fighting went to them, with the exception of a fifth of the loot, which was taken by the khan. The Tatars loved to fight in light armor and weapons. A light saddle or just a skin was put on the horse. They protected themselves either by ordinary clothing or wore light armor.

The favorite weapon of the Tatars is the saber. Also, every Tatar warrior had a bow and arrows. Ropes were indispensable during the campaign; the Tatars used them to tie up prisoners. Noble Tatar warriors could afford chain mail. On military campaigns, the Tatars did not even take tents with them. Sources say that they slept right in the open air.

The Tatars could only fight in the open field, where they could use their advantage in cavalry and numerical superiority. If the horde did not have a numerical advantage, they tried to avoid battle. The Tatars did not like to besiege fortresses, because they did not have siege weapons for this.

Joining Russia

The last Crimean Khan, Shahin Giray, tried to save his state and completely reform it, making the Khanate a European-style state. The reforms did not gain popularity among ordinary people, and the khan was expelled from his own country. Ordinary Tatars began to raid Russian territories again, regardless of the agreements.

At the beginning of the 1780s, the Khanate no longer had any financial means for existence, no economy, no army that could, if necessary, protect the few Crimean people. In April 1783, Catherine II issued a decree stating that the Crimean Khanate would be liquidated as a state unit and become part of the Russian Empire. In 1784, Catherine proclaimed herself empress of these lands. And in 1791, the Ottoman Empire officially recognized that Crimea was a Russian possession.

• There is information that the ancestors of the Tatars reached the shores of Japan in the 7th century AD and there taught the local population the art of forging swords from first-class steel. Later, the Japanese improved the technology somewhat and began to forge the legendary swords - “katanas”. It is likely that it was the Tatars who contributed to this process;
• The population of the Crimean Khanate was extremely educated - almost all Tatars could speak and write fluently in the Tatar language.

Crimean Khanate: history, territory, political structure

The Crimean Khanate arose in 1441. This event was preceded by unrest in the Golden Horde. In fact, a separatist then ascended the throne in Crimea - Hadji Giray, a distant relative of Janike Khanum, the wife of the Golden Horde khan Edigei. Khansha did not want to take the reins of government of the once powerful state into her own hands and went to Kyrk-Or, assisting in the promotion of Hadji Giray. Soon this city became the first capital of the Crimean Khanate, which occupied the territory from the Dnieper to the Danube, the Azov region, and almost the entire modern Krasnodar region.

The further history of the new political entity is a tireless struggle with representatives of other Golden Horde clans who tried to conquer the possessions of the Gireys. As a result of a long confrontation, the Crimean Khanate managed to win a final victory, when in 1502 the last Horde ruler, Sheikh Ahmed, passed away. Mengli-Girey then stood at the head of the Crimean yurt. Having removed his political enemy, the khan appropriated his regalia, title and status, but all this did not save him from the constant raids of the steppe people, who continually infiltrated the Crimea. Modern historians are inclined to believe that the Crimean Khanate never intended to seize foreign territories. It is likely that all the actions taken by the Crimean khans were aimed at preserving and consolidating their power, and at fighting the influential Horde clan of the Namagans.

All this can be traced even in individual historical episodes. So, after the death of Khan Akhmat, the Crimean Khanate decided to improve relations with his sons and hospitably sheltered them. But the heirs to the Horde throne decided to leave the khan’s capital, for which Mengli-Girey took one of them prisoner. The second - Sheikh Ahmed - fled. The third son, Seid-Ahmed II, who at that time became the Horde khan, organized a campaign against the Crimea. Having freed Murtaza, Seyid-Ahmed II took Eski-Kyrym, and then went to Kefa.

At that time, Turkish heavy artillery was already stationed in the Cafe, which forced the Horde to flee without looking back. This is how the friendly gesture of the Crimean Khan served as a pretext for the next devastation of the peninsula, and the Turks showed that they could defend the territories that were under their influence. Then Mengli-Girey caught up with the offenders and took away the property and captives looted from the Khanate.

The relations between the Khanate and the Ottoman Empire occupy a special place in the history of Crimea. In the second half of the 15th century, Turkish troops occupied the Genoese possessions of the peninsula and the territory of the Principality of Theodoro. The Crimean Khanate also found itself in Turkish dependence, but from 1478 the khan became a vassal of the padishah and continued to rule the internal regions of the peninsula. At first, the Sultan did not interfere in issues of succession to the throne in the Crimean Khanate, but a century later everything changed: Crimean rulers were appointed directly in Istanbul.

It is interesting that a political regime specific to that time operated in the yurt. Something like democracy. On the peninsula there were elections for the khan, during which the votes of the local nobility were taken into account. However, there was one limitation - the future ruler of the Khanate could only belong to the Girey family. The second political figure after the khan was the kalga. Kalga, most often, was appointed the brother of the ruler of the khanate. Representative power in the Khanate belonged to the Greater and Lesser Divans. The first included the Murzas and respected people of the area, the second included officials close to the khan. Legislative power was in the hands of the mufti, who ensured that all the laws of the khanate were in accordance with Sharia. The role of modern ministers in the Crimean Khanate was played by viziers; they were appointed by the khan.

Few people know that the Crimean Khanate contributed to the liberation of Rus' from the Golden Horde yoke. This happened under Sheikh-Ahmed's father. Then the Horde Khan Akhmat withdrew his troops without engaging in battle with the Russians, because he did not wait for Polish-Lithuanian reinforcements, which were held back by the Crimean Tatar warriors. Contrary to popular belief, relations between the Khan's Crimea and Moscow were friendly for a long time. Under Ivan III they had a common enemy - Sarai. The Crimean Khan helped Moscow get rid of the Horde yoke, and then began to call the tsar “his brother,” thereby recognizing him as an equal, instead of imposing tribute on the kingdom.

The rapprochement with Moscow shook the friendly relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Lithuanian-Polish principality. Casimir found a common language with the Horde khans, having quarreled with Crimea for a long time. Over time, Moscow began to move away from the Crimean Khanate: the struggle for the lands of the Caspian and Volga regions led to the fact that the king sought support among those very Namagans with whom the Gireys could not share power for a long time. Under Ivan IV the Terrible, Devlet I Giray wanted to restore the independence of Kazan and the Caspian Sea, the Turks volunteered to help the khan, but he did not allow him to interfere in the sphere of influence of the Crimean Khanate. At the end of the spring of 1571, the Tatars burned Moscow, after which the Moscow sovereigns until the end of the 17th century. were forced to pay the Crimean Khan regular “wake” payments.

After the formation of the Ukrainian Hetman State, the Crimean Khanate collaborated with the rulers of the Cossack state. It is known that Khan Islam III Giray helped Bogdan Khmelnitsky during the liberation war with Poland, and after the battle of Poltava, Crimean troops went to Kiev along with the people of Pylyp Orlik, Mazepa’s successor. In 1711, Peter I lost the battle with the Turkish-Tatar troops, after which the Russian Empire was forced to forget about the Black Sea region for several decades.

Between 1736 and 1738 The Crimean Khanate was swallowed up by the Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the fighting, many people died, some of whom were killed by a cholera epidemic. The Crimean Khanate sought revenge, and therefore contributed to the outbreak of a new war between Russia and Turkey, which began in 1768 and lasted until 1774. However, Russian troops again won and forced the Crimeans to submit, electing Sahib II Giray as khan. Soon, uprisings began on the peninsula; the local population did not want to come to terms with the new authorities. The last khan on the peninsula was Shahin Giray, but after he abdicated the throne, in 1783 Catherine II finally annexed the lands of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire.

Development of agriculture, crafts, trade in the Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Tatars, like their ancestors, greatly valued animal husbandry, which was a way of earning money and obtaining food. Among their domestic animals, horses were in first place. Some sources claim that the Tatars have preserved two different breeds that have long lived in the Northern Black Sea region, preventing their mixing. Others say that it was in the Crimean Khanate that a new type of horse was formed, which was distinguished by unprecedented endurance at that time. Horses, as a rule, grazed in the steppe, but they were always looked after by a herdmaster, who was also a veterinarian and breeder. A professional approach was also evident in the breeding of sheep, which were a source of dairy products and rare Crimean smushkas. In addition to horses and sheep, the Crimean Tatars raised cattle, goats and camels.

The Crimean Tatars did not know settled agriculture even in the first half of the 16th century. For a long time, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate plowed the land in the steppe in order to leave there in the spring and return only in the fall, when it was time to harvest. In the process of transition to a sedentary lifestyle, a class of Crimean Tatar feudal lords emerged. Over time, territories began to be distributed for military merit. At the same time, the khan was the owner of all the lands of the Crimean Khanate.

The crafts of the Crimean Khanate were initially of a domestic nature, but closer to the beginning of the 18th century, the cities of the peninsula began to acquire the status of large craft centers. Among such settlements were Bakhchisaray, Karasubazar, Gezlev. In the last century of the Khanate's existence, craft workshops began to appear there. The specialists working in them united into 32 corporations, which were headed by the Usta-Bashi and his assistants. The latter monitored production and regulated prices.

Crimean artisans of that time made shoes and clothes, jewelry, copper dishes, felt, kilims (carpets) and much more. Among the craftsmen there were those who knew how to process wood. Thanks to their work, ships, beautiful houses, inlaid chests that can be called works of art, cradles, tables and other household items appeared in the Crimean Khanate. Among other things, the Crimean Tatars knew a lot about stone cutting. This is evidenced by the Durbe tombs and mosques that have partially survived to this day.

The basis of the economy of the Crimean Khanate was trading activity. It is difficult to imagine this Muslim state without Kafa. The Kafin port received merchants from almost all over the world. People from Asia, Persia, Constantinople and other cities and powers regularly visited there. Traders came to Kef to buy slaves, bread, fish, caviar, wool, handicrafts and much more. They were attracted to Crimea, first of all, by cheap goods. It is known that wholesale markets were located in Eski-Kyrym and in the city of Karasubazar. The Khanate's internal trade also flourished. In Bakhchisarai alone there was a grain, vegetable and salt market. In the capital of the Crimean Khanate there were entire blocks reserved for trading shops.

Life, culture and religion of the Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Khanate is a state with a well-developed culture, represented mainly by examples of architecture and traditions. The largest city of the Crimean Khanate was Kafa. About 80,000 people lived there. Bakhchisarai was the capital and second largest settlement of the Khanate, where only 6,000 people lived. The capital differed from other cities in the presence of the Khan's palace, however, all Crimean Tatar settlements were built with soul. The architecture of the Crimean Khanate includes amazing mosques, fountains, tombs... The houses of ordinary citizens, as a rule, were two-story, built of wood, clay and rubble.

Crimean Tatars wore clothes made of wool, leather, homespun and purchased overseas materials. The girls braided their hair, decorated their heads with a velvet cap with rich embroidery and coins, and put a marama (white scarf) on top of it. An equally common headdress was a scarf, which could be woolen, thin, or colored patterned. As for clothing, the Crimean Tatars had long dresses, shirts below the knees, trousers and warm kaftans. Women of the Crimean Khanate were very fond of jewelry, especially rings and bracelets. The men wore black lambskin hats, fez or skullcaps on their heads. They tucked their shirts into trousers, wore sleeveless vest-like vests, jackets and caftans.

The main religion of the Crimean Khanate was Islam. Important government positions in Crimea belonged to Sunnis. However, Shiites and even Christians lived quite peacefully on the peninsula. Among the population of the Khanate there were people who were brought to the peninsula as Christian slaves and then converted to Islam. After a certain period of time - 5-6 years - they became free citizens, after which they could go to their native territories. But not everyone left the beautiful peninsula: often former slaves remained to live in Crimea. Boys kidnapped in Russian lands also became Muslims. Such youths were brought up in a special military school and within a few years they joined the ranks of the Khan's guard. Muslims prayed in mosques, near which there were cemeteries and mausoleums.

So, the Crimean Khanate was formed as a result of the split of the Golden Horde. This happened around the 40th year of the 15th century, possibly in 1441. Its first khan was Hadji Giray, he became the founder of the ruling dynasty. The end of the existence of the Crimean Khanate is associated with the annexation of Crimea to the Russian Empire in 1783.

The Khanate included lands that previously belonged to the Mongol-Tatars, including the principality of Kyrk-Or, conquered in the second half of the 14th century. Kyrk-Or was the first capital of the Gireys; later the khans lived in Bakhchisarai. Relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Genoese territories of the peninsula (then Turkish) can be described as friendly.

The khan either allied or fought with Moscow. The Russian-Crimean confrontation escalated after the arrival of the Ottomans. Since 1475, the Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. Since then, Istanbul has decided who will sit on the Crimean throne. According to the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty of 1774, all Turkish possessions in Crimea, except for Kerch and Yeni-Kale, became part of the Crimean Khanate. The main religion of political education is Islam.