He wrote a work called genius and madness. Genius and madness

Cesare Lombroso

Genius and madness. Parallel between great men and madmen

When, many years ago, being as if under the influence of ecstasy (raptus), during which the relationship between genius and insanity seemed to me as if in a mirror, I wrote the first chapters of this book in 12 days 1). I confess that even I myself was not clear to what serious practical conclusions the theory I created could lead to. I did not expect that it would provide the key to understanding the mysterious essence of genius and to explain those strange religious manias that were sometimes the core of great historical events, that it would help establish a new point of view for assessing the artistic creativity of geniuses by comparing their works in the field of art and literature with the same works of madmen and, finally, that it will provide enormous services to forensic medicine.

Little by little, I was convinced of such an important practical significance of the new theory by both the documentary works of Adriani, Paoli, Frigerio, Maxime Ducamp, Rive and Verga regarding the development of artistic talents among the insane, as well as the high-profile trials of recent times - Mangione, Passanante, Lazaretti, Guiteau, which proved everyone that the mania for writing is not just a kind of psychiatric curiosity, but directly a special form of mental illness and that the subjects obsessed with it, apparently completely normal, are all the more dangerous members of society because it is difficult to immediately notice a mental disorder in them, and between Thus, they are capable of extreme fanaticism and, like religious maniacs, can even cause historical upheavals in the lives of peoples. That is why it seemed to me extremely useful to re-examine the previous topic on the basis of the latest data and on a broader scale. I will not hide that I even consider him brave, in view of the bitterness with which the rhetoricians of science and politics, with the ease of newspaper writers and in the interests of one or another party, try to ridicule people who prove, contrary to the nonsense of metaphysicians, but with scientific data in their hands complete insanity, due to mental illness, of some of the so-called “criminals” and mental disorder of many persons hitherto considered, according to generally accepted opinion, to be completely sane.

To the caustic ridicule and petty quibbles of our opponents, we, following the example of the original who moved in their presence to convince people who denied the movement, will only respond by collecting new facts and new evidence in favor of our theory. What could be more convincing than facts and who would deny them? Perhaps only the ignorant, but their triumph will soon come to an end.

1) Genius and insanity. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic course given at the University of Pavia. Milan, 1863.

I. SIMILARITY OF GENIUS PEOPLE AND PHYSIOLOGICALLY INSANE PEOPLE

No matter how cruel and sad this kind of paradox may be, if we consider it from a scientific point of view, we will find that in some respects it is quite reasonable, although at first glance it seems absurd.

Many of the great thinkers are subject, like madmen, to convulsive muscle contractions and are distinguished by sharp, so-called “trochaic” body movements. Thus, it is said about Lenau and Montesquieu that on the floor near the tables where they studied, one could notice indentations from the constant twitching of their legs. Buffon, immersed in his thoughts, once climbed the bell tower and descended from there by rope completely unconsciously, as if in a fit of somnambulism. Santeil, Crebillon, Lombardini had strange facial expressions, similar to grimaces. Napoleon suffered from constant twitching of his right shoulder and lips, and during fits of anger, also in his calves. “I was probably very angry,” he himself once admitted after a heated argument with Lowe, “because I felt my calves trembling, which had not happened to me for a long time.” Peter the Great was subject to twitching of the facial muscles, which horribly distorted his face.

“Carducci’s face,” says Mantegazza, “at times resembles a hurricane: lightning rains from his eyes, and the trembling of his muscles resembles an earthquake.”

Ampere could not speak otherwise than by walking and moving all his limbs. It is known that the normal composition of urine, and especially the urea content in it, changes markedly after manic attacks. The same thing is noticed after intense mental exercise. Already many years ago, Golding Bird made the observation that one English preacher, who spent the entire week in idleness and only preached sermons with great fervor on Sundays, precisely on that day the content of phosphate salts in the urine increased significantly, while on other days it was extremely insignificant. Subsequently, Smith confirmed with many observations the fact that with any mental stress the amount of urea in the urine increases, and in this respect the analogy between genius and madness seems undeniable.

From this abnormal abundance of urea, or rather from this new confirmation of the law of balance between force and matter, which governs the entire world of living beings, other, more amazing analogies can be deduced: for example, gray hair and baldness, thinness of the body, and also poor muscular and sexual activity, characteristic of all madmen, is very often found in great thinkers. Caesar was afraid of the pale and thin Cassiev. D'Alembert, Fenelon, Napoleon were as thin as skeletons in their youth. About Voltaire, Segur writes: “Thinness proves how hard he works; his emaciated and bent body serves only as a light, almost transparent shell, through which you seem to see the soul and genius of this person."

Paleness has always been considered an accessory and even an adornment of great people. In addition, thinkers, along with crazy people, are characterized by: constant overflow of the brain with blood (hyperemia), intense heat in the head and cooling of the extremities, a tendency to acute diseases of the brain and poor sensitivity to hunger and cold.

There are frequent cases when, due to the same reasons that so often cause madness, i.e. Due to illnesses and head injuries, the most ordinary people turn into geniuses. As a child, Vico fell from a tall staircase and crushed his right parietal bone. Gratri, at first a bad singer, became a famous artist after severely bruising his head with a log. Mabille-on, completely weak-minded from a young age, achieved fame for his talents, which developed in him as a result of a wound to his head. Gall, who reported this fact, knew a half-idiot Dane whose mental abilities became brilliant after he, at the age of 13, fell headfirst down the stairs 3). Several years ago, a cretin from Savoy, bitten by a mad dog, became a completely reasonable man in the last days of his life. Dr. Galle knew limited people whose mental abilities were unusually developed as a result of brain diseases (mi-dollo).

“It may very well be that my illness (spinal cord disease) gave my latest works some kind of abnormal shade,” Heine says with amazing insight in one of his letters. It must be added, however, that the illness affected in this way not only his last works, and he himself was aware of this. A few months before the intensification of his illness, Heine wrote about himself (Correspondace inedite. Paris, 1877): “My mental excitement is more likely the result of illness than genius - in order to at least a little assuage my suffering, I composed poetry. On these terrible nights, mad with pain, my poor head rushes from side to side and makes the bells of my worn out stupid cap ring with cruel gaiety.”

Bisha and von der Kolk noticed that people with crooked necks have a more alert mind than ordinary people. Conolly had one patient whose mental faculties were stimulated during operations on him, and several such patients who showed special talent in the first periods of consumption and gout. Everyone knows how witty and cunning humpbacks are; Rokitansky even tried to explain this by saying that their aorta, giving rise to the vessels going to the head, makes a bend,

Genius and madness

Cesare Lombroso
Genius and madness
Content
Parallel between great men and madmen
I. Introduction to Historical Review.
II. The similarity between genius people and crazy people in physiological terms.
III. The influence of atmospheric phenomena on people of genius and on the insane.
IV. The influence of meteorological phenomena on the birth of brilliant people.
V. The influence of race and heredity on genius and insanity.
VI. Brilliant people who suffered from insanity: Garrington, Bolian, Codazzi, Ampere, Kent, Schumann, Tasso, Cardano, Swift, Newton, Rousseau, Lenau, Szcheni, Schopenhauer.
VII. Examples of geniuses, poets, comedians and other crazy people.
VIII. Crazy artists and artists.
IX. Mattoid graphomaniacs, or psychopaths.
X. "Prophets" and revolutionaries. Savonarola. Lazaretti.
XI. Special characteristics of brilliant people who at the same time suffered from insanity.
XII. Exceptional characteristics of brilliant people.
Conclusion
Applications
th AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
When, many years ago, being, as it were, under the influence of ecstasy (raptus), during which the relationship between genius and insanity appeared to me as if in a mirror, I wrote the first chapters of this book in 12 days*. I confess that even I myself was not clear to what serious practical conclusions the theory I created could lead to. I did not expect that it would provide the key to understanding the mysterious essence of genius and to explain those strange religious manias that were sometimes the core of great historical events, that it would help establish a new point of view for assessing the artistic creativity of geniuses by comparing their works in the field of art and literature with the same works of madmen and, finally, that it will provide enormous services to forensic medicine.
[Genius and madness. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic course given at the University of Pavia. Milan, 1863.]
Little by little, I was convinced of such an important practical significance of the new theory by both the documentary works of Adriani, Paoli, Frigerio, Maxime Ducamp, Rive and Verga regarding the development of artistic talents among the insane, as well as the high-profile trials of recent times - Mangione, Passanante, Lazaretti, Guiteau, who proved to everyone that the mania for writing is not just a kind of psychiatric curiosity, but directly a special form of mental illness and that the subjects obsessed with it, apparently completely normal, are all the more dangerous members of society because it is difficult to immediately notice a mental disorder in them, and Meanwhile, they are capable of extreme fanaticism and, like religious maniacs, can even cause historical upheavals in the lives of peoples. That is why it seemed to me extremely useful to re-examine the previous topic on the basis of the latest data and on a broader scale. I will not hide that I even consider him brave, in view of the bitterness with which the rhetoricians of science and politics, with the ease of newspaper writers and in the interests of one or another party, try to ridicule people who prove, contrary to the nonsense of metaphysicians, but with scientific data in their hands complete insanity, due to mental illness, of some of the so-called “criminals” and mental disorder of many persons hitherto considered, according to generally accepted opinion, to be completely sane.
To the caustic ridicule and petty quibbles of our opponents, we, following the example of the original who moved in their presence to convince people who denied the movement, will only respond by collecting new facts and new evidence in favor of our theory. What could be more convincing than facts and who would deny them? Perhaps only the ignorant, but their triumph will soon come to an end.
Prof. C. Lombroso Turin, January 1, 1882
I. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL REVIEW
Our duty is extremely sad - with the help of inexorable analysis, to destroy and destroy, one after another, those bright, rosy illusions with which man deceives and exalts himself in his arrogant insignificance; it is all the more sad that in return for these pleasant delusions, these idols, which have served as objects of adoration for so long, we can offer him nothing but a cold smile of compassion. But the servant of truth must inevitably submit to its laws. Thus, due to fatal necessity, he comes to the conviction that love is, in essence, nothing more than the mutual attraction of stamens and pistils... and thoughts are the simple movement of molecules. Even genius - this is the only sovereign power that belongs to a person, before which one can bend the knee without blushing - even many psychiatrists have put it on the same level with the tendency to crime, even in it they see only one of the teratological (ugly) forms of the human mind, one of the varieties of madness. And note that such profanation, such blasphemy is not only allowed by doctors, and not exclusively in our skeptical times.
Even Aristotle, this great ancestor and teacher of all philosophers, noted that under the influence of a rush of blood to the head, “many individuals become poets, prophets or soothsayers and that Mark of Syracuse wrote quite good poetry while he was a maniac, but, having recovered, completely lost this ability ".
He says in another place: “It has been noticed that famous poets, politicians and artists were partly melancholic and insane, partly misanthropes, like Bellerophon. Even today we see the same thing in Socrates, Empedocles, Plato and others, and most powerfully in poets. People with cold, abundant blood (lit. bile) are timid and limited, and people with hot blood are active, witty and talkative."
Plato argues that “delirium is not a disease at all, but, on the contrary, the greatest of the blessings given to us by the gods; under the influence of delirium, the Delphic and Dodonian soothsayers provided thousands of services to the citizens of Greece, whereas in their ordinary state they brought little benefit or were completely useless It happened many times that when the gods sent epidemics to the people, one of the mortals fell into a sacred delirium and, under its influence, became a prophet, indicated a cure for these diseases. A special kind of delirium, excited by the muses, evokes in the simple and immaculate soul of a person the ability to express in beautiful poetic form the exploits of heroes, which contributes to the education of future generations."
Democritus even directly said that he does not consider a person of sound mind to be a true poet. Excludit sanos, Helicone poetas.
As a result of such views on madness, the ancient peoples treated the insane with great respect, considering them to be inspired from above, which is confirmed, in addition to historical facts, by the fact that the words mania are in Greek, navi and mesugan are in Hebrew, and nigrata is - in Sanskrit they mean both madness and prophecy.
Felix Plater claims that he knew many people who, while distinguished by remarkable talent in various arts, were at the same time crazy. Their insanity was expressed by an absurd passion for praise, as well as strange and indecent actions. By the way, Plater met at court an architect, sculptor and musician who enjoyed great fame and were undoubtedly crazy. Even more outstanding facts were collected by F. Gazoni in Italy, in the “Hospital for the Incurable Mentally Ill.” His work was translated (into Italian) by Longoal in 1620. Of the writers closer to us, Pascal constantly said that the greatest genius borders on complete madness, and subsequently proved this by his own example. The same was confirmed by Hecart regarding his comrades, scientists and at the same time madmen, like himself. He published his observations in 1823 under the title: “Stultitsiana, or a short bibliography of the madmen in Valenciennes, compiled by a madman.” The same subject was dealt with by Delnier, a passionate bibliographer, in his interesting "Histoire littraire des fous", 1860, by Forgues in an excellent essay published in the Revue de Paris, 1826, and by an unknown author in "Sketches of Bedlam" (Sketches). in Bedlam. London, 1873).
Recently, Lelu - in Dmon de Socrate, 1856, and BAmulet de Pascal, 1846, Verga - in Lipemania del Tasso, 1850, and Lombroso in Pazzia di Cardano, 1856, have proven that many men of genius, for example, Swift, Luther, Cardano, Brougham and others suffered from insanity, hallucinations or were monomaniacs for a long time. Moreau, who dwells with particular love on the least plausible facts, in his last work Psychologia morbide, and Schilling in his Psychiatrische Briefe, 1863, tried to prove with the help of careful, although not always strictly scientific research, that genius is, in any case, something like a nervous abnormality, often turning into real madness. Similar conclusions, approximately, were made by Hagen in his article “On the affinity between genius and madness” (Veber die Verwandschaft Gnies und Irresein, Berlin. 1877) and partly also by Jurgen Meyer in his excellent monograph “Genius and Talent”. Both of these scientists, who tried to more accurately establish the physiology of the genius, came, through the most careful analysis of the facts, to the same conclusions that were expressed more than a hundred years ago, more on the basis of experience than strict observations, by one Italian Jesuit, Bettinelli, in his now already completely forgotten, the book Dell "entusiasmo nelle belle arti. Milan, 1769.
yyy II. SIMILARITY OF GENIUS PEOPLE AND PHYSIOLOGICALLY INSANE PEOPLE
No matter how cruel and sad this kind of paradox may be, if we consider it from a scientific point of view, we will find that in some respects it is quite reasonable, although at first glance it seems absurd.
Many of the great thinkers are subject, like madmen, to convulsive muscle contractions and are distinguished by sharp, so-called “trochaic” body movements. Thus, it is said about Lenau and Montesquieu that on the floor near the tables where they studied, one could notice indentations from the constant twitching of their legs. Buffon, immersed in his thoughts, once climbed the bell tower and descended from there by rope completely unconsciously, as if in a fit of somnambulism. Santeil, Crebillon, Lombardini had strange facial expressions, similar to grimaces. Napoleon suffered from constant twitching of his right shoulder and lips, and during fits of anger, also in his calves. “I was probably very angry,” he himself once admitted after a heated argument with Lowe, “because I felt my calves trembling, which had not happened to me for a long time.” Peter the Great was subject to twitching of the facial muscles, which horribly distorted his face.
“Carducci’s face,” says Mantegazza, “at times resembles a hurricane: lightning rains from his eyes, and the trembling of his muscles resembles an earthquake.”
Ampere could not speak otherwise than by walking and moving all his limbs. It is known that the normal composition of urine, and especially the urea content in it, changes markedly after manic attacks. The same thing is noticed after intense mental exercise. Already many years ago, Golding Bird made the observation that one English preacher, who spent the entire week in idleness and only preached sermons with great fervor on Sundays, precisely on that day the content of phosphate salts in the urine increased significantly, while on other days it was extremely insignificant. Subsequently, Smith confirmed with many observations the fact that with any mental stress the amount of urea in the urine increases, and in this respect the analogy between genius and madness seems undeniable.
From this abnormal abundance of urea, or rather from this new confirmation of the law of balance between force and matter, which governs the entire world of living beings, other, more amazing analogies can be deduced: for example, gray hair and baldness, thinness of the body, and also poor muscular and sexual activity, characteristic of all madmen, is very often found in great thinkers. Caesar was afraid of the pale and thin Cassiev. D'Alembert, Fenelon, Napoleon were thin as skeletons in their youth. About Voltaire, Segur writes: “Thinness proves how hard he works; his emaciated and bent body serves only as a light, almost transparent shell, through which you seem to see the soul and genius of this man.”
Paleness has always been considered an accessory and even an adornment of great people. In addition, thinkers, along with crazy people, are characterized by: constant overflow of the brain with blood (hyperemia), intense heat in the head and cooling of the extremities, a tendency to acute diseases of the brain and poor sensitivity to hunger and cold.
It can be said about brilliant people, just like about crazy people, that they remain lonely, cold, and indifferent to the responsibilities of a family man and a member of society all their lives. Michelangelo constantly insisted that his art replaced his wife. Goethe, Heine, Byron, Cellini, Napoleon, Newton, although they did not say this, by their actions they proved something even worse.
There are frequent cases when, due to the same reasons that so often cause madness, i.e. Due to illnesses and head injuries, the most ordinary people turn into geniuses. As a child, Vico fell from a tall staircase and crushed his right parietal bone. Gratri, at first a bad singer, became a famous artist after severely bruising his head with a log. Mabille-on, completely weak-minded from a young age, achieved fame for his talents, which developed in him as a result of a wound to his head. Gall, who reported this fact, knew a half-idiot Dane whose mental abilities became brilliant after he, at the age of 13, fell head first down the stairs*. Several years ago, a cretin from Savoy, bitten by a mad dog, became a completely reasonable man in the last days of his life. Dr. Galle knew limited people whose mental abilities were unusually developed as a result of brain diseases (mi-dollo).
[The late Metropolitan of Moscow Macarius, distinguished by a remarkably bright mind, was such a sickly and stupid child that he was completely unable to study. But in the seminary, one of his comrades, during a game, pierced his head with a stone, and after that Macarius’ abilities became brilliant, and his health completely improved.]
“It may very well be that my illness (spinal cord disease) gave my latest works some kind of abnormal shade,” Heine says with amazing insight in one of his letters. It must be added, however, that the illness affected in this way not only his last works, and he himself was aware of this. A few months before his illness intensified, Heine wrote about himself (Correspondace indite. Paris, 1877): “My mental agitation is more the result of illness than genius - in order to at least a little calm my suffering, I wrote poetry. On these terrible nights, mad with pain, my poor head rushes from side to side and makes the bells of my worn-out stupid cap ring with cruel gaiety.”
Bisha and von der Kolk noticed that people with crooked necks have a more alert mind than ordinary people. Conolly had one patient whose mental faculties were stimulated during operations on him, and several such patients who showed special talent in the first periods of consumption and gout. Everyone knows how witty and cunning humpbacks are; Rokitansky even tried to explain this by the fact that their aorta, giving vessels going to the head, bends, resulting in an expansion of the volume of the heart and an increase in blood pressure in the skull.
This dependence of genius on pathological changes can partly explain the curious feature of genius compared to talent, in that it is something unconscious and manifests itself completely unexpectedly.
Jürgen Meyer says that a talented person acts strictly deliberately; he knows how and why he came to a certain theory, while this is completely unknown to a genius: all creative activity is unconscious.
Haydn attributed the creation of his famous oratorio “The Creation” to a mysterious gift sent from above. “When my work was not moving forward well,” he said, “I, with a rosary in my hands, retired to the chapel, read the Virgin Mary - and inspiration returned to me again.”
The Italian poetess Milli, while creating, almost involuntarily, her wonderful poems, worries, screams, sings, runs back and forth and seems to be in an epileptic fit.
Those people of genius who have observed themselves say that under the influence of inspiration they experience some inexpressibly pleasant feverish state, during which thoughts involuntarily arise in their minds and splash out of their own accord, like sparks from a burning brand.
Dante expressed this beautifully in the following three lines:
...I mi son un che, guando
Amore spira, noto ed in quel modo
Che detta dento vo significando.
(Inspired by love, I say what
what she tells me.)
Napoleon said that the outcome of battles depended on one moment, on one thought that temporarily remained inactive; when a favorable moment arrives, it flares up like a spark, and the result is victory (Moreau).
Bauer says that Koo's best poems were dictated to him in a state close to insanity. In those moments when these wonderful verses flowed from his lips, he was unable to reason even about the simplest things.
Foscolo admits in his Epistolario, the best work of this great mind, that the creative ability of a writer is determined by a special kind of mental excitement (fever), which cannot be caused at will.
“I write my letters,” he says, “not for the fatherland and not for the sake of glory, but for that inner pleasure that the exercise of our abilities gives us.”
Bettinelli calls poetic creativity a dream with open eyes, without loss of consciousness, and this is perhaps fair, since many poets dictated their poems in a state similar to sleep.
Goethe also says that a poet requires a certain cerebral stimulation and that he himself composed many of his songs while in a state of somnambulism.
Klopstock admits that when he wrote his poem, inspiration often came to him during sleep.
In a dream, Voltaire conceived one of the songs of the Henriade, Sardi conceived a theory of playing the harmonic, and Seckendorff conceived his charming song about Fantasia. Newton and Cardano solved mathematical problems in their sleep.
Muratori composed a pentameter in Latin in a dream many years after he stopped writing poetry. They say that while he was sleeping, La Fontaine composed the fable “Two Doves,” and Condillac finished the lecture he began the day before.
Coleridge's "Kubla" and Golde's "Fantasia" were composed in a dream.
Mozart admitted that musical ideas appeared to him involuntarily, like dreams, and Hoffmann often told his friends: “I work, sitting at the piano with my eyes closed, and reproduce what someone from the outside tells me.”
Lagrange noticed an irregular pulse in his heart when he wrote, while Alfieri’s eyes grew dark at the same time.
Lamartine often said: “It is not I who think, but my thoughts that think for me.”
Alfieri, who called himself a barometer - to such an extent did his creative abilities change depending on the time of year - with the onset of September could not resist the involuntary impulse that took possession of him, so strong that he had to give in and wrote six comedies. On one of his sonnets, he wrote the following inscription in his own hand: “Accidental. I didn’t want to write it.” This predominance of the unconscious in the work of brilliant people was noticed in ancient times.
Socrates was the first to point out that poets create their works not as a result of effort or art, but thanks to some natural instinct. In the same way, soothsayers say beautiful things without realizing it at all.
“All works of genius,” says Voltaire in a letter to Diderot, “are created instinctively. The philosophers of the whole world together could not have written Cinema’s Armide or the fable “The Sea of Beasts,” which La Fontaine dictated without even knowing well what would come of it. Corneille wrote the tragedy "Horace" as instinctively as a bird builds a nest."
Thus, the greatest ideas of thinkers, prepared, so to speak, by impressions already received and by the highly sensitive organization of the subject, are born suddenly and develop as unconsciously as the rash actions of madmen. This same unconsciousness explains the unshakability of convictions in people who have internalized fanatically known convictions. But as soon as the moment of ecstasy, excitement has passed, the genius turns into an ordinary person or falls even lower, since the lack of uniformity (balance) is one of the signs of a genius nature. Disraeli expressed this perfectly when he said that the best English poets, Shakespeare and Dryden, can also find the worst poetry. They said about the painter Tintoretto that he was sometimes higher than Carracci, sometimes lower than Tintoretto.
Ovidio quite correctly explains the dissimilarity of Tasso's style by his own admission that when inspiration disappeared, he was confused in his writings, did not recognize them and was not able to appreciate their merits.
There can be no doubt that there is a complete similarity between a man who is mad during a seizure and a man of genius thinking about and creating his work.
Remember the Latin proverb: “Aut insanit homo, aut versus fecit” (“Either a madman or a poet”).
This is how the doctor Revellier-Parat describes Tasso’s condition:
“The pulse is weak and uneven, the skin is pale, cold, the head is hot, inflamed, the eyes are shiny, bloodshot, restless, running around. At the end of the creative period, the author himself often does not understand what he stated a minute ago.”
Marini, when writing Adone, did not notice that he had severely burned his leg. During his creative period, Tasso seemed completely insane. In addition, when thinking about something, many artificially cause a rush of blood to the brain, such as Schiller, who put his feet on ice, Pitt and Fox, who prepared their speeches after drinking immoderate porter, and Paisiello, who composed only under the cover of many blankets. Milton and Descartes threw their heads back on the sofa, Bossuet retired to the cold room and put warm poultices on his head; Cujas worked while lying face down on the mat. There is a saying about Leibniz that he thought only in a horizontal position - to such an extent was it necessary for him for mental activity. Milton composed with his head thrown back on the pillow, and Thomas and Rossini while lying in bed; Rousseau pondered his works in the bright midday sun with his head open.
Obviously, they all instinctively used drugs that temporarily increase the flow of blood to the head to the detriment of the rest of the body. Here, by the way, it is worth mentioning that many of the gifted and especially brilliant people abused alcoholic beverages. Not to mention Alexander the Great, who, under the influence of intoxication, killed his best friend and died after draining the cup of Hercules ten times - Caesar himself was often carried home by soldiers on their shoulders. Socrates, Seneca, Alcibiades, Cato, and especially Septimius Severus and Mahmud II were so intemperate that they all died from drunkenness due to delirium tremens. The Constable of Bourbon, Avicenna, who is said to have devoted the second half of his life to proving the futility of the scientific information he acquired in the first half, and many painters, for example Carracci, Steen, Barbatelli, and a whole galaxy of poets - Murger, Gerard de Nerval, Musset, Kleist, Mailat and at their head Tasso, who wrote in one of his letters: “I do not deny that I am mad; but I like to think that my madness came from drunkenness and love, because I really drink a lot."
There are many drunkards among the great musicians, for example Dussek, Handel and Gluck, who said that “he considers it quite fair to love gold, wine and fame, because the first gives him the means to have the second, which, inspiring, gives him glory.” However, besides wine, he also loved vodka and finally got drunk on it.
It has been noticed that almost all the great creations of thinkers receive their final form, or at least become clear, under the influence of some special sensation, which here plays, so to speak, the role of a drop of salt water in a well-arranged voltaic column. Facts prove that all great discoveries were made under the influence of the senses, as Mole Schott also confirms. Several frogs, from which it was supposed to prepare a healing decoction for Galvani's wife, served as the basis for the discovery of galvanism. The isochronic (simultaneous) swinging of a chandelier and the falling of an apple prompted Newton and Galileo to create great systems. Alfieri composed and thought about his tragedies while listening to music. When Mozart saw an orange, he remembered a Neapolitan folk song that he had heard five years ago, and immediately wrote the famous cantata for the opera Don Giovanni. Looking at some porter, Leonardo conceived his Judas, and Thorvaldsen found a suitable pose for a sitting angel at the sight of his sitter’s antics. Inspiration first struck Salvatore Rosa while he was admiring the view of Posilino, and Hogarth found types for his caricatures in a tavern after a drunkard broke his nose there in a fight. Milton, Bacon, Leonardo and Warburton needed to hear the ringing of bells in order to get to work; Bourdalou, before dictating his immortal sermons, always played some aria on the violin. The reading of one ode by Spenser aroused a penchant for poetry in Cowley, and the book of Sacrobose made Gammad addicted to astronomy. While considering cancer, Watt came up with the idea of constructing a machine that would be extremely useful in industry, and Gibbon decided to write the history of Greece after he saw the ruins of the Capitol*.

When, many years ago, being, as it were, under the influence of ecstasy (raptus), during which the relationship between genius and insanity was clearly presented to me as if in a mirror, I wrote the first chapters of this book in 12 days. I confess that even I myself was not clear to what serious practical conclusions the theory I created could lead to. I did not expect that it would provide the key to understanding the mysterious essence of genius and to explain those strange religious manias that were sometimes the core of great historical events, that it would help establish a new point of view for assessing the artistic creativity of geniuses by comparing their works in the field of art and literature with the same works of madmen and, finally, that it will provide enormous services to forensic medicine.

Prof. C. Lombroso

I. SIMILARITY OF GENIUS PEOPLE AND PHYSIOLOGICALLY INSANE PEOPLE

Many of the great thinkers are subject, like madmen, to convulsive muscle contractions and are distinguished by sharp, so-called “trochaic” body movements.

Thus, it is said about Lenau and Montesquieu that on the floor near the tables where they studied, one could notice indentations from the constant twitching of their legs. Buffon, immersed in his thoughts, once climbed the bell tower and descended from there by rope completely unconsciously, as if in a fit of somnambulism. Santeil, Crebillon, Lombardini had strange facial expressions, similar to grimaces. Napoleon suffered from constant twitching of his right shoulder and lips, and during fits of anger, also in his calves. “I was probably very angry,” he himself once admitted after a heated argument with Lowe, “because I felt my calves trembling, which had not happened to me for a long time.” Peter the Great was subject to twitching of the facial muscles, which horribly distorted his face.

“Carducci’s face,” says Mantegazza, “at times resembles a hurricane: lightning rains from his eyes, and the trembling of his muscles resembles an earthquake.”

There are often cases when, due to the same reasons that so often cause madness, that is, due to illnesses and head injuries, the most ordinary people turn into geniuses. As a child, Vico fell from a tall staircase and crushed his right parietal bone. Gratri, at first a bad singer, became a famous artist after severely bruising his head with a log. Mabille-on, completely weak-minded from a young age, achieved fame for his talents, which developed in him as a result of a wound to his head. Gall, who reported this fact, knew a half-idiot Dane whose mental abilities became brilliant after he, at the age of 13, fell headfirst down the stairs 3). Several years ago, a cretin from Savoy, bitten by a mad dog, became a completely reasonable man in the last days of his life. Dr. Galle knew limited people whose mental abilities were unusually developed as a result of brain diseases (mi-dollo).

“It may very well be that my illness (spinal cord disease) gave my latest works some kind of abnormal shade,” Heine says with amazing insight in one of his letters. It must be added, however, that the illness affected in this way not only his last works, and he himself was aware of this. A few months before the intensification of his illness, Heine wrote about himself (Correspondace inedite. Paris, 1877): “My mental excitement is more likely the result of illness than genius - in order to at least a little calm my suffering, I composed poetry. On these terrible nights, mad with pain, my poor head rushes from side to side and makes the bells of my worn out stupid cap ring with cruel gaiety.”

Bisha and von der Kolk noticed that people with crooked necks have a more alert mind than ordinary people. Conolly had one patient whose mental faculties were stimulated during operations on him, and several such patients who showed special talent in the first periods of consumption and gout. Everyone knows how witty and cunning humpbacks are; Rokitansky even tried to explain this by the fact that their aorta, giving vessels going to the head, bends, resulting in an expansion of the volume of the heart and an increase in blood pressure in the skull.

This dependence of genius on pathological changes can partly explain the curious feature of genius compared to talent, in that it is something unconscious and manifests itself completely unexpectedly.

Jürgen Meyer says that a talented person acts strictly deliberately; he knows how and why he came to a certain theory, while this is completely unknown to a genius: all creative activity is unconscious.

Haydn attributed the creation of his famous oratorio “The Creation” to a mysterious gift sent from above. “When my work was not moving forward well,” he said, “I, with a rosary in my hands, retired to the chapel, read the Virgin Mary - and inspiration returned to me again.”

The Italian poetess Milli, while creating, almost involuntarily, her wonderful poems, worries, screams, sings, runs back and forth and seems to be in an epileptic fit.

Those people of genius who have observed themselves say that under the influence of inspiration they experience some inexpressibly pleasant feverish state, during which thoughts involuntarily arise in their minds and splash out of their own accord, like sparks from a burning brand.

Dante expressed this beautifully in the following three lines:

… I mi son un che, guando
Amore spira, noto ed in quel modo
Che detta dento vo significando. 1
Inspired by love, I say what it tells me.

Napoleon said that the outcome of battles depended on one moment, on one thought that temporarily remained inactive; when a favorable moment arrives, it flares up like a spark, and the result is victory (Moreau).

Bauer says that Koo's best poems were dictated to him in a state close to insanity. In those moments when these wonderful verses flowed from his lips, he was unable to reason even about the simplest things.

Foscolo admits in his Epistolario, the best work of this great mind, that the creative ability of a writer is determined by a special kind of mental excitement (fever), which cannot be caused at will.

“I write my letters,” he says, “not for the fatherland and not for the sake of glory, but for that inner pleasure that the exercise of our abilities gives us.”

Bettinelli calls poetic creativity a dream with open eyes, without loss of consciousness, and this is perhaps fair, since many poets dictated their poems in a state similar to sleep.

Goethe also says that a poet requires a certain cerebral stimulation and that he himself composed many of his songs while in a state of somnambulism.

Klopstock admits that when he wrote his poem, inspiration often came to him during sleep.

In a dream, Voltaire conceived one of the songs of the Henriade, Sardini - a theory of playing the harmonic, and Seckendorff - his charming song about Fantasia. Newton and Cardano solved mathematical problems in their sleep.

Muratori composed a pentameter in Latin in a dream many years after he stopped writing poetry. It is said that while he was sleeping, La Fontaine composed the fable “Two Doves,” and Condillac finished the lecture he began the day before.

Coleridge's Kubla and Golde's Fantasia were composed in a dream.

Mozart admitted that musical ideas appeared to him involuntarily, like dreams, and Hoffmann often told his friends: “I work, sitting at the piano with my eyes closed, and reproduce what someone from the outside tells me.”

Lagrange noticed an irregular pulse in his heart when he wrote, while Alfieri’s eyes grew dark at the same time.

Lamartine often said: “It is not I who think, but my thoughts that think for me.”

Alfieri, who called himself a barometer - to such an extent his creative abilities changed depending on the time of year - with the onset of September could not resist the involuntary impulse that took possession of him, so strong that he had to give in and wrote six comedies. On one of his sonnets, he wrote the following inscription in his own hand: “Random. I didn't want to write it." This predominance of the unconscious in the work of brilliant people was noticed in ancient times.

Socrates was the first to point out that poets create their works not as a result of effort or art, but thanks to some natural instinct. In the same way, soothsayers say beautiful things without realizing it at all.

Thus, the greatest ideas of thinkers, prepared, so to speak, by impressions already received and by the highly sensitive organization of the subject, are born suddenly and develop as unconsciously as the rash actions of madmen. This same unconsciousness explains the unshakability of convictions in people who have internalized fanatically known convictions. But as soon as the moment of ecstasy, excitement has passed, the genius turns into an ordinary person or falls even lower, since the lack of uniformity (balance) is one of the signs of a genius nature. Disraeli expressed this perfectly when he said that the best English poets, Shakespeare and Dryden, can also find the worst poetry. They said about the painter Tintoretto that he was sometimes higher than Carracci, sometimes lower than Tintoretto.

Ovidio quite correctly explains the dissimilarity of Tasso's style by his own admission that when inspiration disappeared, he was confused in his writings, did not recognize them and was not able to appreciate their merits.

There can be no doubt that there is a complete similarity between a man who is mad during a seizure and a man of genius thinking about and creating his work.

Remember the Latin proverb: “Aut insanit homo, aut versus fecit” (“Either a madman or a poet”).

This is how the doctor Revellier-Parat describes Tasso’s condition:

“The pulse is weak and uneven, the skin is pale, cold, the head is hot, inflamed, the eyes are shiny, bloodshot, restless, darting around. At the end of the period of creativity, the author himself often does not understand what he stated a minute ago.”

Marini, when writing Adone, did not notice that he had severely burned his leg. During his creative period, Tasso seemed completely insane. In addition, when thinking about something, many artificially cause a rush of blood to the brain, such as Schiller, who put his feet on ice, Pitt and Fox, who prepared their speeches after drinking immoderate porter, and Paisiello, who composed only under the cover of many blankets. Milton and Descartes threw their heads back on the sofa, Bossuet retired to the cold room and put warm poultices on his head; Cujas worked while lying face down on the mat. There was a saying about Leibniz that he thought only in a horizontal position - to such an extent he needed it for mental activity. Milton composed with his head thrown back on the pillow, and Thomas and Rossini - lying in bed; Rousseau pondered his works in the bright midday sun with his head open.

Obviously, they all instinctively used drugs that temporarily increase the flow of blood to the head to the detriment of the rest of the body. Here, by the way, it is worth mentioning that many of the gifted and especially brilliant people abused alcoholic beverages. Not to mention Alexander the Great, who, under the influence of intoxication, killed his best friend and died after draining the cup of Hercules ten times, Caesar himself was often carried home by soldiers on their shoulders. Socrates, Seneca, Alcibiades, Cato, and especially Septimius Severus and Mahmud II were so intemperate that they all died from drunkenness due to delirium tremens. The Constable of Bourbon, Avicenna, who is said to have devoted the second half of his life to proving the futility of the scientific information he acquired in the first half, and many painters, for example Carracci, Steen, Barbatelli, and a whole galaxy of poets - Murger, Gerard de Nerval, Musset, Kleist, Mailat and at their head Tasso, who wrote in one of his letters: “I do not deny that I am a madman; but I like to think that my madness came from drinking and love, because I really drink a lot.”

There are many drunkards among the great musicians, for example Dussek, Handel and Gluck, who said that “he considers it quite fair to love gold, wine and fame, because the first gives him the means to have the second, which, inspiring, gives him glory.” However, besides wine, he also loved vodka and finally got drunk on it.

It has been noticed that almost all the great creations of thinkers receive their final form, or at least become clear, under the influence of some special sensation, which here plays, so to speak, the role of a drop of salt water in a well-constructed voltaic column. Facts prove that all great discoveries were made under the influence of the senses, as Moleschott confirms. Several frogs, from which it was supposed to prepare a healing decoction for Galvani's wife, served as the basis for the discovery of galvanism. The isochronic (simultaneous) swinging of a chandelier and the falling of an apple prompted Newton and Galileo to create great systems. Alfieri composed and thought about his tragedies while listening to music. When Mozart saw an orange, he remembered a Neapolitan folk song that he had heard five years ago, and immediately wrote the famous cantata for the opera Don Giovanni. Looking at some porter, Leonardo conceived his Judas, and Thorvaldsen found a suitable pose for a sitting angel at the sight of his sitter’s antics. Inspiration first struck Salvatore Rosa while he was admiring the view of Posilino, and Hogarth found types for his caricatures in a tavern after a drunkard broke his nose there in a fight. Milton, Bacon, Leonardo and Warburton needed to hear the ringing of bells in order to get to work; Bourdalou, before dictating his immortal sermons, always played some aria on the violin. The reading of one of Spenser's odes aroused a penchant for poetry in Cowley, and Sakrobose's book made Gammad addicted to astronomy. While considering cancer, Watt came up with the idea of constructing a machine that would be extremely useful in industry, and Gibbon decided to write the history of Greece after he saw the ruins of the Capitol 4).

But in the same way, certain sensations cause insanity or serve as its starting point, sometimes being the cause of the most terrible attacks of rabies. For example, Humboldt’s nurse confessed that the sight of her pet’s fresh, tender body aroused in her an uncontrollable desire to slaughter him. And how many people have been involved in murder, arson or tearing up graves at the sight of an ax, a blazing fire and a corpse!

It should also be added that inspiration and ecstasy always turn into real hallucinations, because a person then sees objects that exist only in his imagination. Thus, Grossi said that one night, after he had worked for a long time to describe the appearance of the ghost of Prin, he saw this ghost in front of him and had to light a candle to get rid of it. Ball tells about Reynolds' son (successore) that he could make up to 300 portraits a year, since it was enough for him to look at someone for half an hour while he sketched a sketch, so that later this face would constantly be in front of him, as if alive . The painter Martini always saw in front of him the pictures that he painted, so one day, when someone stood between him and the place where the image appeared to him, he asked this person to step aside, because it was impossible for him to continue copying, while he existed only in in his imagination the original was closed. Luther heard arguments from Satan that he could not have come up with himself before.

If we now turn to solving the question - what exactly is the physiological difference between a genius and an ordinary person, then, on the basis of autobiographies and observations, we will find that for the most part the whole difference between them lies in the refined and almost painful impressionability of the first. A savage or an idiot is insensitive to physical suffering, their passions are few, and among the sensations they perceive only those that directly concern them in the sense of satisfying the needs of life. As mental abilities develop, impressionability grows and reaches its greatest strength in brilliant individuals, being the source of their suffering and glory. These chosen natures are more sensitive in quantitative and qualitative terms than mere mortals, and the impressions they perceive are distinguished by their depth, remain in memory for a long time and are combined in various ways. Little things, random circumstances, details, invisible to an ordinary person, sink deep into their soul and are processed in a thousand ways to reproduce what is usually called creativity, although these are only binary and quaternary combinations of sensations.

Lombroso Cesare

Genius and madness

Cesare Lombroso

Genius and madness

Parallel between great men and madmen

I. Introduction to Historical Review.

II. The similarity between genius people and crazy people in physiological terms.

III. The influence of atmospheric phenomena on people of genius and on the insane.

IV. The influence of meteorological phenomena on the birth of brilliant people.

V. The influence of race and heredity on genius and insanity.

VI. Brilliant people who suffered from insanity: Garrington, Bolian, Codazzi, Ampere, Kent, Schumann, Tasso, Cardano, Swift, Newton, Rousseau, Lenau, Szcheni, Schopenhauer.

VII. Examples of geniuses, poets, comedians and other crazy people.

VIII. Crazy artists and artists.

IX. Mattoid graphomaniacs, or psychopaths.

X. "Prophets" and revolutionaries. Savonarola. Lazaretti.

XI. Special characteristics of brilliant people who at the same time suffered from insanity.

XII. Exceptional characteristics of brilliant people.

Conclusion

When, many years ago, being, as it were, under the influence of ecstasy (raptus), during which the relationship between genius and insanity appeared to me as if in a mirror, I wrote the first chapters of this book in 12 days*. I confess that even I myself was not clear to what serious practical conclusions the theory I created could lead to. I did not expect that it would provide the key to understanding the mysterious essence of genius and to explain those strange religious manias that were sometimes the core of great historical events, that it would help establish a new point of view for assessing the artistic creativity of geniuses by comparing their works in the field of art and literature with the same works of madmen and, finally, that it will provide enormous services to forensic medicine.

[Genius and madness. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic course given at the University of Pavia. Milan, 1863.]

Little by little, I was convinced of such an important practical significance of the new theory by both the documentary works of Adriani, Paoli, Frigerio, Maxime Ducamp, Rive and Verga regarding the development of artistic talents among the insane, as well as the high-profile trials of recent times - Mangione, Passanante, Lazaretti, Guiteau, who proved to everyone that the mania for writing is not just a kind of psychiatric curiosity, but directly a special form of mental illness and that the subjects obsessed with it, apparently completely normal, are all the more dangerous members of society because it is difficult to immediately notice a mental disorder in them, and Meanwhile, they are capable of extreme fanaticism and, like religious maniacs, can even cause historical upheavals in the lives of peoples. That is why it seemed to me extremely useful to re-examine the previous topic on the basis of the latest data and on a broader scale. I will not hide that I even consider him brave, in view of the bitterness with which the rhetoricians of science and politics, with the ease of newspaper writers and in the interests of one or another party, try to ridicule people who prove, contrary to the nonsense of metaphysicians, but with scientific data in their hands complete insanity, due to mental illness, of some of the so-called “criminals” and mental disorder of many persons hitherto considered, according to generally accepted opinion, to be completely sane.

I. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL REVIEW

Our duty is extremely sad - with the help of inexorable analysis, to destroy and destroy, one after another, those bright, rosy illusions with which man deceives and exalts himself in his arrogant insignificance; it is all the more sad that in return for these pleasant delusions, these idols, which have served as objects of adoration for so long, we can offer him nothing but a cold smile of compassion. But the servant of truth must inevitably submit to its laws. Thus, due to fatal necessity, he comes to the conviction that love is, in essence, nothing more than the mutual attraction of stamens and pistils... and thoughts are the simple movement of molecules. Even genius - this is the only sovereign power that belongs to a person, before which one can bend the knee without blushing - even many psychiatrists have put it on the same level with the tendency to crime, even in it they see only one of the teratological (ugly) forms of the human mind, one of the varieties of madness. And note that such profanation, such blasphemy is not only allowed by doctors, and not exclusively in our skeptical times.

Even Aristotle, this great ancestor and teacher of all philosophers, noted that under the influence of a rush of blood to the head, “many individuals become poets, prophets or soothsayers and that Mark of Syracuse wrote quite good poetry while he was a maniac, but, having recovered, completely lost this ability ".

He says in another place: “It has been noticed that famous poets, politicians and artists were partly melancholic and insane, partly misanthropes, like Bellerophon. Even today we see the same thing in Socrates, Empedocles, Plato and others, and most powerfully in poets. People with cold, abundant blood (lit. bile) are timid and limited, and people with hot blood are active, witty and talkative."

Plato argues that “delirium is not a disease at all, but, on the contrary, the greatest of the blessings given to us by the gods; under the influence of delirium, the Delphic and Dodonian soothsayers provided thousands of services to the citizens of Greece, whereas in their ordinary state they brought little benefit or were completely useless It happened many times that when the gods sent epidemics to the people, one of the mortals fell into a sacred delirium and, under its influence, became a prophet, indicated a cure for these diseases. A special kind of delirium, excited by the muses, evokes in the simple and immaculate soul of a person the ability to express in beautiful poetic form the exploits of heroes, which contributes to the education of future generations."

Democritus even directly said that he does not consider a person of sound mind to be a true poet. Excludit sanos, Helicone poetas.

As a result of such views on madness, the ancient peoples treated the insane with great respect, considering them to be inspired from above, which is confirmed, in addition to historical facts, by the fact that the words mania are in Greek, navi and mesugan are in Hebrew, and nigrata is - in Sanskrit they mean both madness and prophecy.

Felix Plater claims that he knew many people who, while distinguished by remarkable talent in various arts, were at the same time crazy. Their insanity was expressed by an absurd passion for praise, as well as strange and indecent actions. By the way, Plater met at court an architect, sculptor and musician who enjoyed great fame and were undoubtedly crazy. Even more outstanding facts were collected by F. Gazoni in Italy, in the “Hospital for the Incurable Mentally Ill.” His work was translated (into Italian) by Longoal in 1620. Of the writers closer to us, Pascal constantly said that the greatest genius borders on complete madness, and subsequently proved this by his own example. The same was confirmed by Hecart regarding his comrades, scientists and at the same time madmen, like himself. He published his observations in 1823 under the title: “Stultitsiana, or a short bibliography of the madmen in Valenciennes, compiled by a madman.” The same subject was dealt with by Delnier, a passionate bibliographer, in his interesting "Histoire littraire des fous", 1860, by Forgues in an excellent essay published in the Revue de Paris, 1826, and by an unknown author in "Sketches of Bedlam" (Sketches). in Bedlam. London, 1873).

Recently, Lelu - in Dmon de Socrate, 1856, and BAmulet de Pascal, 1846, Verga - in Lipemania del Tasso, 1850, and Lombroso in Pazzia di Cardano, 1856, have proven that many men of genius, for example, Swift, Luther, Cardano, Brougham and others suffered from insanity, hallucinations or were monomaniacs for a long time. Moreau, who dwells with particular love on the least plausible facts, in his last work Psychologia morbide, and Schilling in his Psychiatrische Briefe, 1863, tried to prove with the help of careful, although not always strictly scientific research, that genius is, in any case, something like a nervous abnormality, often turning into real madness. Similar conclusions, approximately, were made by Hagen in his article “On the affinity between genius and madness” (Veber die Verwandschaft Gnies und Irresein, Berlin. 1877) and partly also by Jurgen Meyer in his excellent monograph “Genius and Talent”. Both of these scientists, who tried to more accurately establish the physiology of the genius, came, through the most careful analysis of the facts, to the same conclusions that were expressed more than a hundred years ago, more on the basis of experience than strict observations, by one Italian Jesuit, Bettinelli, in his now already completely forgotten, the book Dell "entusiasmo nelle belle arti. Milan, 1769.

Current page: 1 (book has 20 pages total) [available reading passage: 14 pages]

Cesare Lombroso
Genius and madness

* * *

Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)

Author's Preface to the Fourth Edition

When, many years ago, being as if under the influence of ecstasy (raptus), during which the relationship between genius and insanity was clearly presented to me as if in a mirror, I wrote the first chapters of this book in 12 days 1
Genius and madness. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic course given at the University of Pavia. Milan, 1863.

I confess that even I myself was not clear to what serious practical conclusions the theory I created could lead to. I did not expect that it would provide the key to understanding the mysterious essence of genius and to explaining those strange religious manias that sometimes appeared the core of great historical events, that it will help establish a new point of view for assessing the artistic creativity of geniuses by comparing their works in the field of art and literature with the same works of madmen and, finally, that it will provide enormous services to forensic medicine.

Little by little, I was convinced of such an important practical significance of the new theory by both the documentary works of Adriani, Paoli, Frigerio, Maxime Ducamp, Rive and Verga regarding the development of artistic talents among the insane, as well as the high-profile trials of recent times - Mangione, Passanante, Lazaretti, Guiteau, which proved everyone that the mania for writing is not just a kind of psychiatric curiosity, but directly a special form of mental illness and that the subjects obsessed with it, who seem completely normal, are all the more dangerous members of society because it is difficult to immediately notice a mental disorder in them, and yet they can be capable of extreme fanaticism and, like religious maniacs, can even cause historical upheavals in the lives of nations. That is why it seemed to me extremely useful to re-examine the previous topic on the basis of the latest data and on a broader scale. I will not hide that I even consider him brave, in view of the bitterness with which the rhetoricians of science and politics, with the ease of newspaper writers and in the interests of one party or another, try to ridicule people who prove, contrary to the ravings of metaphysicians, but with scientific data in their hands complete the insanity, due to mental illness, of some of the so-called criminals and the mental disorder of many persons hitherto considered, according to the generally accepted opinion, to be completely sane. To the caustic ridicule and petty quibbles of our opponents, we, following the example of the original who moved in their presence to convince people who denied the movement, will only respond by collecting new facts and new evidence in favor of our theory. What could be more convincing than facts and who would deny them? Perhaps only the ignorant, but their triumph will soon come to an end.

Prof. C. Lombroso

Chapter I. Introduction to Historical Review

Our duty is extremely sad - with the help of inexorable analysis, to destroy and destroy, one after another, those bright, rainbow-colored illusions with which man deceives and exalts himself in his arrogant insignificance; it is all the more sad that in return for these pleasant delusions, these idols, which have served as objects of adoration for so long, we can offer him nothing but a cold smile of compassion. But the servant of truth must inevitably submit to its laws. Thus, due to fatal necessity, he comes to the conviction that love is, in essence, nothing more than the mutual attraction of stamens and pistils... and thoughts are the simple movement of molecules. Even genius - this is the only sovereign power belonging to a person, before which one can kneel without blushing - even many psychiatrists have put it on the same level with the tendency to crime, even in it they see only one of the teratological (ugly) forms of the human mind, one of the varieties of madness. And note that such profanation, such blasphemy is not only allowed by doctors, and not exclusively in our skeptical times.

He says in another place: “It has been noticed that famous poets, politicians and artists were partly melancholic and insane, partly misanthropes, like Bellerophon. Even today we see the same thing in Socrates, Empedocles, Plato and others, and most strongly in the poets. People with cold, abundant blood (lit. bile) are timid and limited, while people with hot blood are active, witty and talkative.”

Plato argues that “delirium is not a disease at all, but, on the contrary, the greatest of the blessings given to us by the gods; under the influence of delirium, the Delphic and Dodonian soothsayers provided thousands of services to the citizens of Greece, whereas in the ordinary state they brought little benefit or were completely useless. It happened many times that when the gods sent epidemics to the people, one of the mortals fell into sacred delirium and, under its influence, became a prophet, indicating a cure for these diseases. A special kind of delirium excited by the muses evokes in the simple and immaculate soul of a person the ability to express in beautiful poetic form the exploits of heroes, which contributes to the enlightenment of future generations.”

Democritus even directly said that he does not consider a person of sound mind to be a true poet. Excludit sanos, Helicone poetas.

As a result of such views on madness, the ancient peoples treated the insane with great respect, considering them inspired from above, which is confirmed, in addition to historical facts, by the fact that the words mania- in Greek, navi And mesugan- in Hebrew, a nigrata– in Sanskrit they mean both madness and prophecy.

Felix Plater claims that he knew many people who, while distinguished by remarkable talent in various arts, were at the same time crazy.

Their insanity was expressed by an absurd passion for praise, as well as strange and indecent actions. By the way, Plater met at court an architect, sculptor and musician who enjoyed great fame and were undoubtedly crazy. Even more outstanding facts were collected by F. Gazoni in Italy, in the “Hospital for the Incurable Mentally Ill.” His work was translated (into Italian) by Longoal in 1620. Of the writers closer to us, Pascal constantly said that the greatest genius borders on complete madness, and subsequently proved this by his own example. Heckart confirmed the same thing. (Hecart) regarding his comrades, scientists and at the same time crazy, like himself.

He published his observations in 1823 under the title: “Stultitsiana, or a Brief Bibliography of the Madmen in Valensiens, Compiled by a Madman.” Delnier, a passionate bibliographer, dealt with the same subject in his interesting Histoire littéraire des fous(1860), Forge - in an excellent essay placed in Revue de Paris(1826), and by an unknown author in Sketches of Bedlam ( Sketches in Bedlam. London, 1873).

Lately Lelya - in Demon de Socrate(1856), and in Amulet de Pascal(1846), Verga - in Lipemania del Tasso(1850), and Lombroso's Pazzia di Cardano(1856), proved that many brilliant people, for example Swift, Luther, Cardano, Brougham and others, suffered from insanity, hallucinations or were monomaniacs for a long time. Moreau, who dwells with special love on the least plausible facts, in his last work Psychologia morbide and Schilling in their Psychiatric Briefe 1863, they tried to prove with the help of careful, although not always strictly scientific research, that genius is, in any case, something like a nervous abnormality, often turning into real madness. Similar conclusions were approximately made by Hagen in his article “On the Affinity between Genius and Madness” (Über die Verwandschaft Genies und Irresein. Berlin. 1877) and partly also by Jürgen Meyer (Jurgen Meyer) in his excellent monograph “Genius and Talent”.

Both scientists, who tried to more accurately establish the physiology of the genius, came, through the most careful analysis of the facts, to the same conclusions that were expressed more than a hundred years ago, rather on the basis of experience than strict observations, by one Italian Jesuit, Bettinelli, in his now completely forgotten book Dell'entusiasmo nelle belle arti(Milan, 1769).

Chapter II. Similarities between genius people and crazy people in physiological terms

Many of the great thinkers are subject, like madmen, to convulsive muscle contractions and are distinguished by sharp, so-called choreic, body movements. Thus, it is said about Lenau and Montesquieu that on the floor near the tables where they studied, one could notice indentations from the constant twitching of their legs. Buffon, immersed in his thoughts, once climbed the bell tower and descended from there by rope completely unconsciously, as if in a fit of somnambulism. Santeil, Crebillon, Lombardini had strange facial expressions, similar to grimaces. Napoleon suffered from constant twitching of his right shoulder and lips, and during fits of anger, also in his calves. “I was probably very angry,” he himself once admitted after a heated argument with Lowe, “because I felt my calves trembling, which had not happened to me for a long time.” Peter the Great was subject to twitching of the facial muscles, which horribly distorted his face.

“Carducci’s face,” says Mantegazza, “at times resembles a hurricane: lightning rains from his eyes, and the trembling of his muscles resembles an earthquake.”

Subsequently, Smith confirmed with many observations the fact that with any mental stress the amount of urea in the urine increases, and in this respect the analogy between genius and madness seems undeniable.

From this abnormal abundance of urea, or rather from this new confirmation of the law of balance between force and matter, which governs the entire world of living beings, other, more amazing analogies can be deduced: for example, gray hair and baldness, thinness of the body, and also poor muscular and sexual activity, characteristic of all madmen, is very often found in great thinkers. Caesar was afraid of the pale and thin Cassiev. D'Alembert, Fenelon, Napoleon were as thin as skeletons in their youth. About Voltaire, Segur writes: “His thinness proves how hard he works; his emaciated and bent body serves only as a light, almost transparent shell, through which you seem to see the soul and genius of this man.”

It can be said about brilliant people, just like about crazy people, that they remain lonely, cold, and indifferent to the responsibilities of a family man and a member of society all their lives. Michelangelo constantly said that he art replaces his wife. Goethe, Heine, Byron, Cellini, Napoleon, Newton, although they did not say this, proved by their actions something even worse. There are often cases when, due to the same reasons that so often cause madness, that is, due to illnesses and head injuries, the most ordinary people turn into geniuses. As a child, Vico fell from a tall staircase and crushed his right parietal bone. Gratri, at first a bad singer, became a famous artist after severely bruising his head with a log. Mabillon, who was completely feeble-minded from a young age, achieved fame for his talents, which developed in him as a result of a wound to his head.

Gall, who reported this fact, knew one half-idiot Dane whose mental abilities became brilliant after he, at the age of thirteen, fell headfirst down the stairs 2
The late Metropolitan of Moscow Macarius, distinguished by a remarkably bright mind, was such a sickly and stupid child that he was completely unable to study. But in the seminary, one of his comrades, during a game, pierced his head with a stone, and after that Macarius’ abilities became brilliant, and his health completely improved. – Note lane

Several years ago, a cretin from Savoy, bitten by a mad dog, became a completely reasonable man in the last days of his life. Dr. Halle knew limited people whose mental abilities were unusually developed due to brain diseases (midollo).

“It may very well be that my illness (spinal cord disease) gave my latest works some kind of abnormal shade,” Heine says with amazing insight in one of his letters. It must be added, however, that the illness affected in this way not only his last works, and he himself was aware of this. A few months before his illness worsened, Heine wrote about himself (Correspondace inédite. Paris, 1877): “My mental agitation is more the result of illness than of genius - in order to at least a little assuage my suffering, I composed poetry. On these terrible nights, mad with pain, my poor head rushes from side to side and makes the bells of my worn out stupid cap ring with cruel gaiety.”

Bisha and von der Kolk noticed that people with crooked necks have a more alert mind than ordinary people. Conolly had one patient whose mental faculties were stimulated during operations on him, and several such patients who showed special talent in the first periods of consumption and gout. Everyone knows how witty and cunning humpbacks are; Rokitansky even tried to explain this by the fact that their aorta, giving vessels going to the head, bends, resulting in an expansion of the volume of the heart and an increase in blood pressure in the skull.

The Italian poetess Milli, while creating, almost involuntarily, her wonderful poems, worries, screams, sings, runs back and forth and seems to be in an epileptic fit.

Dante expressed this beautifully in the following three lines:

…I mi son un che, guando
Amore spira, noto ed in quel modo
Che detta dento vo significando.

(Inspired by love, I say what it tells me.)

Foscolo confesses his Epistolario, the best work of this great mind, that the writer’s creative ability is determined by a special kind of mental excitement (fever), which cannot be summoned at will.

“I write my letters,” he says, “not for the fatherland and not for the sake of glory, but for that inner pleasure that the exercise of our abilities gives us.”

Bettinelli calls poetic creativity a dream with open eyes, without loss of consciousness, and this is perhaps fair, since many poets dictated their poems in a state similar to sleep.

Goethe also says that a poet requires a certain cerebral stimulation and that he himself composed many of his songs while in a sort of fit of somnambulism.

Klopstock admits that when he wrote his poem, inspiration often came to him during sleep.

Lagrange noticed an irregular pulse in his heart when he wrote, while Alfieri’s eyes grew dark at the same time.

Lamartine often said: “It is not I who think, but my thoughts that think for me.” Alfieri, who called himself a barometer - to such an extent his creative abilities changed depending on the time of year - with the onset of September could not resist the one who possessed him involuntary impulse, so strong that he had to give in and wrote six comedies. On one of his sonnets he wrote the following inscription in his own hand: "Random. I didn't want to write it". This predominance of the unconscious in the work of brilliant people was noticed in ancient times.

“All works of genius,” says Voltaire in a letter to Diderot, “are created instinctively. The philosophers of the whole world together could not have written the Armides of Cinema or the fable “The Sea of Beasts,” which La Fontaine dictated without even knowing well what would come of it. Corneille wrote the tragedy "Horace" as instinctively as a bird builds a nest." Thus, the greatest ideas of thinkers, prepared, so to speak, by impressions already received and by the highly sensitive organization of the subject, are born suddenly and develop as unconsciously as the rash actions of madmen. This same unconsciousness explains the unshakability of convictions in people who have internalized fanatically known convictions. But as soon as the moment of ecstasy, excitement has passed, the genius turns into an ordinary person or falls even lower, since the lack of uniformity (balance) is one of the signs of a genius nature. Disraeli expressed this perfectly when he said that the best English poets, Shakespeare and Dryden, can also find the worst poetry. They said about the painter Tintoretto that he was sometimes higher than Carracci, sometimes lower than Tintoretto.

There can be no doubt that there is a complete similarity between a man who is mad during a seizure and a man of genius thinking about and creating his work.

Remember the Latin proverb: “ "Aut insanit homo, aut versus fecit"(“Either a madman, or a poet”).

This is how the doctor Revellier-Parat describes Tasso’s condition: “The pulse is weak and uneven, the skin is pale, cold, the head is hot, inflamed, the eyes are shiny, bloodshot, restless, running around. At the end of the period of creativity, the author himself often does not understand what he stated a minute ago.”

Marini, when he wrote Adone, I didn’t notice that I burned my leg badly. During his creative period, Tasso seemed completely insane. In addition, when thinking about something, many artificially cause a rush of blood to the brain, such as Schiller, who put his feet on ice, Pitt and Fox, who prepared their speeches after drinking immoderate porter, and Paisiello, who composed only under the cover of many blankets. Milton and Descartes threw their heads back on the sofa, Bossuet retired to the cold room and put warm poultices on his head; Kuyas (Cujas) worked lying face down on the carpet. There was a saying about Leibniz that he thought only in a horizontal position - to such an extent he needed it for mental activity. Milton was composing with his head thrown back on the pillow, and Tom (Thomas) and Rossini - lying in bed; Rousseau pondered his works in the bright midday sun with his head open.

Obviously, they all instinctively used drugs that temporarily increase the flow of blood to the head to the detriment of the rest of the body.

Here, by the way, it is worth mentioning that many of the gifted and especially brilliant people abused alcoholic beverages. Not to mention Alexander the Great, who, under the influence of intoxication, killed his best friend and died after draining the cup of Hercules ten times, Caesar himself was often carried home by soldiers on their shoulders. Socrates, Seneca, Alcibiades, Cato, and especially Septimius Severus and Mahmud II were so intemperate that they all died from drunkenness due to delirium tremens. The Constable of Bourbon, Avicenna, who is said to have devoted the second half of his life to proving the futility of the scientific information he acquired in the first half, and many painters, for example Carracci, Sten, also suffered from heavy drinking. (Steen) Barbatelli, and a whole galaxy of poets - Murger, Gerard de Nerval, Musset, Kleist, Mailat and at their head Tasso, who wrote in one of his letters: “I do not deny that I am a madman; but I like to think that my madness came from drinking and love, because I really drink a lot.”

Inspiration first struck Salvatore Rosa while he was admiring the view of Posilino, and Hogarth found types for his caricatures in a tavern after a drunkard broke his nose there in a fight. Milton, Bacon, Leonardo and Warburton needed to hear the ringing of bells in order to get to work; Bourdalou, before dictating his immortal sermons, always played some aria on the violin. The reading of one of Spenser's odes aroused a penchant for poetry in Cowley, and Sakrobose's book made Gammad addicted to astronomy. While considering cancer, Watt came up with the idea of building an extremely useful machine in industry, and Gibbon decided to write the history of Greece after seeing the ruins of the Capitol 3
Goethe created his theory of the development of the skull based on the general type of dorsal vertebrae during a walk, when, pushing his foot on a sheep’s skull lying on the road, he saw that it was divided into three parts. – Note lane

It should also be added that inspiration and ecstasy always turn into real hallucinations, because a person then sees objects that exist only in his imagination. Thus, Grossi said that one night, after he had worked for a long time to describe the appearance of the ghost of Prin, he saw this ghost in front of him and had to light a candle to get rid of it. Ball talks about his son (successor) Reynolds, that he could make up to 300 portraits a year, since it was enough for him to look at someone for half an hour while he sketched a sketch, so that later this face would constantly be in front of him, as if alive. The painter Martini always saw in front of him the pictures that he painted, so one day, when someone stood between him and the place where the image appeared to him, he asked this person to step aside, because it was impossible for him to continue copying, while he existed only in in his imagination the original was closed. Luther heard arguments from Satan that he could not have come up with himself before.

Haller wrote about himself: “What is left for me except impressionability, this powerful feeling, which is a consequence of a temperament that vividly perceives the joys of love and the wonders of science? Even now I am moved to tears when I read the description of some generous act.

My characteristic sensitivity, of course, gives my poems that passionate tone that other poets do not have.”

“Nature has not created a more sensitive soul than mine,” Diderot wrote about himself. Elsewhere he says: “Increase the number of sensitive people and you will increase the number of good and bad actions.” When Alfieri heard music for the first time, he was, in his words, “astounded to such an extent, as if the bright sun had blinded my sight and hearing; For several days after that I felt extraordinary sadness, not without pleasantness; fantastic ideas crowded into my head, and I would have been able to write poetry if I had known then how it was done...” In conclusion, he says that nothing acts on the soul as irresistibly powerful as music. A similar opinion was expressed by Stern, Rousseau and J. Sand.

Corradi proves that all of Leopardi's misfortunes and his very philosophy were caused by excessive sensitivity and unsatisfied love, which he first experienced in his 18th year. And indeed, Leopardi's philosophy took on a more or less gloomy tone, depending on the state of his health, until finally a sad mood became a habit among him.

Urkvitsia fainted when he heard the smell of a rose. Stern, after Shakespeare the most profound of the psychological poets, says in one letter: “Reading the biographies of our ancient heroes, I cry for them as if for living people... Inspiration and impressionability are the only tools of genius. The latter evokes in us those delightful sensations that give great strength to joy and cause tears of tenderness.”

It is known in what slavish subordination Alfieri and Foscolo were to women who were not always worthy of such adoration. The beauty and love of Fornarina served as a source of inspiration for Raphael not only in painting, but also in poetry. Several of his erotic poems have not yet lost their charm.

And how early the passions of brilliant people manifest themselves! Dante and Alfieri were in love at the age of 9, Russo - 11, Carron and Byron - 8. The latter had convulsions already at the age of 16, when he learned that the girl he loved was getting married. “Grief choked me,” he says, “although sexual desire was still unfamiliar to me, but I felt such passionate love that it is unlikely that I subsequently experienced a stronger feeling.” At one of Kitz's performances, Byron had a seizure of convulsions.

Lorby has seen scholars swoon with delight when reading Homer's works. Painter Francia ( Francia) died of admiration after seeing Raphael's painting.

Ampere felt the beauty of nature so vividly that he almost died of happiness when he found himself on the shores of Lake Geneva. Having found a solution to a problem, Newton was so shocked that he could not continue his studies. Gay-Lussac and Davy, after their discovery, began to dance around their office in their shoes. Archimedes, delighted with the solution to the problem, ran out into the street dressed as Adam, shouting: “Eureka!” (“Found!”) In general, strong minds also have strong passions, which give special vivacity to all their ideas; if for some of them many passions fade, as if fading over time, this is only because little by little they are drowned out by the prevailing passion for fame or science.