A. trope - transfer of a name based on similarity of characteristics

Eyebrow rocker

• a) “The yoke of the eyebrows carried away, from the eyes of the wells, icy buckets” (5, 57)
• b) eyebrow rocker - eyebrows in the form of an arc with such a facial expression when a person is about to cry
• c) 1. An object for carrying two buckets on the shoulders - a thick curved wooden plank with hooks or notches at the ends"

. "Lever Mechanism Detail." decomposition - Smoke from the rocker - noise, disorder (9, 297).

d) The analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (first) and is motivated by the seme “curved”, i.e. is metaphorical, arising from the similarity of form.

Radial connection of values; associative-semantic polysemy.

Table palm

• a) “Wine on the palm of the night table” (5, 85)
• b) the palm of the table - the tabletop, like a palm, holds everything that is not placed on it
• c) the inner side of the hand (9, 318)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word, is a metaphorical transfer based on the similarity of appearance.

Associative-semantic relationships between LSVs

Logic of the sword

• a) “How fun it is to watch, having made a successful blow, his legs spread out like the enemy, where his ancestors are, logic sent his swords there” (5, 83).
• b) the logic of the sword - the inevitability, the pattern of the actions of the sword.
• c) 1. the science of laws and forms of thinking

Course of reasoning, conclusions

Reasonableness, internal regularity (9, 331)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (third). Metaphorical transfer that arose on the basis of similarity of quality.

Chain connection of values; Ass. - semantic relations.

gloomy rain

• a) “The sullen rain squinted his eyes” (5, 53)
• b) gloomy rain - gloomy, annoying, boring, maybe cold rain
• c) gloomy, inhospitable, cheerless (9, 825)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word and is motivated by C1 and C3. Transfer is metaphorical, in which a characteristic is transferred from a living being to an inanimate object. Associative-semantic relationships between LSVs

Pavement of the soul

• a) “On the worn-out pavement of the soul, the steps of crazy people weave harsh phrases on their heels” (5, 56)
• b) the pavement of the soul - a part of the soul open to everyone, as if free to travel.
• c) “a paved or asphalt-covered roadway of the street” (9, 367)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word. Metaphorical transfer based on similarity of attribute.

Bald Lantern

• a) “the bald lantern voluptuously takes off a black stocking from the street” (5, 70)
• b) bald lantern - a lantern without a shade or without decorations
• c) 1. having a bald spot (head)

Devoid of vegetation (mountain) (9, 335)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the second meaning of the word and is metaphorical based on the similarity of the feature.

Associative-semantic relations

Grow feat

• a) “Let your souls flow into the world, even drop by drop, two at a time, and grow the feat of labor” (5, 116)
• b) to cultivate a feat - preparation for a patriotic act
• c) 1grow

Bring up

Improve (9, 666)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (all three).

Metaphor based on similarity of action. radial-chain connection. Associative-semantic polysemy.

Sludge of separation

• a) come to your eyes, separation is slimy" (5, 220)
• b) the slurry of separation - tears from the bitterness of parting
• c) 1. viscous thick liquid
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (second) and is motivated by the seme “liquid”. The transfer is metaphorical based on the similarity of the composition of the substance.

Radial connection. Associative semantic metaphor

Dressy song

• a) “We love a parade, an elegant song. We speak beautifully when going to a rally” (5, 293)
• b) an elegant song - beautiful, expressive, cheerful, festive
• c) 1. beautifully dressed (about a person)

Beautiful, lush (about clothes)

beautifully decorated (about the room) (9, 392)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning (the first) and is motivated by the seme “beautiful”, i.e. is metaphorical, based on the similarity of the impression made.

Radial connection. Associative-semantic relations.

Human tide

• a) “The Yankees are lazy to spank with their soles: a simple and courier elevator. At 7 o’clock the human high tide, at 17 o’clock the low tide.” (5, 242)
• b) human tide - a regular accumulation of a large number of people in one place.
• c) 1 periodically repeated rise in the level of the open sea during the day

An accumulation of something moving, an influx (of blood, energy) (9, 593)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the second meaning of the word and is motivated by the seme “accumulation”. Metaphorical transfer based on similarity of action. Chain communication. Associative-semantic relations.

make poetry

• a) “I’ll at least describe how I make poetry at the dacha” (5, 330)
• b) make poetry - compose and transfer rhymed lines onto paper, produce poetry
• c) 1. tan (skin)

To produce, produce (dishes)

Razg. make any movements, act strangely, reprehensibly. (9, 111)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (2). Metaphorical transfer of similarity in the mode of action, associative semantic ambiguity. radial-chain connection.

Bass guns

• a) “For the first time then, the Komsomol masses, opening their ears pierced by bullets, will become acquainted with Chaliapin’s bass through the bass of the White Guard’s cannons” (5, 339)
• b) bass of guns - low, dull sound when fired
• c) 1. the deepest male voice

Brass musical instrument of low register and timbre.

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (first) and is motivated by the seme “low”, i.e. is metaphorical based on the similarity of features. Associative semantic metaphor. Radial-chain connection.

Eyes of the pages

• a) “I opened my eyes to the pages with a quiet rustle” (5, 340)
• b) the eyes of the pages - letters that seem to look at the reader
• c) the organ of vision or vision itself (9, 131)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct and is motivated by the seme “vision”. Metaphorical transfer of similarity in meaning. Associative-semantic polysemy.

Flower showers

• a) “And now the wind plays between the flower showers, the flames of the flags fidgeting” (5, 403)
• b) flower showers - a large number of flowers that are presented to the artist
• c) heavy rain (9, 326)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct and is metaphorical. Associative semantic metaphor.

Crossing of hands

• a) “Come here, come to the crossroads of my big and clumsy hands” (5, 441)
• b) cross of arms - crossing of arms during a hug.
• c) place of intersection of roads, streets (9, 636)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word and is motivated by the seme “intersection”. Metaphorical transfer of similarity of appearance. Associative semantic metaphor.

Red strands of fires

• a) “I slay red strands of fire” (6, 71)
• b) I spew fire (curses) - the same as tongues of flame
• c) 1. a bunch of hair adjacent to each other

Twisted thread, rope (9, 629)

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct meaning of the word (first) and is motivated by the seme “bundle”. Metaphorical transfer of similarity of appearance. radial connection. Associative-semantic polysemy.

Cars scream

• a) “Do you hear? Do you hear the neighing of horses? Do you hear? Do you hear the screams of cars? (6.88)
• b) long loud sound of the horn
• c) loud and prolonged scream, crying. (9, 97)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct and is metaphorical, arising on the basis of the similarity of sound. Associative semantic metaphor.

Forest of eyelashes

• a) “Why do you need it? Stop! I know joy is sweeter! The forest of eyelashes hangs arrogantly. Stop.” She’s already gone...” (6, 88)
• b) forest of eyelashes - the arrogant look of a person with thick eyelashes
• c) many trees growing over a large space with closed crowns. (9, 323)
• d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct and is motivated by the seme “many” (trees, eyelashes) metaphorical transfer on the similarity of quantity. Associative-semantic polysemy.

Transfuse the year

• a) “All pierced into smoke and fingers, I pour out the years” (5, 95)
• b) live life
• c) pour - 1 pour, pouring from one vessel (container) into another;

Pour too much

Inject into a vein or muscle.

d) the analyzed meaning arose on the basis of the direct (first) and is metaphorical, based on the similarity of the mode of action.

Saint Petersburg

Abstract on Russian language

Topic: Using the figurative meaning of a word to create artistic tropes

Ivlev Andrey

2003.

I.Introduction

II.Using the figurative meaning of a word to create artistic tropes

1. Polysemy of the word. The concept of “internal form” of a word

2. Direct and figurative meaning of the word

3. Types of transfers

a) Transfer by similarity - metaphors A

b) Transfer by adjacency - metonymy

c) The third type of figurative meanings

4. Artistic style. The concept of tropes

5. Use of tropes in fiction

a) Metaphor

b) Metonymy

c) Synegdoha

d) Hyperbole

e) Litotes

e) Symbol

III.Conclusion

IV.Ispolcalled literature

V.Application

The world-famous cultural figure of the 20th century, artist and philosopher N.K. Roerich said: “Isn’t it surprising that in Russian the word world unanimously both for peace and for the universe? These concepts are unanimous not because of the poverty of the language. The language is rich. They are unanimous in essence. The universe and peaceful creativity are inseparable.”

Russian writers, masters of words, those who appreciate not only the meaning of a word, but also its sound, its expressive capabilities, admired the Russian language, noted its various aspects, features, and originality. Thus, N.V. Gogol wrote with delight that in the Russian language “all the tones and shades, all the transitions of sounds from the hardest to the most gentle and soft; it is limitless and, alive as life, can be enriched every minute...” As if continuing the words of N.V. Gogol, the great critic V.G. Belinsky noted: “The Russian language is extremely rich, flexible and picturesque for the expression of simple natural concepts.”

One of the proofs of the richness and flexibility of the Russian language is the polysemy of words and their figurative meaning.

Polysemy of the word. The concept of “internal form” of a word.

There are words unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and polysemantic(having several meanings).

A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings.

Yes, word ring matter:

1) “a metal object shaped like a circle”, for example: “A hungry bear would be locked in an empty room, tied behind him with a rope.” ring ”

(A.S. Pushkin);

2) “that which has the shape of such an object,” for example: “Peter Ivanovich lit a cigar and let ring smoke"

(I.A. Goncharov).

Word boil means:

1) “to boil, evaporate from strong heating” (about liquids), for example: “In it [the boiler] boils ear"

(A.P. Chekhov);

2) “to develop, to manifest themselves rapidly, rapidly,” for example: “The matter was seething with extraordinary speed"

(A.I. Herzen).

Word gold means:

3) “made of gold”, for example: “On the hands gold rings"

(A.S. Pushkin);

4) “color or shine similar to gold”, for example: “The dawn shone in the east, and gold rows of clouds seemed to be waiting for the sun”

(A.S. Pushkin).

The presence of several interconnected meanings in a word is called polysemy, or polysemy(from Greek poly – a lot and sema - sign). Polysemy is possible because objects, actions and signs have some common aspects and properties - this allows one word to be used to denote them.

Polysemantic words are characterized by the so-called “internal form”. The “internal form” of a polysemantic word is either the original meaning preserved or lost by it, on the basis of which all other meanings of a given word could arise.

For example, the word manual has the following meanings:

1) “intended, adapted for the hand(s)” - manual towel ;

2) “made by hand” - manual embroidery ;

3) “hand-actuated” - manual machine ;

4) “lightweight, non-bulky, easy to carry” - manual luggage ;

Listed meanings of the word manual have a semantic basis, which can be defined by the words: “having something to do with the hand (hands).” This general semantic basis is the primary meaning of the word manual and serves as its “internal form”.

Polysemy helps to enrich the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

A polysemantic word has one of the main meanings, direct, i.e. only naming an object, action or sign; other meanings - portable, associated with direct meaning in meaning.

Yes, word sow has a direct meaning of “scattering seeds into the soil for sowing”, for example: “Spring has come, it was necessary sow spring and clover"

(A.P. Chekhov).

The same word also has figurative meanings:

1) “scatter, spray” (about snow, rain, etc.), for example: “Low hanging clouds sowed snow"

(L. Andreev);

2) “spread among people” (rumours, information), for example: “ Sow reasonable, kind, eternal..."

(N.A. Nekrasov).

The figurative meaning of a word arises on the basis of a direct one as a result of transferring the name of one object (sign, action, etc.) to another, in some way similar to it. Thus, the figurative meaning of a word reflects the connection between the word and the called phenomenon of reality not directly, but through comparison with other words. For example, direct meaning of the word rain - “atmospheric precipitation in the form of water droplets”, and portable- “a stream of small particles of something, falling in abundance.”

One word can have several figurative meanings. So does the word burn the following values:

1) be in the heat, in a feverish state - sick lit ;

2) blush from a rush of blood - cheeks are burning ;

3) sparkle, sparkle - eyes are burning ;

1) to experience some strong feeling - burn love To poetry .

Types of hyphens.

There are two types of name transfer:

1) by similarity ( metaphor);

2) by contiguity - the real connection of objects ( metonymy).

Transfer by similarity - metaphors A.

Objects that are somewhat similar to each other begin to be called by the same word.

Similarities between items can be:

1) external:

a) form: ribbon road , pot-bellied teapot ;

b) color: copper hair, grey Human ;

c) location: throat bay, chain mountains ;

d) size, quantity: sea tears, mountain of things ;

e) degree of density: wall rain, jelly roads ;

f) degree of mobility: fast mind, car crawls ;

g) sound character: rain drums, creaky voice ;

2) functional: wipers cars, marriage fetter ;

3) in human perception: cold sight , sour expression faces,

Transfer by adjacency -metonymy.

Two phenomena that are actually connected with each other (spatially, situationally, logically, etc.) receive one name, are called one word.

The connection of phenomena happens:

1) spatial – the room and the people in it: Class I'm late, hall applauded ;

2) temporary - action and object - the result of this action: gift edition, kit tools ;

3) logical:

a) action and place of this action: entrance , stop ;

b) action and people performing it: protection , attack (defenders, forwards);

c) material and product made from this material: wear gold, fur ; win gold, silver, bronze;

A variation of this type of transfer is the transfer of a name from part to whole and from whole to part

(synecdoche):

1) from part to whole: there's an extra addition to the family mouth (= person), herd of one hundred goals livestock(= animals), number at the hotel(=room);

2) from whole to part: neighbors bought car (= car); But by car a whole class of mechanisms is also called: washing, sewing and other machines.

Third type Meanings that are figurative in origin are characterized by the fact that their imagery is not felt (in linguistics they are called “dry”): leg chair, hat mushroom, caterpillars tractors, sun it's gone, watch are coming . These meanings are the main names of a certain object, sign or action: figurative in origin, they are direct from the point of view of use in modern language and do not have marks in the dictionary portable. For example, the word nose is now used in its literal meaning when we are talking about the olfactory organ located on the face of a person or on the muzzle of an animal, and about the front part of the vessel.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context: drop - a drop of water (direct), a drop of pity (figurative); insatiable – insatiable animal (direct), insatiable ambition (figurative); golden - golden ring (direct), golden autumn (portable);

The figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word and is given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark transfer.

The ambiguity of the word, its ability to be used in figurative meanings, are widely used by writers and publicists as a means of presenting phenomena more specifically and clearly, for example: “The next morning the bright sun rose quickly ate thin ice, twitchy water, and all the warm air trembled from the fumes that filled it revived land."

(L.N. Tolstoy)

Here and there hanging fog shreds ,

But the horizon is dawning embraced ,

AND rises Sun white at night,

Birches white boiling ...

(A. Prokofiev)

Art style. The concept of tropes.

Art style is used in works of fiction and refers to book speech.

The task is to paint a picture with words, express an attitude towards what is depicted, and influence the feelings and imagination of the reader.

The artistic style is characterized by certain means of expression, one of which is tropes.

Tropes are phrases in which a word or expression is used figuratively.

A trope can be a means of decorating an artistic image and speech.

Tropes usually include metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc. Symbol occupies a special place among them. With some reservations, an epithet can also be applied to tropes.

In the formation of tropes, associative thinking plays an active role.

The degree of imagery and prevalence in the language of different meanings that are figurative in origin is different.

Some figurative uses are not used by us in speech and exist only in the text of a certain author. These are individual (author's) metaphors and metonymies: copper intestines car(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), cheekbone apple(Yu. Olesha). Their imagery is maximum, their use is associated only with the author’s text. These figurative meanings are not reflected in dictionaries.

Other metaphors and metonymies are commonly used, they are not associated with a specific text and are used by native speakers in different situations (usually in colloquial speech): wall forests, sea tears, star screen, to nag (scold). Their imagery is less than that of the author’s, but is clearly felt by native speakers. They are reflected in the dictionary and have a mark portable .

Metaphor.

Metaphor(Greek metaphora – transfer) is the use of a word denoting an object (phenomenon, action, sign) to figuratively name an object that is similar to the first one in some way. This is like a “displaced” figurative name for an object.

A great master of poetic metaphor is I.S. Turgenev. Here are a few examples from “Bezhin Meadow”: “I... saw a huge plain far below me. A wide river went around it in a semicircle leaving me; steel the reflections of the water, the islet and the vaguely shimmering indicated its flow... The dawn had not yet blushed anywhere, but it was already turning white in the east... I had not gone two miles before I poured around me... first scarlet, then red, gold streams young, hot Sveta ..."

The picture of a summer night, when the river seems steely and cold, is replaced by a stormy dawn, whole streams of light of increasing brightness and warmth. They flow like streams of water, foreshadowing a hot summer day.

A metaphor can not only be solitary: it can develop in a text, forming entire chains of figurative expressions, and in many cases cover, as if permeate, the entire text. This is an expanded, complex metaphor, a complete artistic image. The usual use of a word, thanks to its figurative interpretation, becomes the main branched, multifaceted metaphor.

This is exactly the case with the verb put on and words related to it in meaning in the poems for children “Don’t Forget” by A. Voznesensky. In the first stanza, this verb is used in its basic (direct) meaning (put on panties, a T-shirt, jeans, etc.):

Human allotment underpants,

blue stripe T-shirt,

jeans white as snow

puts on Human.

Human allotment blazer,

he has a badge on him

called "GTO".

He's on top allotment coat.

The process of “dressing” a person is further presented as fantastic, and the verb itself put on , receiving an unusual compatibility, becomes the basis of metaphors. The process of “dressing” is perceived not only in the usual, but also in a figurative sense as becoming overgrown with things, everything created on earth, the conquest of space:

Having shaken off the dust,

He allotment car .

He's on top allotment garage

(a little cramped - but just right!),

he's on top allotment our yard

like a belt put the fence on ,

ours from above microdistrict ,

area puts on He.

Belted himself like a knight

state border .

And shaking my head,

puts on ball terrestrial .

Black space pulled,

fastened the stars tightly,

Milky Way - over the shoulder,

something else above...

But man forgot about time! The everyday idea of ​​a clock left somewhere at home develops into symbolic Time, which has a deep philosophical, civil, humanistic meaning as the embodiment of the best ideals of Humanity:

The man looks around.

near the constellation Libra

he remembered that he had forgotten his watch.

(Somewhere they are ticking

forgotten, alone?..)

Human removes countries ,

And seas And oceans ,

And car , And coat .

He is nothing without Time.

The combination of the two indicated plans - direct and figurative, allegorical - creates a subtext of moralizing content in the last stanza of the poem:

He's standing in his underpants

Holds a watch in his hands.

He's standing on the balcony

And he says to passers-by:

In the morning, putting on panties,

DON'T FORGET ABOUT THE WATCH!"

Metonymy.

Metonymy (Greek) metonymia - renaming) is the use of a word denoting an object to figuratively name another object related to the first by contiguity, i.e. by location, time, cause-and-effect relationship. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not imply any similarity between the designated objects, phenomena or features. Metonymy is a kind of condensed description of an object, phenomenon, event, in which one or another characteristic feature is artistically highlighted from the content of thought.

I love your cruel winter

Still air and frost,

Sleigh running along the wide Neva,

Girls' faces are brighter than roses,

AND shine , And noise , And talk points,

And at the hour of revelry idle

Hissing foamy glasses

And the punch flame is blue.

(A.S. Pushkin)

One of the techniques of artistic representation here is the metonymic use of words that denote the brilliance, noise and talk of high society (people) at balls, the feathers of singles and young people, the hiss of foaming wine in glasses.

Metonymy can be based not only on spatial and temporal, but also on other associations, for example, cause-and-effect: live before gray hair usually matters until old age (gray hair is a consequence of old age), etc.

Linguistic imagery is noticeably enhanced when direct and figurative metonymic meanings collide punously in the text. Let's consider the conversation between the characters in “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizin discussing Mitrofan’s successes:

Mrs. P r o s t a k o v a. What, what is it, my father?

P r o s t a k o v. What, my father?

P r a v d i n. It couldn't be better. He is strong in grammar.

Mrs. P r o s t a k o v a. Then, my father, he was still young stories hunter.

S k o t i n i n. Mitrofan for me. I myself won’t take my eyes off it without the elected official telling me stories . Master, son of a dog, where does everything come from?

Noun story appears here in two different meanings - the science of the development of human society and the story, narration, incident.

The comedy of the situation lies in their clash.

Synegdoha.

Synegdoha (Greek) synekdoche – correlation) is a type of metonymy, which is based on the relationship between the part and the whole. In other words, the figurative transfer of the name is associated here with quantitative relationships between the designated objects.

Synegdoche expresses one of the characteristics of an object that is characteristic in some respect. Only a part of the object is indicated, but the whole is implied; in other words: the part is creatively complemented to the whole, the whole is, as it were, “thought out”, perceived against the background of some characteristic detail:

And he thought:

From here we will threaten Swede :

The city will be founded here

To spite the arrogant neighbor .

Nature destined us here

Open a window to Europe,

With my foot become firm by the sea.

Here on new waves

All flags will come to visit us,

And we’ll record it in the open air.

(A.S. Pushkin)

A classic example of synegdoche is “Everything flags will be visiting us”: flag used here as a designation for a ship or fleet sailing under a certain flag. In a broader sense, this can be a designation for an entire country, a specific state. The use of the singular instead of the plural is also considered synegdoche: Swede , i.e. Swedes, neighbor instead of neighbors foot instead of legs.

Hyperbola.

Hyperbole ( hyperbole - exaggeration) is a figurative use of words that exaggerates an object, feature, quality or action in order to enhance the artistic impression.

Hyperbole can be a purely quantitative exaggeration:

Khlestakov: Just don’t say it. On the table, for example, there is a watermelon - in seven hundred rubles watermelon... And at that very moment there were couriers, couriers, couriers along the streets... can you imagine, thirty five thousand only couriers!

(N.V. Gogol).

In most cases, hyperbole not only strengthens, but also enriches the thought with new content, moving closer to metaphor. This is a figurative hyperbole:

Damask steel sounded, buckshot screamed,

The soldiers' hands are tired of stabbing,

And the cores fly interfered

Mountain bloody bodies

(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Like other trope names, the term hyperbola It was also used in ancient poetics and rhetoric. Aristotle saw hyperbole as a type of metaphor.

Litotes.

Litota (Greek) litotes – simplicity, smallness, moderation) – a figurative expression opposite to hyperbole. This is an artistic understatement of the exalted meaning of what is depicted, with the goal of emotionally influencing the reader:

And walking importantly, in decorous calm,

A man leads a horse by the bridle

In big boots, in a short sheepskin coat,

In big mittens... and himself with marigold !

(N. A. Nekrasov)

Litotes usually include expressions that soften the designation of some quality or property: not easy (instead of difficult), not bad (instead of Fine), stupid (instead of stupid) etc.: “Anger made me even more stupid stupid his face” (L. M. Lermontov).

Symbol.

Symbol (Greek) symbolon – sign, omen) – represents a deeply meaningful image that correlates different plans of the depicted reality. This is not a visual display, but an allegorical explanation that uses allusion and creates a certain mood. Gorky’s petrel is a symbol of the coming proletarian revolution, Lermontov’s pine tree, standing alone “in the wild north” and dreaming in a dream about a palm tree “where the sun rises,” is a symbolic expression of the mood of a lonely person, his thoughts and innermost feelings.

A word-symbol, denoting a specific object, makes the reader think about its other, allegorical meaning, which (unlike a metaphor) is not given specifically, but must be unraveled, leading the reader to a state of stronger intellectual and emotional tension.

. . .

Sometimes in modern poetics all infinitely different paths are declared metaphors. This has its basis in the very etymology of the word: metaphor means transfer. But in order to appreciate the various techniques of metaphorism, it is necessary to outline at least conditional boundaries between the paths. This is what was discussed in the above text.

Ispolcalledliterature.

1. V.V. Babaytseva. Russian language. Theory. Moscow. “ Education” 1992

2. A. V. Dudnikov. Russian language. Chapter: Vocabulary and phraseology. Moscow “ Education”. 1974 .

3. E. I. Litnevskaya. Russian language: short theoretical course for schoolchildren. Part 3. Lexicology and lexicography
Copyright © 2000-2002 Emergency Hospital “ELEX-Alpha”

5. I. E. Savko. The entire school Russian language course. Minsk. “ Modern writer" 1999

6. L. A. Cheshko . Russian language. For preparatory departments of universities. Moscow “ graduate School” . 1990 .

2 types of value transfer:

1. Metaphor - transfer of a name by similarity: form, function, color (wheat hair), location, representation (whisper of leaves).

Metaphorization often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: the iron lady, an empty head, gentle rays, the talk of a stream.

3 types of metaphors according to the degree of imagery:

1. erased - eyeball, bow of a boat, tail of a train. Ugly.

2. figurative – iron word, steel water. The imagery is preserved.

2. Metonymy - transfer of a name by contiguity.

For example, I liked her knitting (= the result of the process). Metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual (Porcelain and bronze on the table).

The meaning of multiple meanings can be limited in different ways: lead (1. substance, 2. bullets, 3. severity)

The semantic unity of a word is secured not in the presence of a certain common part of the meaning in the LSV, but in a certain connection between these individual meanings. Polysemy can give rise to speech errors and difficulties in communication. But on the other hand, combining the direct and figurative meaning of a word can become a striking stylistic device.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be either general language or individually authored.

Synecdoche is a subtype of metonymy. Synecdoche is the transfer of the name of a whole to its part or vice versa.

For example: the cherries are ripe (cherries, berries), we are simple people (about ourselves alone).

In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning.

The emergence of new meanings leads to an expansion of the semantic scope of words, → an increase in their expressive capabilities.

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Methods for transferring word meanings

Each word has a lexical meaning. Lexical meaning of the word refers to the correlation between the sound form of a word and one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the minds of speakers.

Direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of impartial reality. For example, the word table has the following basic meaning: “a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on large supports, legs.”

Portable(indirect) meanings of words appear as a result of transferring the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc. Yes, word table has few figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape ( operating table, raise the machine table). 2. Nutrition, food ( rent a room with a table). 3. A department in an institution in charge of any special range of affairs ( information desk).

Depending on on what basis and on what grounds the title of one item is transferred to another, there are three classes of transfer of word meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synonymy. Some linguists also highlight transfer by similarity of functions.

1. Metaphor(gr. metaphora - transfer) - this is a transfer of name from one item to another based on any similarity of their characteristics.

The similarity of objects receiving the same name can manifest itself in different ways:

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of properties, parameters, and actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: nerves of steel, golden hands, an empty head, and on the contrary: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the talk of a stream.

It often happens that the main, initial meaning of a word is metaphorically reinterpreted on the basis of bringing objects closer together according to various characteristics: gray-haired old man - gray-haired antiquity - gray-haired fog; dark veil - dark thoughts - dark ingratitude - dark Saturday - dark chest(in airplane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemy of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual-author metaphors. The first ones are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. Linguistic metaphors, which served as a source for the emergence of a new meaning for a word, are mostly unimaginative, which is why they are called “dry”, “dead”: pipe bend, boat bow, train tail. However, there may be such transfers of meaning in which the imagery is partially preserved: blossoming girl, iron will. But the expressiveness of similar metaphors is significantly inferior to the expression of personal poetic images; Wed language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of emotions; fire blue.

Dry metaphors that generate new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, root word; official business: outlet, alarm signal); linguistic figurative metaphors tend to expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual author's metaphors are a wealth of artistic speech; they are made by masters of words.

2. Metonymy(gr. metonymia - renaming) - this is the transfer of a name from one subject to another based on their contiguity.

Thus, transfers of names are metonymic:

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individually-authored. The latter are often found in artistic speech, for example, in A.S. Pushkin: Porcelain and bronze on the table, and, the joy of pampered emotions, perfume in cut crystal; The hissing of foamy glasses and blue flames of punch.

3. Sin kdoha(gr. synekdoche - co-implying) - this is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. Eg, pear- fruit tree and pear- the fruit of this tree; head- part of the body and head- a smart, capable person; the cherry is ripe- fruit; we are ordinary people- talking about oneself.

Transfers of meaning in expressions like these, for example, are based on synecdoche: feeling of elbow, faithful hand, lend a helping hand, kind word, flight of thought and under.

4. Transfers based on similarity of functions appear when objects perform monotonous functions: street cleaner- “a person cleaning the yard” and “a windshield wiper on a car”; cordial valve-valve pump.

With time figurative meanings can become direct.

It is possible to find in what meaning a word is used solely in the context:

We sat on corner bastion, so that they had the opportunity to see everything in both directions. - In Tarakanovo, as in the most remote bearcorner , there was no room for secrets.

In the first sentence the word corner used in the direct sense of “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations "in a remote corner", "bearish angle" the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in remote areas, bearish angle- a remote place.

In explanatory dictionaries the direct meaning of the word is given first. The value recorded as figurative comes with the mark “ translated." .

Example dictionary entry:
Wood, oh, oh. 1. Made from wood. 2. trans. Motionless, unexpressive. Woody facial expression.Wood oil- a cheap variety of olive oil.

Exercises for the topic "Methods of transferring word meanings: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche»

Exercise 1. Determine the meaning of words: direct or figurative (metaphorical, metonymic, based on multifunctional transfer).

Big wave, wave anger, check in city, city defended himself from opponents city thought about it ceiling speed, whiten ceiling, cream society, technique went out into the field technique letters, factory nominated representatives composition text for advertising, school essays, straight answer, entrance In the underground, entrance free, catalog of ancient glass, tail trains, cool reception, all plate ate, kill everything dishes, rush arrow, check presentation, detailed presentation text, read the text presentation, window on schedule, antique silver, silver at the temples, exhibition silver, production silver, heartfelt valve, valve first boiler, time in a hurry, fire in the shower, fire flares up, film adaptation Chekhov, story Chekhov.

Exercise 2. Determine the types of figurative meaning of words: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Not enough workers hands, inject pride, tail comets, reddish sweater, wait!, set on fire passions poured into the square blouses, sour mood, in the heart Russia, he is light head, stand up: tribunal coming!, gold hands, shaggy Sun, commission decided soft Human, kettle boiled chain reasoning, 1st violin orchestra, influential face, drink cup milk, excess mouth in family, after cafe let's go for a walk, ring gardens, desperate head, freezing prices, all faculty was, dark days, bonfire rowan, institute announced recruitment, museum porcelain, dawn life, throw words, 2nd racket world, 1st round negotiations, hall applauded.

Exercise 3. Name cases in which metaphors have lost imagery, retain imagery, and are individually authored.

The wrong eye, the sea laughed, the eye of a needle, the bitterness of insults, the fire of lips, the root of the word, the country of birch calico, the snow-white birch trees are seething, the clock is running, beaded handwriting, revolver barking, pulling quotes, a close friend, the passage of time, all bitten as is by anger, diamond splashes, hair smoke over the fires of the eyes, the rain has passed, the sun has set, the eyes of the pages, tired drops of sweat, the road is sleeping, the leaves are whispering.

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Depending on on what basis and on what basis the name of one object is assigned to another, three types of polysemy are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

M etaphor (gr. metaphora- transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on any similarity of their characteristics.

The similarity of objects receiving the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape ( ring 1 on hand - ring 2 smoke); by color ( gold 1 medallion - gold 2 curls); by function ( fireplace 1- "room oven" and fireplace 2- "electrical device for heating a room"). Similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something ( tail of 1 animal - tail of 2 comets), in their assessment ( clear 1 day - clear 2 style), in the impression they make ( black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena with one word. Convergence is also possible based on other characteristics: green 1 strawberry - green 2 youth(the unifying feature is “immaturity”); fast 1 run - fast 2 mind(a common feature is “intensity”); 1 mountain stretches - 2 days stretch(associative connection - “extension in time and space”).

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the talk of a stream.

It often happens that the main, original meaning of a word is metaphorically reinterpreted on the basis of the convergence of objects according to different characteristics: gray-haired 1 old man - gray-haired 2 antiquity - gray-haired 3 fog; black 1 blanket - black 2 thoughts - black 3 ingratitude - black 4 Saturday - black 5 box(by plane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individually authored metaphors. The first are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. Linguistic metaphors, which served as a source for the emergence of a new meaning for a word, are mostly non-figurative, which is why they are called “dry”, “dead”: pipe bend, boat bow, train tail. But there can also be such transfers of meaning in which the imagery is partially preserved: blooming girl, will of steel. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is significantly inferior to the expression of individual poetic images; Wed language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of feelings; fire blue.

Dry metaphors that generate new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, root word; official business: outlet, alarm signal); linguistic figurative metaphors tend to expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual author's metaphors are the property of artistic speech; they are created by masters of words.

M e t o n i m i a (gr. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity.

Thus, it is metonymic to transfer the name of the material to the product from which it is made ( gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); names of a place (room) for groups of people who are there ( class, audience - The class is preparing for a test; The audience listens attentively to the lecturer); names of dishes based on their contents ( porcelain dish - delicious dish); names of the action on its result ( do embroidery - beautiful embroidery); names of the action to the place of action or those who perform it ( crossing the mountains - underground passage; dissertation defense - play defense); the name of the item to its owner ( tenor - young tenor); the author's name on his works ( Shakespeare - Shakespeare was staged) etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individually authored. The latter are common. in artistic speech, for example, in A. S. Pushkin: Porcelain and bronze on the table, and, the delight of pampered feelings, perfume in cut crystal; The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch.

S i n e k d o h a (gr. synekdoche- co-impliation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, pear 1- "fruit tree" and pear 2- “fruit of this tree”; head 1- "part of the body" and head 2- “a smart, capable person”; the cherry is ripe- in the meaning of “cherry”; we are simple people- this is how the speaker speaks about himself.

Transfers of meaning in such expressions, for example, are based on synecdoche: feeling of elbow, faithful hand, lend a helping hand, kind word, flight of thought and under.

In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of a narrowing or expansion of the main meaning. For example, the word dress means "clothing worn over underwear": ready-made dress store; ...Take him something from my dress. He is dressed too lightly. Give him my rabbit sheepskin coat(P.). However, as a result of narrowing the concept, the same word can be used in another meaning - “women’s clothing of a special cut”: She was wearing a white dress with a pink belt(L.T.). Word the basis At first it had a narrow meaning: “longitudinal threads running parallel along the fabric,” but over time the scope of the meaning of this word expanded and it began to mean “the main thing on which something is built, the essence of something.” However, narrowing this new meaning gives the word a terminological character: the basis- “part of a word before the end.”

The emergence of new meanings leads to an expansion of the semantic scope of words, and consequently to an increase in their expressive capabilities, and contributes to the development of the lexical-semantic system of the language as a whole. However, the Russian language is also characterized by a narrowing of the semantic structure of the word. Some meanings of words are archaized and fall out of use. For example, the word nature has the following meanings: 1. "Nature" [ Nature calls me into its arms(Karamz.)]. 2. "Human character, temperament" ( ardent nature). 3. “What exists in reality, a real, natural setting, conditions, etc., in contrast to what is depicted” ( draw from life).
4. “The one who poses in front of the artist” - special. ( draw nature). 5. "Goods, products as a means of payment instead of money" ( pay in kind). The first meaning with which the word nature was borrowed from the French language at the end of the 18th century has become outdated in modern Russian (in dictionaries it is given the label: old). The remaining meanings have developed on this basis and are actively functioning today. Thus, the expansion of the semantic scope of a word determines the development of polysemy and prevails over the process of a word losing its individual meanings.

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language.
M.: Iris-Press, 2002