Sophia Catherine 2. Children of Catherine the Great

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (nee Sophia Auguste Friederike of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband Peter III from the throne.

Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly expanded to the west (partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and to the south (annexation of Novorossiya).

The system of public administration under Catherine II was reformed for the first time since that time.

Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, collected masterpieces of painting and corresponded with French educators.

In general, Catherine’s policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great (documentary)

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2, new style) 1729 in the then German city of Stettin, the capital of Pomerania (Pomerania). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories it was voluntarily transferred by the Soviet Union, following the Second World War, to Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Gottorp estate, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elisabeth's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

His maternal uncle, Adolf Friedrich, was chosen as heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, which he assumed in 1751 under the name of Adolf Friedrich. Another uncle, Karl Eitinsky, according to Catherine I, was supposed to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received a home education. She studied English, French and Italian, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful girl and loved to show off her courage in front of the boys with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. The parents were dissatisfied with their daughter’s “boyish” behavior, but they were satisfied that Frederica took care of her younger sister Augusta. Her mother called her Fike or Ficken as a child (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian Emperor, remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed to her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, Johanna Elisabeth’s brother. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; Elizabeth had previously vigorously supported the election of her uncle to the Swedish throne and exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess and her mother were invited to Russia to marry Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. She first saw her future husband at Eitin Castle in 1739.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher).

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting by an open window in the frosty air. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sophia and her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by political intrigue in which her mother, Princess Zerbst, was involved. She was a fan of the King of Prussia, Frederick II, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on Russian foreign policy. For this purpose, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from affairs and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept letters from Princess Zerbst to Frederick II and present them to Elizaveta Petrovna. After the latter learned about the “ugly role of a Prussian spy” that Sophia’s mother played at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and subjected her to disgrace. However, this did not affect the position of Sofia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, On September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel.. The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from the mother by the will of the reigning Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to raise her, allowing her to see Paul only occasionally. So the Grand Duchess first saw her son only 40 days after giving birth. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.”

During this period, the English Ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant sums in the form of loans or subsidies: only in 1750 she was given 50,000 rubles, for which there are two receipts from her; and in November 1756 she was given 44,000 rubles. In return, he received various confidential information from her - verbally and through letters, which she quite regularly wrote to him as if on behalf of a man (for purposes of secrecy). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the outbreak of the Seven Years' War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the warring Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which he transferred to London, as well as to Berlin to the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she also received money from his successor Keith. Historians explain Catherine’s frequent appeal to the British for money by her extravagance, due to which her expenses far exceeded the amounts that were allocated from the treasury for her maintenance. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, as a sign of gratitude, “to lead Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to give her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all Europe and especially Russia, before their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, I will base my glory on them and I will prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine.”.

Already starting in 1756, and especially during the illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne through a conspiracy, which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. For these purposes, Catherine, according to the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, “begged a loan of 10 thousand pounds sterling from the English king for gifts and bribes, pledging on her word of honor to act in the common Anglo-Russian interests, and began to think about involving the guard in the case in the event of death Elizabeth, entered into a secret agreement on this with Hetman K. Razumovsky, commander of one of the guards regiments.” Chancellor Bestuzhev, who promised Catherine assistance, was also privy to this plan for a palace coup.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself, of treason. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizaveta Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War, and returned to it the lands captured by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, sergeant Potemkin and adjutant Fyodor Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy, Lieutenant Passek.

Apparently, there was some foreign participation here too. As A. Troyat and K. Waliszewski write, planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and British for money, hinting to them what she was going to do. The French were distrustful of her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but she received 100 thousand rubles from the British, which subsequently may have influenced her attitude towards England and France.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once indicated that before his death Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After death (although the facts indicate that even before death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to dispel suspicions of poisoning. The autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach was absolutely clean, which ruled out the presence of poison.

At the same time, as historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, “The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources” - Orlov’s letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending murder of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, “It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body”.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V. O. Klyuchevsky characterized her accession, “Catherine made a double takeover: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.”.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), In terms of population, Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky about the reign of Catherine the Great: “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles rose to 69 million, that is, it increased more than fourfold, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing imports and exports, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in the 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million."

Population growth was largely the result of the annexation of foreign states and territories (which were home to almost 7 million people) to Russia, often occurring against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of “Polish”, “Ukrainian”, “Jewish” and other national issues , inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages in appearance and occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some even existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to the issue of coins, 156 million rubles worth of paper notes were issued, which led to inflation and a significant depreciation of the ruble; therefore, the real growth of budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was significantly less than the nominal one.

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population has practically not increased, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and imports were dominated by foreign industrial products. While in the West in the second half of the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution was taking place, Russian industry remained “patriarchal” and serfdom, which caused it to lag behind the Western one. Finally, in the 1770-1780s. An acute social and economic crisis broke out, which resulted in a financial crisis.

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. She actually brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

Thus, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, of which she was a vocal supporter, did not correspond to her domestic policy. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of the serfs, their exploitation intensified, and inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as “pro-noble” and believe that, contrary to the empress’s frequent statements about her “vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects,” the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in Russia as a whole in the 18th century.

Under Catherine, the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained virtually unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners, was also eliminated. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N. I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. led by Pugachev, which revealed the weakness of local authorities and their inability to cope with peasant revolts. The reform was preceded by a series of notes submitted to the government from the nobility, in which it was recommended to increase the network of institutions and “police supervisors” in the country.

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no longer a need to maintain the special rights and management system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Pyotr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; in the same year, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 they were granted Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining “patriarchal” industry and agriculture. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

State regulation of salt prices has been introduced, which was one of the vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product. However, soon the price of salt was raised again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased- Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials increased especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The country's export volume increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade in the late 18th - early 19th centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships entering Russian ports annually during her reign increased from 1340 to 2430.

As the economic historian N.A. Rozhkov pointed out, in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of imports of which was several times higher than domestic production. Thus, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor dominated. Thus, from year to year, cloth factories could not even satisfy the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth “outside”; in addition, the cloth was of poor quality, and it had to be purchased abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, “machines”) harm the state because they reduce the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both were based on “patriarchal” methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively being introduced in the West at that time - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began shortly after the death of Catherine II .

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine’s policy consisted of a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was a consequence of the influence of the ideas of the physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and a ban on grain exports were abolished, which from that time began to grow rapidly. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own magazine. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, significantly reducing tariff barriers compared to the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties of 60 to 100% or more); they were reduced even more in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the “moderate protectionist” tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20- thirty%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land); The promotion of intensive agricultural methods by the Free Economic Society created under Catherine did not have much result.

From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine began to occur periodically in the village, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky associated with the beginning of mass grain exports, which had previously, under Elizaveta Petrovna, been prohibited, and by the end of Catherine’s reign amounted to 1.3 million rubles. in year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. The famines became especially widespread in the 1780s, when they affected large regions of the country. Bread prices have increased significantly: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they increased from 86 kopecks. in 1760 to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Paper money introduced into circulation in 1769 - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value depreciated by 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of RUB 15.5 million. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenses significantly exceeded income, which was stated by Paul I upon his accession to the throne. All this gave the historian N.D. Chechulin, in his economic research, the basis to conclude about a “severe economic crisis” in the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and about the “complete collapse of the financial system of Catherine’s reign.”

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination introduced, and Catherine decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first to be vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

To prevent their relocation to the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. The total number of new subjects acquired by Russia in this way reached 7 million. As a result, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire “the discord of interests intensified” between different peoples. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempt from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for Jews; From the Ukrainian and Belarusian population in the territory of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the poll tax was at first not levied at all, and then levied at half the amount. The indigenous population turned out to be the most discriminated against in these conditions, which led to the following incident: some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two charters were issued: “Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” And “Charter of Complaint to Cities”. The Empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them the crown of the “pro-noble policy” of the kings of the 18th century. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “In the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such diverse privileges as under Catherine II.”

Both charters finally assigned to the upper classes those rights, obligations and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine’s predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as a class was formed by the decrees of Peter I and then received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to unlimited disposal of estates; and by decree of Peter III it was finally released from compulsory service to the state.

The charter granted to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Already existing rights were confirmed
- the nobility were exempted from the quartering of military units and commands, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received ownership of the subsoil of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions, the name of the 1st estate has changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs
- nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the “Charter” does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote
- only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality among the nobles increased greatly: against the backdrop of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility worsened. As the historian D. Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serfs, and 1/3 of landowners had less than 10 souls; many nobles who wanted to enter the public service did not have the funds to purchase appropriate clothing and shoes. V. O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children during her reign, even becoming students at the maritime academy and “receiving a small salary (scholarships), 1 rub. per month, “from barefoot” they could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to the report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, to acquire funds for their maintenance on the side.”

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783, serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region).
In 1796, serfdom was introduced in New Russia (Don, North Caucasus).
After the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the serfdom regime was tightened in the territories that were transferred to the Russian Empire (Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

As N.I. Pavlenko writes, under Catherine “serfdom developed in depth and breadth,” which was “an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serfdom regime.”

During her reign, Catherine gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles, thereby setting a kind of record. Most of them were not state peasants, but peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of assigned (possession) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but converted to the status of serfs or slaves. Possession peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War of 1773-1775.

At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

The fact that a woman who did not have any formal rights to this was proclaimed empress gave rise to many pretenders to the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. Yes, just from 1764 to 1773 seven False Peters III appeared in the country(who claimed that they were nothing more than the “resurrected” Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; Emelyan Pugachev became eighth. And in 1774-1775. To this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova,” who pretended to be the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies were uncovered aimed at overthrowing Catherine, and two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich - the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne continued to remain alive in prison in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first of them involved 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when second lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

In 1772 took place First section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791; The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place Second section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov. During the Kościuszko uprising, the rebel Poles who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw discovered documents that had a great public resonance, according to which King Stanisław Poniatowski and a number of members of the Grodno Sejm, at the time of the approval of the 2nd partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, received money from the Russian government - in in particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 took place Third section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Battle of Kerch (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the “amazing” victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still quite weak and poorly organized, largely a consequence of the extreme decomposition of the Turkish army and state during this period.

Catherine II's height: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not carry out extensive palace construction for her own needs. To move around the country comfortably, she set up a network of small travel palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life began building a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was concerned about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine for a number of years cherished plans for the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the construction of suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyn. For various reasons, none of these projects were completed.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.” Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov, horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite there was cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Catherine's love affairs were marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to M.M. Shcherbatov) cohabited with all her ladies-in-waiting and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of Empress Lanskaya used an aphrodisiac to increase “male strength” (contarid) in ever-increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the cause of his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while Catherine’s age at that time had already exceeded 60. Historians mention many other scandalous details (“a bribe” of 100 thousand rubles paid to Potemkin by the empress’s future favorites, many of who were previously his adjutants, testing their “male strength” by her ladies-in-waiting, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, etc., was caused by the enthusiastic reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, most of whom were devoid of any outstanding talents. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “neither before Catherine nor after her did debauchery reach such a wide scale and manifest itself in such an openly defiant form.”

It is worth noting that in Europe, Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a rare occurrence against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa wrote about the “disgust and horror” that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Walishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of time, we think, will give a deeply unequal character to the same actions, depending on whether they were committed by a man or a woman... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France.”

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) that Catherine’s favorites (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) had on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762 until the death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic and foreign policies and even military actions. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who was jealous of the glory of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his mistakes in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him “a complete idiot”) - thanks to the fact that he was the “favorite of June 28”, one of those who helped Catherine seize the throne.

In addition, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the morals of the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc. Contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov), as well as a daughter, Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky), who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil named Elizaveta, who was born when the empress was over 45 years old.

A foreigner by birth, she sincerely loved Russia and cared about the welfare of her subjects. Having taken the throne through a palace coup, the wife of Peter III tried to implement the best ideas of the European Enlightenment into the life of Russian society. At the same time, Catherine opposed the outbreak of the Great French Revolution (1789-1799), outraged by the execution of the French king Louis XVI of Bourbon (January 21, 1793) and predetermining Russia's participation in the anti-French coalition of European states at the beginning of the 19th century.

Catherine II Alekseevna (nee Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) was born on May 2, 1729 in the German city of Stettin (modern territory of Poland), and died on November 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg.

The daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna Elisabeth (née Princess Holstein-Gottorp), she was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She received a home education, the course of which, in addition to dance and foreign languages, also included the basics of history, geography and theology.

In 1744, she and her mother were invited to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Soon her engagement to Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III) was announced, and in 1745 they got married.

Catherine understood that the court loved Elizabeth, did not accept many of the oddities of the heir to the throne, and, perhaps, after Elizabeth’s death, it was she who, with the support of the court, would ascend to the Russian throne. Catherine studied the works of figures of the French Enlightenment, as well as jurisprudence, which had a significant impact on her worldview. In addition, she made as much effort as possible to study, and perhaps understand, the history and traditions of the Russian state. Because of her desire to know everything Russian, Catherine won the love of not only the court, but also the whole of St. Petersburg.

After the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine’s relationship with her husband, never distinguished by warmth and understanding, continued to deteriorate, taking on clearly hostile forms. Fearing arrest, Ekaterina, with the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panina, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova, on the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, carried out a palace coup. Peter III was exiled to Ropsha, where he soon died under mysterious circumstances.

Having begun her reign, Catherine tried to implement the ideas of the Enlightenment and organize the state in accordance with the ideals of this most powerful European intellectual movement. Almost from the first days of her reign, she has been actively involved in government affairs, proposing reforms that are significant for society. On her initiative, a reform of the Senate was carried out in 1763, which significantly increased the efficiency of its work. Wanting to strengthen the dependence of the church on the state, and to provide additional land resources to the nobility supporting the policy of reforming society, Catherine carried out the secularization of church lands (1754). The unification of administration of the territories of the Russian Empire began, and the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished.

A champion of Enlightenment, Catherine creates a number of new educational institutions, including for women (Smolny Institute, Catherine School).

In 1767, the Empress convened a commission, which included representatives of all segments of the population, including peasants (except serfs), to compose a new code - a code of laws. To guide the work of the Legislative Commission, Catherine wrote “The Mandate,” the text of which was based on the writings of educational authors. This document, in essence, was the liberal program of her reign.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. and the suppression of the uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, a new stage of Catherine’s reforms began, when the empress independently developed the most important legislative acts and, taking advantage of the unlimited power of her power, put them into practice.

In 1775, a manifesto was issued that allowed the free opening of any industrial enterprises. In the same year, a provincial reform was carried out, which introduced a new administrative-territorial division of the country, which remained until 1917. In 1785, Catherine issued letters of grant to the nobility and cities.

In the foreign policy arena, Catherine II continued to pursue an offensive policy in all directions - northern, western and southern. The results of foreign policy can be called the strengthening of Russia's influence on European affairs, three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, strengthening of positions in the Baltic states, annexation of Crimea, Georgia, participation in countering the forces of revolutionary France.

The contribution of Catherine II to Russian history is so significant that her memory is preserved in many works of our culture.

Catherine II was born on April 21, 1729, before accepting Orthodoxy she had the name Sophia-August-Frederike. As fate would have it, in 1745 Sophia converted to Orthodoxy and was baptized under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Married the future Emperor of Russia. The relationship between Peter and Catherine somehow did not work out right away. A wall of barriers arose between them due to the banal misunderstanding of each other.

Despite the fact that the spouses did not have a particularly big difference in age, Pyotr Fedorovich was a real child, and Ekaterina Alekseevna wanted a more adult relationship with her husband.

Catherine was quite well educated. Since childhood, I studied various sciences, such as history, geography, theology and foreign languages. The level of her development was very high, she danced and sang beautifully.

Arriving in, she was immediately imbued with the Russian spirit. Realizing that the emperor’s wife must have certain qualities, she sat down with textbooks on Russian history and the Russian language.

From the first days of my stay in Russia, I was imbued with the Russian spirit and great love for the new Motherland. Ekaterina Alekseevna quickly mastered new sciences; in addition to language and history, she studied economics and jurisprudence.

Her desire to “become one of her own” in a completely new, unfamiliar society made this very society accept her and love her dearly.

As a result of complications in her relationship with her husband and constant palace affairs, Ekaterina Alekseevna had to seriously worry about her fate. The situation was stalemate.

Peter III did not have any authority or support in Russian society, and those six months of his reign caused nothing but irritation and indignation in Russian society.

Due to the worsening relationship between the spouses, she seriously risked going to a monastery. The situation forced her to act decisively.

Having secured the support of the guards, Ekaterina Alekseevna and her supporters carried out a coup d'etat. Peter III abdicated the throne, and Catherine II became the new Russian empress. The coronation took place on September 22 (October 3), 1762 in Moscow.

Its policy can be described as successful and thoughtful. Over the years of her reign, Ekaterina Alekseevna achieved excellent results. Thanks to successful domestic and foreign policies, Catherine II managed to achieve a significant increase in the territory and the number of people inhabiting it.

During her reign, trade developed rapidly in Russia. The number of industrial enterprises on the territory of the Empire doubled. The enterprises fully met the needs of the army and navy. During her reign, active development of the Urals began; most new enterprises were opened here.

Let’s briefly go through Ekaterina Alekseevna’s legislative acts on economic issues. In 1763, internal customs duties were abolished.

In 1767, people acquired the legal right to engage in any city trade. In the period from 1766 to 1772, duties on the export of wheat abroad were abolished, this led to an increase in the development of agriculture and the development of new lands. In 1775, the Empress abolished taxes on small-scale fishing.

The nobles received the right to exile their peasants to Siberia. Also, now the peasants could not complain about their master. The reduction in personal freedoms of peasants was one of the reasons for the uprising that took place from 1773 to 1775.

In 1775, Catherine IIbegan public administration reform. According to the new law, the territorial and administrative division of Russia took the following form: the Empire was divided into provinces, which in turn were divided into districts, and instead of 23 provinces, 50 were created.

Provinces were formed from the point of view of convenience of taxation, and not geographical or national characteristics. The province was governed by a governor appointed by the monarch. Some large provinces were subject to the governor-general, who had greater authority.

The governor headed the provincial government. The functions of the board were: announcement and explanation of laws to the population. As well as bringing lawbreakers to trial. Power in the lower ranks of the county was the responsibility of the local nobility, an assembly where people were chosen who would occupy important local positions.

Catherine II's foreign policy was aggressive. The Empress believed that Russia should behave as it did in the time of Peter I, conquer new territories, and legitimize its rights to access the seas. Russia took part in the division of Poland, as well as in the Russian-Turkish wars. Successes in them made the Russian Empire one of the most influential states in Europe.

Ekaterina Alekseevna died in 1796, November 6 (17). Years of reign of Catherine II 1762 - 1796

Needless to say, Catherine II is one of the most recognizable characters in Russian history. Her personality is certainly interesting. Ask any average person who he considers the most successful Russian ruler? I am sure that in response you will hear the name of Catherine II. She was in fact a worthwhile ruler, under her the Russian theater, Russian literature, and also science actively developed.

Culturally and historically, the Russian Empire really gained a lot. Unfortunately, the empress's personal life is full of various rumors and gossip. Some of them are probably true, but some are not. It is a pity that Catherine II, being a great historical figure, to put it mildly, is not a model of morality.

On February 14, 1744, an event occurred that was extremely important for the subsequent history of Russia. Arrived in St. Petersburg, accompanied by her mother Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst. The 14-year-old girl was entrusted with a high mission - she was to become the wife of the heir to the Russian throne, bear sons to her husband and thereby strengthen the ruling dynasty.

Court leapfrog

The middle of the 18th century in Russia went down in history as the “era of palace coups.” In 1722 Peter I issued a decree on succession to the throne, according to which the emperor himself could appoint a successor. This decree played a cruel joke on Peter himself, who did not have time to express his will before his death.

There was no obvious and unconditional candidate: Peter's sons had died by that time, and all other candidates did not find universal support.

To the Most Serene Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov succeeded in enthroning the wife of Peter I Ekaterina, who became empress under the name Catherine I. Her reign lasted only two years, and after her death, the grandson of Peter the Great, the son of the prince, ascended the throne Alexey Peter II.

The struggle for influence over the young king ended with the unfortunate teenager catching a cold during one of the many hunts and dying on the eve of his own wedding.

The nobles, who were again faced with the problem of choosing a monarch, gave preference to the dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, daughters Ivan V, brother of Peter the Great.

Anna Ioannovna did not have children who could legally occupy the Russian throne, and appointed her nephew as heir Ioann Antonovich, who was less than six months old at the time of his accession to the throne.

In 1741, another coup took place in Russia, as a result of which the daughter of Peter the Great ascended the throne Elizabeth.

Looking for an heir

Elizaveta Petrovna, 1756. Artist Toke Louis (1696-1772)

Elizabeth Petrovna, who by that time was already 32 years old, ascended the throne, immediately faced the question of an heir. The Russian elite did not want a repetition of the Troubles and sought stability.

The problem was that the officially unmarried Elizaveta Petrovna, like Anna Ioannovna, could not give the empire, so to speak, a natural heir.

Elizabeth had many favorites, with one of whom, Alexey Razumovsky, she, according to one version, even entered into a secret marriage. Moreover, the empress may even have given birth to his children.

But in any case, they could not become heirs to the throne.

Therefore, Elizaveta Petrovna and her entourage began to look for a suitable heir. The choice fell on the 13-year-old Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp, son of Elizaveta Petrovna's sister Anna And Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich.

Elizabeth’s nephew had a difficult childhood: his mother died of a cold, which she got during a fireworks display in honor of the birth of her son. The father did not pay much attention to raising his son, and the appointed teachers preferred the rod out of all pedagogical methods. Things got really bad for the boy when, at the age of 11, his father died and distant relatives took him in.

At the same time, Karl Peter Ulrich was a great-nephew Charles XII and was a contender for the Swedish throne.

Nevertheless, the Russian envoys managed to get the boy to move to St. Petersburg.

What didn’t work out for Elizabeth and Catherine?

Pyotr Fedorovich when he was Grand Duke. Portrait Georg Christopher Groth (1716-1749)

Elizaveta Petrovna, who saw her nephew alive for the first time, was in a slight shock - a thin, sickly-looking teenager with a wild look, could hardly speak French, had no manners, and was generally not burdened with knowledge.

The Empress rather arrogantly decided that in Russia the guy would quickly be re-educated. To begin with, the heir was converted to Orthodoxy and named Petr Fedorovich and assigned him teachers. But the teachers wasted their time with Petrusha - until the end of his days, Pyotr Fedorovich never mastered the Russian language, and in general he was one of the least educated Russian monarchs.

After the heir was found, it was necessary to find him a bride. Elizaveta Petrovna generally had far-reaching plans: she was going to get offspring from Peter Fedorovich and his wife, and then independently raise her grandson from birth so that he would become the empress’s successor. However, in the end this plan was not destined to come true.

It is curious that Catherine the Great would subsequently try to carry out a similar maneuver, preparing her grandson as heir. Alexander Pavlovich, and will also fail.

Princess as Cinderella

However, let's return to our story. The main “fair for royal brides” in the 18th century was Germany. There was no single state, but there were many principalities and duchies, small and insignificant, but with an overabundance of well-born, but poor young girls.

Considering the candidates, Elizaveta Petrovna remembered the Holstein prince, whom in her youth was predicted to be her husband. The prince's sister Johannes Elisabeth, daughter was growing up - Sofia Augusta Frederica. The girl's father was Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, representative of an ancient princely family. However, a big name did not come with large incomes, because Christian Augustus was in the service of the Prussian king. And although the prince ended his career with the rank of Prussian field marshal, he and his family spent most of his life in poverty.

Sophia Augusta Frederica was educated at home solely because her father could not afford to hire expensive tutors. The girl even had to darn her own stockings, so there was no need to talk about the princess being spoiled.

At the same time, Fike, as Sophia Augusta Frederica was called at home, was distinguished by her curiosity, thirst for study, as well as for street games. Fike was a real daredevil and took part in boyish amusements, which did not make her mother too happy.

The Tsar's Bride and the Would-be Conspirator

The news that the Russian Empress was considering Fike as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne struck the girl’s parents. For them it was a real gift of fate. Fike herself, who had a sharp mind since her youth, understood that this was her chance to escape from her poor parental home into another, brilliant and vibrant life.

Catherine after her arrival in Russia, portrait by Louis Caravaque.

Origin

Domestic policy

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Stacked commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious politics

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

Monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp family, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was King of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The ancestry of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up a playful, inquisitive, playful and even troublesome girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stetin. Her parents did not burden her with her upbringing and did not stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her Ficken as a child. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna and her mother were invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine will later write about this:

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing him to be seen only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup of June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands captured by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy, Lieutenant Passek.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unclear circumstances.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic policy

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces united under his authority were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and commands located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chambers judged all classes and were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In counties, as in provinces, there are class institutions: for nobles (district court), for townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower reprisal). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This trial was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities and district centers. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements as cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

The city was made a separate administrative unit. Instead of the governor, a mayor was placed at its head, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported in large quantities to England, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% are privately owned and 40% are state-owned

Legislation on estates

21 Apr In 1785, two charters were issued: “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “Charter granted to cities.”

Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.

Letter of grant to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility were exempt from the poll tax
• from the quartering of military units and commands
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• the right to unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
• the right to own houses in cities
• the right to establish enterprises on estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil of the earth
• the right to have their own class institutions
• The name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; the estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• Only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the elite merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of conscription with a cash contribution.

Division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy (“real city dwellers”) - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as the city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “support themselves by fishing, handicrafts and work” (who do not have real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called “philistines” (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meaning “city dweller” or “citizen”, from the word “place” - city and “shtetl” - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempt from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for conferment of nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
• According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
• A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• The peasants could not take an oath, take farm-outs or contracts.
• Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from passing from one owner to another.

The widespread idea of ​​Catherine distributing state peasants to landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine extended to Ukraine. At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all faiths was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Behind Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a complete Arabic text was printed Islamic the holy book of the Koran for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the Empress commanded “to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has under its authority all the spiritual officials of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region.” Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress. In 1764, Second Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

Peasant War of 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main stages:

• Sep. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sep. 1773 The uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments went over to the side of 200 Cossacks, going to suppress the rebellion. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize factories in the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated near the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan was captured. On July 17, they were defeated again and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sep. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Elagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. XVIII century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, despite even the skeptical (if not to say semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises: why did a significant part of Russian educated society become so interested in Masonic teaching? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search by a certain part of the noble society for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. During Peter's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the order of free masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, the magnificent rituals, attire, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of the meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, especially military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, veneration of rank, etc.

In the 1760s A large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, who, as a rule, were in opposition to the political regime of Catherine II, entered Freemasonry. It is enough to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and the famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most Russian lodges were part of the system of English or St. John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with elected leadership. The main goal was declared to be the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilyevich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Masons) as the Grand Provincial Master of Russia. After his name, the entire system is partly called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of lodges operated under various systems of Strict Observation, which recognized higher degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (German branch of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing to the Swedish royal house about the new wedding of the heir, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin’s mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ABOUT THE PERSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCES

Novikov's investigative file includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TSGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov’s file, since they remained in the hands of those who led the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky and others. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of materials from the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature, published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In those same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study “Novikov and the Moscow Martinists,” published a number of new documents taken from the “Novikov Case” and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation case. Thus, Longin’s book contained the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, was used by all scientists when studying Novikov’s activities. But this Longinian arch is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. A year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in volume II of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of the most important papers given to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner of Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov’s publication, for the first time, the questions asked by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovsky himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of the comments made by Ekaterina to the answers of Novikov, whose case she was personally involved in. Among the questions asked to Novikov was question No. 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (in the text of the question Pavel’s name was not indicated, and it was about a “person”). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later - in 1869 - Academician Pekarsky published the book “Addition to the history of Freemasons in Russia in the 18th century.” The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov’s investigative case. Pekarskaya’s publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail Novikov’s educational publishing activities. In particular, the papers characterizing the history of Novikov’s relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention; from them we learn about Novikov’s most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, given the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, he was imprisoned in a dungeon in the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and place hopes in "royal mercy", must be understood historically correctly by the modern reader, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom contemporaries called the “domestic executioner” of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned matters that Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the “special one” - Pavel. Therefore, he testified that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act,” and pleaded “guilty.” It is worth recalling that in similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same thing when, forced to admit that he really called on the serfs to revolt or “threatened the kings with the scaffold,” he showed: “I wrote this without consideration” or: “I admit my error,” etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were of an officially binding nature. So in Radishchev’s answers to Sheshkovsky we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the revolutionary’s actual attitude towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity forced Novikov to “throw himself at the feet of Her Imperial Majesty.” A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only his entire life’s work had been destroyed, but also his name had been tarnished by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from the behavior of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical correctness, based his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, which called for openly going towards danger, and if necessary, then death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, people have resorted to him only for information. Systematic study was undoubtedly hampered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme dispersion of documents from publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov’s investigative case surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case itself was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine’s persecution of Novikov, and him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with the arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of a leading public figure hated by the empress, but also the destruction of the entire educational cause (a decree prohibiting the rental of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The federal Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. The Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading trends in social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanisi, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda at the Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Statutory Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in Russian history. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convening and activities of the Legislative Commission 1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other educators. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and public welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, and state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;
• the adoption in 1785 of the Charter of the Nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Charter to the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government authorities was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, and the class system remained unshakable. Pugachev's Peasant War (1773-1775), the capture of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790) and the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II.”

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses operated, heated journal debates took place, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensely and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the Age of Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

During her reign, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was the modernization of Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter) who died in infancy the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (1775 - daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

• Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev riot Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the Ochakov fortress I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• “The Best Film 2”, 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• “The Secret of the Maestro”, 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• “The Favorite (TV series)”, 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• “Catherine the Great”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• “Emelyan Pugachev (film)”, 1977; “Golden Age”, 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• “Russian Ark”, 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalya Nikulenko
• “Russian Revolt”, 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• “Countess Sheremeteva”, 1988; “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lydia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• “Catherine the Great”, 1995. Catherine Zeta-Jones plays Catherine
• “Young Catherine” (“Young Catherine”), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• “Anecdotiada”, 1993. In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; “Midshipmen 3 (film)”, 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• “The Tsar’s Hunt”, 1990. Svetlana Kryuchkova plays the role of Catherine.
• "Dreams about Russia." In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Gundareva
• “Katharina und ihre wilden hengste”, 1983. Sandra Nova plays the role of Katharina.

black and white movie stars:

• “Great Catherine”, 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961. Zoya Vasilkova plays the role of Catherine.
• “John Paul Jones”, 1959. Bette Davis as Catherine
• “Admiral Ushakov”, 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• “A Royal Scandal”, 1945. Tallulah Bankhead plays Catherine.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• “Forbidden Paradise”, 1924. Pola Negri as Catherine

In the theatre

• “Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Times of the Empire", 2008. In the role of Catherine - People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber

In literature

• B. Shaw. "Great Catherine"
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. Pikul. "Favorite"
• V. S. Pikul. "Pen and Sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksenov. "Voltairians and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following humorous epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Buried here
Catherine the Second, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like it
To my spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve success in this.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She easily forgave and did not hate anyone.
Indulgent, loved ease in life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And with a kind heart - she had friends.
The work was easy for her,
In society and verbal sciences she
I found pleasure.

Monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see section Famous figures of the Catherine era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, and was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhevo, founded by Catherine II, a monument was unveiled in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were unveiled in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, which reads: “... we most graciously command that the economic village of Podol be renamed a city...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia”, among the 129 figures of the most outstanding personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is the figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of “yet” she wrote “ischo”.