Works of Russian abroad. Three waves of emigration of Russian literature in the 20th century

Literature of the Russian Abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of the Second World War and the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov). The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance.

First wave of emigration (1918-1940)

The situation of Russian literature in exile. The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October revolution, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. Emigration also existed in Tsarist Russia (Andrei Kurbsky, who lived in the 16th century, is considered the first Russian emigrant writer), but was not of such a large-scale nature. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - "Russia in miniature" was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society.

Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church operated. But, despite the preservation by the first wave of emigration of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society, the situation of refugees was tragic: in the past - the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - the cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-20s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability: most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated for life. Religious philosophers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky.

Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Don-Aminado, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: the lack of readers, the collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, and the need of the majority of writers were bound to inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one seems to have lost their talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And “In addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Having lost loved ones, homeland, any support in life, support anywhere, exiles from Russia received in return the right of creative freedom - the opportunity to speak, write, publish what they created without regard to the totalitarian regime or political censorship. This, however, did not reduce the literary process to ideological disputes. The atmosphere of emigrant literature was determined not by the political or civic lack of accountability of the writers who escaped the terror, but by the variety of free creative searches.

In new unusual conditions (“Here there is neither the element of living life nor the ocean of living language that feeds the artist’s work,” defined B. Zaitsev), the writers retained not only political, but also internal freedom, creative wealth in confrontation with the bitter realities of emigrant existence.

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, the “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Realize that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general:” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

The older generation of emigrant writers. The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia.

The older generation of writers includes: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: “The Life of Arsenyev” (Nobel Prize 1933), “Dark Alleys” by Iv. Bunin; “Sun of the Dead”, “Summer of the Lord”, “Pilgrim of Iv. Shmelev”; "Sivtsev Vrazhek" by M. Osorgin; "The Journey of Gleb", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" by B. Zaitsev; "Jesus the Unknown" by D. Merezhkovsky. A. Kuprin publishes two novels, “The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia and Juncker,” and the story “The Wheel of Time.” A significant literary event was the appearance of the book of memoirs “Living Faces” by Z. Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burlyuk, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov went abroad. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Shteiger and others.
The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the motive of nostalgic memory of the lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, the historical past, memories of childhood and youth.

The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to the biographies of writers, composers, and the lives of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (The Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin (My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin (Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name), M. Tsetlin about the Decembrists and the mighty handful (Decembrists: the fate of one generation, Five and others). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic, enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past (Bogomolye, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by A. Kuprin (Junker), the last The autobiographical book of the Russian writer-nobleman is written by Iv. Bunin (The Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev (The Journey of Gleb) and A. Tolstoy (The Childhood of Nikita). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war.

The events of the civil war and revolution are interspersed with dreams and visions that lead into the depths of the people's consciousness and the Russian spirit in A. Remizov's books "Whirlwind Rus'", "Music Teacher", "Through the Fire of Sorrows". The diaries of Iv. Bunin “Cursed Days” are filled with mournful accusatoryness. M. Osorgin's novel "Sivtsev Vrazhek" reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Iv. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - the epic “Sun of the Dead,” which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic splendor.” The “Ice March” by R. Gul, “The Beast from the Abyss” by E. Chirikov, the historical novels of M. Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation (The Key, Flight, Cave), and the three-volume Rasputin by V. Nazhivin are devoted to understanding the causes of the revolution.

Comparing “yesterday” and “today,” the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps?” Bunin wondered. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”
The younger generation of writers in exile. A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” (the term of the writer and literary critic V. Varshavsky), dependent on a different social and spiritual environment, who refused to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost.

The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. M. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine "Modern Notes", joined the "elders".

The most dramatic are the fates of B. Poplavsky, who died under mysterious circumstances, and A. Steiger and I. Knorring, who died early. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could earn money through literary work: G. Gazdanov became a taxi driver, D. Knut delivered goods, Y. Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a living on a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that possesses the souls of Montparnasse is fed and supported by insults and poverty: At the tables of Montparnasse there are people, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask themselves a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself."

The hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were most acutely and dramatically reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in the collections of B. Poplavsky (Flags), N. Otsup (In the Smoke), A. Steiger (This Life, Twice Two is Four), L. Chervinskaya (Approaching), V. Smolensky (Alone), D. Knut (Parisian Nights), A. Prismanova (Shadow and Body), I. Knorring (Poems about Myself). If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in B. Poplavsky’s novels “Apollo Bezobrazov” and “Home from Heaven”. “A Romance with Cocaine” by M. Ageev (pseudonym M. Levi) also enjoyed considerable popularity. Everyday prose has also become widespread: I. Odoevtseva’s “Angel of Death”, “Isolde”, “Mirror”, N. Berberova’s “The Last and the First”. A novel from emigrant life.

The first researcher of emigrant literature G. Struve wrote: “Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction literature - criticism, essays, philosophical prose, high journalism and memoir prose.” The younger generation of writers made a significant contribution to memoirs: V. Nabokov “Other Shores”, N. Berberova “My Italics”, Y. Terapiano “Meetings”, V. Varshavsky “The Unnoticed Generation”, V. Yanovsky “Champs Elysees”, I. Odoevtsev “On the banks of the Neva”, “On the banks of the Seine”, G. Kuznetsov “Grasse diary”.

V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” G. Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 20s - 60s. At the heart of Gazdanov’s worldview is the philosophy of life as resistance and survival.

In his first, largely autobiographical novel, “An Evening at Claire’s,” Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the traditional theme of nostalgia in emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In the novels “Night Roads”, “The Ghost of Alexander Wolf”, “The Return of the Buddha”, Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform.

The experience of the Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel “Mashenka”, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov depicts brilliant characters, victorious heroes who achieved victory in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations in his novels “Invitation to Execution”, “The Gift”, “Ada”, “Feat”. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the playful doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: the collection of short stories "Spring in Fialta", the world bestseller "Lolita", the novels "Despair", "Camera Obscura", "King, Queen, Jack", "Look at the Harlequins", "Pnin", "Pale" flame" etc.

V. Khodasevich published his top collections in exile, “Heavy Lyre”, “European Night”, and became a mentor to young poets united in the “Crossroads” group. G. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: “Poems”, “Portrait without Resemblance”, “Posthumous Diary”. A special place in the literary heritage of emigration is occupied by G. Ivanov’s quasi-memoirs “Petersburg Winters”, “Chinese Shadows”, and his infamous prose poem “The Decay of the Atom”. G. Adamovich publishes the program collection "Unity", the famous book of essays "Comments".

Scattering centers. The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 20s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 20s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people.

From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, Russian classics were printed in large quantities - Pushkin, Tolstoy, works of modern authors - Iv. Bunin, A. Remizov, N. Berberova, M. Tsvetaeva, the House of Arts was restored (in the likeness of the Petrograd ), the community of writers, musicians, and artists “Vereteno” was formed, and the “Academy of Prose” worked. An essential feature of Russian Berlin is the dialogue between two branches of culture - foreign and those remaining in Russia. Many Soviet writers travel to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of books, there is no division between Soviet Russia and emigration,” declared the Berlin magazine “Russian Book.” When hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris - from the mid-20s - the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. Live in Paris: Iv. Bunin, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, G. Gazdanov, B. Poplavsky, M. Tsvetaeva and others. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are associated with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the Green Lamp. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the conversation was about Russian writers of the older generation. The "Green Lamp" united the "seniors" and the "youngers", and during all the pre-war years it was the busiest literary center in Paris.

Young Parisian writers united in the group “Kochevye”, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parisian emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cultural and literary life of the Russian diaspora. Literary discussions took place in the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, and a new school of emigrant poetry, known as the “Parisian note,” was created. The literary life of Paris will come to naught with the outbreak of World War II, when, in the words of V. Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Russian emigrant writers will remain faithful to the country that sheltered them, occupied Paris.

The term “Resistance” will arise and take root among Russian emigrants, many of whom will be its active participants. G. Adamovich will sign up as a volunteer for the front. The writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in a German concentration camp, lavishing spiritual help and support, G. Gazdanov, N. Otsup, D. Knut will join the Resistance. Ivan Bunin, during the bitter years of occupation, will write a book about the triumph of love and the human principle (Dark Alleys).

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association "Churaevka" in Harbin. Churaevka meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of "Churaevka" in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine "Rubezh" published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baikov “In the Wilds of Manchuria”, “The Great Wang”, “Across the World”). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai. For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration.

The Russian People's University was founded in Prague, 5 thousand Russian students were invited, who could continue their education at the state expense. Many professors and university teachers also moved here. The Prague Linguistic Circle played an important role in the preservation of Slavic culture and the development of science. The work of M. Tsvetaeva, who creates her best works in the Czech Republic, is associated with Prague. Before the start of World War II, about 20 Russian literary magazines and 18 newspapers were published in Prague. Among the Prague literary associations are the “Skete of Poets” and the Union of Russian Writers and Journalists.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house "Alatas" here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

The main events in the life of Russian literary emigration. One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the polemic between V. Khodasevich and G. Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the polemic unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). V. Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classical rose” onto the emigrant wild.
The young poets of the group "Perekrestok" united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents”; he raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike V. Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. G. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which went down in the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note” (A. Steiger, L. Chervinskaya, etc.). The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

Disputes about literature also took place among the “unnoticed generation.” Articles by G. Gazdanov and B. Poplavsky on the situation of young emigrant literature contributed to the understanding of the literary process abroad. In the article “On Young Emigrant Literature,” Gazdanov admitted that the new social experience and status of intellectuals who left Russia made it impossible to maintain the hierarchical appearance and artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture. The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. “How to live?” asked B. Poplavsky in an article on the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration. “Die. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is an ideal setting for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation, merging with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921, the collection Change of Milestones was published in Prague (authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. National Bolshevism - “the use of Bolshevism for national purposes” - would emerge among the Smenovekhites. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of M. Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron was recruited by Soviet services. Also in 1921, the collection “Exodus to the East” was published in Sofia. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine "Versty" was published on the Eurasian platform, in which M. Tsvetaeva, A. Remizov, A. Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration. One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920-1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. In "Modern Notes" the following were published: Luzhin's Defense, Invitation to Execution, V. Nabokov's Gift, Mitya's Love and the Life of Arsenyev Iv. Bunin, poems by G. Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek M. Osorgin, Walking through the Torment of A. Tolstoy, Key M. Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.
Since 1937, the publishers of "Modern Notes" also began to publish the monthly magazine "Russian Notes", which published works by A. Remizov, A. Achair, G. Gazdanov, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya.

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930-1934, ed. N. Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. "Numbers" became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the "unnoticed generation", the opposition to the traditional "Modern Notes". “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine as follows: "Numbers" is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe." The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by its high, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications, quality of printing execution.

Among the most famous newspapers of the Russian emigration are the organ of the republican-democratic association "Last News", which expressed the idea of the White movement "Renaissance", the newspapers "Zveno", "Days", "Russia and the Slavs". The fate and cultural heritage of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration is an integral part of Russian culture of the twentieth century, a brilliant and tragic page in the history of Russian literature.

Second wave of emigration (1940-1950)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war, the so-called displaced persons, were leaving the USSR - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany, those who did not accept the totalitarian regime. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside the homeland: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 40s faced no less difficult trials than refugees from Bolshevik Russia: war, captivity, the Gulag, arrests and torture. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of Stalin’s terror.

The greatest contribution to Russian literature among the representatives of the second wave was made by the poets: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, V. Yurasov, V. Morshen, V. Sinkevich, V. Chinnov, Yu. Ivask, V. Markov. In the emigrant poetry of the 40-50s, political themes predominate: Iv. Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, anti-totalitarian poems are published by V. Morshen (Tyulen, In the evening of November 7), V. Yurasov describes the horrors of Soviet concentration camps in variations on the theme of “Vasily Terkin” Tvardovsky. Critics most often call I. Elagin the first poet of the second wave, who in exile published the collections “On the Road from There,” “You, My Century,” “Night Lights,” “Oblique Flight,” “Dragon on the Roof,” “Under the Constellation of the Ax.” , "In the Hall of the Universe." I. Elagin called the main “nodes” of his work: citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, urban fantasy. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Having overcome the horror of the experience, Yu. Ivask, D. Klenovsky, V. Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in the poems of Yu. Ivask (collections Tsar's Autumn, Praise, Cinderella, I am a tradesman, The Conquest of Mexico). Acceptance of the world - in the collections of V. Sinkevich “The Coming of the Day”, “The Flowering of Herbs”, “Here I Live”. Optimism and harmonious clarity are marked by the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of Life, Towards the Sky, Touch, Outgoing Sails, Singing Burden, Warm Evening, The Last). I. Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made a significant contribution to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin, fleeing from the “Great Fear” in V. Yurasov’s novel “Parallax” is tragic. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov’s “Virgin Soil Upturned” in the novel “Denis Bushuev”. The camp theme is addressed by B. Filippov (stories Happiness, People, In the Taiga, Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Girl from the Bunker (Between Two Stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book “Blockade”; B. Shiryaev (The Unquenchable Lamp) writes about the history of Solovki from Peter the Great to the Soviet concentration camps. Against the backdrop of “camp literature,” L. Rzhevsky’s books “Dina” and “Two Lines of Time” stand out, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, about overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication. According to critics, in Rzhevsky’s books “the radiation of love turned out to be stronger than the radiation of hatred.”

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the “magazine of literature, art and social thought” Grani.

Third wave of emigration (1960-1980)

With the third wave of emigration, mostly artists and creative intelligentsia left the USSR. In 1971, 15 thousand Soviet citizens left the Soviet Union, in 1972 this figure will increase to 35 thousand. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”, which welcomed the 20th Congress of the CPSU and the dethronement of the Stalinist regime with hope. V. Aksenov will call this time of heightened expectations “the decade of Soviet quixoticism.” An important role for the generation of the 60s was played by the fact of its formation in war and post-war times. B. Pasternak characterized this period as follows: “In relation to the entire previous life of the 30s, even in freedom, even in the prosperity of university activities, books, money, amenities, the war turned out to be a cleansing storm, a stream of fresh air, a breath of deliverance. Tragically difficult The war period was a living period: a free, joyful return of a sense of community with everyone." The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw.”

However, it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. Romantic dreams were followed by 20 years of stagnation. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-60s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The works of A. Solzhenitsyn are prohibited from publication. A criminal case was initiated against Yu. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky, A. Sinyavsky was arrested. I. Brodsky was convicted of parasitism and exiled to the village of Norenskaya. S. Sokolov is deprived of the opportunity to publish. The poet and journalist N. Gorbanevskaya (for participating in a protest demonstration against the invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia) was placed in a psychiatric hospital. The first writer deported to the West was V. Tarsis in 1966.

Persecution and bans gave rise to a new flow of emigration, significantly different from the previous two: in the early 70s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the third wave of emigration, the following are leaving abroad: V. Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, I. Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Y. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, A. Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, etc. Most Russian writers emigrate to the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora (I. Brodsky, N. Korzhavin, V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (A. Sinyavsky, M. Rozanova, V. Nekrasov, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, N. Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; they were largely not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike the emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages (as A. Solzhenitsyn published the Dictionary of Language Expansion, which included dialects and camp jargon) prevented the emergence of connections between generations.

The Russian language has undergone significant changes over the 50 years of Soviet power, the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 60s in the USSR, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (A. Solzhenitsyn, G. Vladimov), postmodernists (S. Sokolov, Yu. Mamleev, E. Limonov), Nobel laureate I. Brodsky, anti-formalist N. Korzhavin. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Naum Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

The two largest writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are A. Solzhenitsyn and G. Vladimov. A. Solzhenitsyn, having been forced to go abroad, creates in exile the epic novel “The Red Wheel”, in which he addresses the key events of Russian history of the 20th century, interpreting them in an original way. Having emigrated shortly before perestroika (in 1983), G. Vladimov publishes the novel “The General and His Army”, which also touches on a historical theme: in the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society, muzzled by the repressions of the 30s years. V. Maksimov dedicates his novel “Seven Days” to the fate of the peasant family. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad,” after leaving, published “Notes of an Onlooker” and “A Little Sad Tale.”

A special place in the literature of the “third wave” is occupied by the work of V. Aksenov and S. Dovlatov. The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, is addressed to the Soviet reality of the 50-70s, the evolution of his generation. The novel "Burn" gives an enchanting panorama of post-war Moscow life, bringing to the forefront the cult heroes of the 60s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in the Moscow Saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions, which is not typical for Russian literature. In Russian literature of the twentieth century, the writer’s stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, Dovlatov accurately conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 60s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, the absurdity of Soviet reality, and the ordeal of Russian emigrants in America. In “The Foreigner,” written in exile, Dovlatov depicts emigrant existence in an ironic way. 108th Street in Queens, depicted in “Foreigner,” is a gallery of involuntary caricatures of Russian emigrants.

V. Voinovich abroad tries his hand at the dystopian genre - in the novel “Moscow 2042,” which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

A. Sinyavsky publishes in exile "Walking with Pushkin", "In the Shadow of Gogol" - prose in which literary criticism is combined with brilliant writing, and writes an ironic biography "Good Night".

S. Sokolov, Y. Mamleev, E. Limonov include their creativity in the postmodern tradition. S. Sokolov's novels "School for Fools", "Between a Dog and a Wolf", "Rosewood" are sophisticated verbal structures, masterpieces of style, they reflect a postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. S. Sokolov’s first novel, “School for Fools,” was highly appreciated by V. Nabokov, the idol of the aspiring prose writer. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Yu. Mamleev, who has currently regained his Russian citizenship. Mamleev's most famous works are “Wings of Terror”, “Drown My Head”, “Eternal Home”, “Voice from Nothing”. E. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story “We had a wonderful era”, denies the establishment in the books “It’s me - Eddie”, “Diary of a Loser”, “Teenager Savenko”, “Young Scoundrel”.

Among the poets who found themselves in exile are N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, A. Tsvetkov, A. Galich, I. Brodsky. A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to I. Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, Brodsky published collections of poetry and poems: “Stop in the Desert”, “Part of Speech”, “The End of a Beautiful Era”, “Roman Elegies”, “New Stanzas for Augusta”, “Autumn Cry of a Hawk”.

Finding themselves isolated from the “old emigration,” representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses and created almanacs and magazines. One of the most famous magazines of the third wave, Continent, was created by V. Maksimov and was published in Paris. The magazine "Syntax" was also published in Paris (M. Rozanova, A. Sinyavsky). The most famous American publications are the newspapers "New American" and "Panorama", the magazine "Kaleidoscope". The magazine “Time and We” was founded in Israel, and “Forum” was founded in Munich. In 1972, the Ardis publishing house began operating, and I. Efimov founded the Hermitage publishing house. At the same time, such publications as “New Russian Word” (New York), “New Journal” (New York), “Russian Thought” (Paris), “Grani” (Frankfurt am Main) retain their positions. .

The development of literature of the first wave of emigration can be divided into two periods:

1920 - 1925 - the period of formation of literature of emigration, hope for return. Anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik themes predominate, nostalgia for Russia, the civil war is depicted from an anti-revolutionary position.

1925 - 1939 — intensive development of publishing activity, formation of literary associations. Hopes of return are lost. Memoir literature, designed to preserve the aroma of a lost paradise, pictures of childhood, and folk customs, is acquiring great importance; a historical novel, usually based on an understanding of history as a chain of accidents depending on the will of man; the revolution and civil war are depicted from a more balanced position, the first works about the Gulag and concentration camps appear (I. Solonevich “Russia in a concentration camp”, M. Margolin “Journey and the country of Ze-Ka”, Y. Bessonov “26 prisons” and escape from Solovki").

In 1933, recognition of Russian foreign literature was given to Bunin by the Nobel Prize “for the truthful artistic talent with which Bunin recreated the Russian character.”

The second wave of Russian emigration was generated by the Second World War. It consisted of those who left the Baltic republics annexed to the USSR in 1939; from prisoners of war who were afraid to return home, where Soviet camps might await them; from Soviet young people deported to work in Germany; one of those who committed themselves to collaboration with the fascists. The place of residence for these people was first Germany, then the USA and Great Britain. Almost all of the currently famous poets and prose writers of the second wave began their literary activity in exile. These are the poets O. Anstey, I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, I. Chinnov, T. Fesenko, Y. Ivask. As a rule, they began with social themes, but then moved on to lyrical and philosophical poems. Writers V. Yurasov, L. Rzhevsky, B. Filippov (Filistinsky), B. Shiryaev,

N. Narokov talked about the life of the Soviet Union on the eve of the war, about repression, general fear, about the war itself and the thorny path of an emigrant. What all writers of the second wave had in common was overcoming the ideological orientation of their creativity and acquiring universal morality. Until now, the literature of the second wave remains little known to readers. One of the best available works is N. Narokov’s novel “Imaginary Values,” which tells about the fate of Soviet intellectuals living according to Christian laws of conscience during the Stalin years.

The third wave of emigration is associated with the beginning of the dissident movement in the late 1960s and for purely aesthetic reasons. Most of the emigrants of the third wave were formed as writers during the period of Khrushchev’s “thaw” with its condemnation of the personality cult of Stalin, with the proclaimed return to “Leninist norms of life.” The writers breathed in the air of creative freedom: it was possible to turn to previously closed topics of the Gulag, totalitarianism, and the true cost of military victories. It became possible to go beyond the norms of socialist realism and develop experimental, conventional forms. But already in the mid-1960s, freedoms began to curtail, ideological censorship intensified, and aesthetic experiments were criticized. The persecution of A. Solzhenitsyn and V. Nekrasov began, I. Brodsky was arrested and exiled to forced labor, A. Sinyavsky was arrested, the KGB intimidated V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, V. Voinovich. Under these conditions, these and many other writers were forced to go abroad. The writers Yuz Aleshkovsky, G. Vladimov, A. Zinoviev, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, Sasha Sokolov, Dina Rubina, F. Gorenshtein, E. Limonov ended up in exile; poets A. Galich, N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, I. Guberman, playwright A. Amalrik.

A characteristic feature of the third wave of literature was the combination of stylistic trends of Soviet literature with the achievements of Western writers, and special attention to avant-garde movements.

The largest writer of the realistic movement was Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who during his emigration wrote the multi-volume epic “The Red Wheel”, reproducing the most important “knots” of Russian history. The works of Georgy Vladimov (“True Ruslan”, “The General and His Army”), Vladimir Maksimov (“Seven Days of Creation”, “Looking into the Abyss”, autobiographical novels “Farewell from Nowhere” and “A Nomad to Death”), Sergei Dovlatov (stories from the cycles “Suitcase”, “Ours”, etc.). Friedrich Gorenstein's existential novels “Psalm” and “Redemption” fit into the religious and philosophical mainstream of Russian literature with its ideas of suffering and redemption. Material from the site

Satirical, grotesque forms are characteristic of the work of Vasily Aksenov (“Island of Crimea”, “Burn”, “In Search of a Sad Baby”), although the trilogy “Moscow Saga” about the life of the generation of the 1930-40s is a purely realistic work.

Modernist and postmodernist poetics are clearly manifested in Sasha Sokolov’s novels “School for Fools”, “Between a Dog and a Wolf”, “Rosewood”. In line with metaphysical realism, as the writer defines his style, and essentially in line with surrealism, Yuri Mamleev writes, conveying the horror and absurdity of life in the stories of the series “Drown My Head”, “Russian Fairy Tales”, in the novels “Connecting Rods”, “Wandering” time".

The third wave of Russian emigration produced numerous and diverse works in terms of genre and style. With the collapse of the USSR, many writers returned to Russia, where they continue their literary activities.

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Main objectives of the lesson:

"Task 4 group"

Averchenko Arkady Timofeevich
Collection “Funny in the Scary”

The story “A LITERATURE LESSON”

The new teacher entered the class and, bowing affectionately to the students, said:

Hello children!

Hello, comrade teacher!

Is everything assembled?

And the devil knows!

I mean, how is this possible?!

And so. Are we going to catch everyone who didn’t come by the tail?

But still?

Well, for example, Andrey Evdokimov is not here, Yegor has passed on...

Why are they... sick?

Evdokimov went to Sennaya to get his father’s tie and cuffs, and Pereplyukhin is getting married today.

How to get married? Are you joking!

One of them joked, and they took him to gunpoint.

But anyway! The boy is fourteen years old, and in such years one is bound for life...

Stop worrying, comrade: your liver will burst. What the hell is there for life! He promised me to divorce her in a week. He, a fellow teacher, is getting married out of interest. By calculation: the bride has half a pound of fat and two cans of condensed milk. He will take it away, eat it up and get divorced.

The new teacher sighed, hanging his head, and said:

So, let's get started now...

Stepan Dyatlov approached him with a mysterious look and whispered:

There is a combination!

That is?

Let me go now - I'll give you one sniff...

Are you crazy? What does it mean to "sniff"?

Cocaine guy...

Go to your place, bad boy. If you need it for business, I'll let you go anyway. And bribe me with this rubbish!!..

Yes, that’s what I need: one date. That is, such a girl, comrade teacher, is fire! Precious creature. Do you want me to introduce you later?

Get out there!

Well, last conversation: would you like three snuffs? Anyone else would have grabbed it with his teeth...

Sit down. So, gentlemen, now we will deal with Gogol...

Gogol-mogol! Will you really arrange it? This is so comradely!

The eyes sparkled greedily, tongues licked their lips and everyone moved closer.

Gogol! This is such a writer.

Everyone's eyes dimmed and their hands dropped sluggishly.

Just think, an important dish. If I had known, I would have given up right away!

So, Gogol: “Dead Souls.”

Clever! Who killed them?

Nobody. These are dead peasants...

Yes, sir. So the food issue has been resolved. Well, fry further.

- “A rather beautiful spring chaise, the kind they travel in, drove into the gates of the hotel in the provincial town of N...”

Commissioners,” suggested Dyatlov.

“They’re not commissars,” the teacher grinned. - It was the landowner Chichikov.

Agent of the Entente,” someone guessed from behind.

- “The outer façade of the hotel corresponded to its interior...”

We understand, sir. The gubcheka fit!

What does Gubchek have to do with it? - the teacher winced impatiently... - “After Chichikov they brought in his belongings: first of all, a suitcase made of white leather... (“It’s worth ten million!” someone sighed from behind). Following the suitcase was a mahogany casket and shoe lasts. ... ("We know what these stocks are for! During interrogations, the fingers are screwed...")... and fried chicken wrapped in blue paper."

Everyone suddenly started moving...

How!.. How?.. Read this passage again:

- "Fried chicken wrapped in blue paper..."

What an anathema bourgeois!

I wish I could requisition it!

If only I could pick off one leg...

The teacher went on to describe the inside of the common room, and everyone went dark again. The bowed, bored heads rose only at the magical words: “Chichikov ordered dinner to be served.”

Like lunch!! What lunch? After all, he had fried chicken?!

- “While he was served various dishes common in taverns, such as: cabbage soup with puff pastry, brains with peas, sausages with cabbage, fried poultry, pickled cucumber and the eternal sweet puff pastry...”

Didn’t it really burst?!..

Nonsense!..

Stop, comrade! Let's calculate how much such a lunch should cost. Put it on cabbage soup and pie - five hundred thousand, brains - eight hundred thousand...

It might be your brain! Where can you find fried brains with peas and bread for eight hundred thousand? There will be six million here!..

The teacher chuckled.

What Chichikov ate in the tavern is nonsense! But listen to what Korobochka treated him to. “Please humbly have a bite,” said the hostess. Chichikov looked around and saw that on the table there were already mushrooms, pies, skorodumki, shanishki, pryaglas, pancakes, flatbreads with all sorts of toppings: topping with onions, topping with poppy seeds, topping with cottage cheese, topping with skimmed eggs, and who knows what... " "Unleavened pie with eggs," said the hostess. Chichikov moved towards the unleavened pie with eggs and, having immediately eaten about half of it, praised it. "And the pancakes?" said the hostess. Chichikov rolled three pancakes together and, dipping put them in melted butter, put them in his mouth, and wiped his lips and hands with a napkin..."

Nonsense!..

Ugh, damn it! - someone spat. -Where else did he have lunch?

That's not the point. I’d rather read to you a brilliant description of the character of both Chichikov himself and his servants.

No, to hell! It's past.

No need!

Well, a description of Sobakevich... do you want it? Remarkably convex. As if sculpted by the chisel of a brilliant sculptor...

Did he have lunch with him?

What! So what? What did you have for lunch?

“The cabbage soup, my soul, is very good today,” said Sobakevich, taking a sip of the cabbage soup and taking a huge piece of nanny from the dish, a famous dish that is served with cabbage soup and consists of a lamb stomach stuffed with buckwheat porridge, brain and legs.

Take the ram! - said Sobakevich, turning to Chichikov: - this is a side of lamb with porridge. For me, when it’s pork, put the whole pig on the table; lamb - drag the whole lamb; goose, - the whole goose." The side of lamb was followed by cheesecakes, each of which was larger than a plate; then a turkey the size of a calf, stuffed with all sorts of goodness: eggs, rice, livers and who knows what!.."

Nonsense! - a pained voice moaned from behind.

Nonsense? - the teacher was offended. - No, gentlemen, Gogol is not lying! Just take how he truthfully describes Plyushkin’s character...

Did you have lunch with him?

Well, you know, you can’t have lunch at Plyushkin’s...

To hell with Plyushkina then!

Who else did you have lunch with?

I dined at Manilov’s, at Rooster’s, had breakfast at the police chief’s... Listen to how perfectly the type of police chief is described...

Damn the guy! What did he have for breakfast there?

- “Beluga, sturgeon, salmon, pressed caviar, freshly salted caviar, herrings, stellate sturgeon, cheese, smoked tongues and balyks appeared on the table - this was all from the fish row. Then products from the hostess’s kitchen appeared: a pie with a head, which included cartilage and the cheeks of a nine-pound sturgeon; another pie with milk mushrooms, yarns, butterfish, brews."

Nonsense!! - Semyon Kustikov cried, covering his ears and shaking his head. - This can’t be!

The teacher looked thoughtfully and sympathetically at his flock. Sighed:

No, it was.

Why not now? Well, tell me! Well? Why?

Now, no, because the current communist system, having bankrupted and destroyed the economic life of the country and destroyed the sacred right of property, has killed the desire to work and...

Stepan Dyatlov suddenly jumped up and hastily shouted:

What time is it now? The teacher took out his watch.

Oh, how beautiful! Can I have a look? Stepan Dyatlov approached, leaned towards the teacher’s vest, as if examining a watch, and whispered:

You will explain what you are saying later. With Tsibikov and Vatsetis it’s impossible.

God! Why?

They're cops. They serve in "ve-che-ka". The moment you fall asleep...

The teacher again looked around at the thin faces with burning eyes, sighed for the last time and, without saying a word, took his Gogol and left.

Retell the story. Think about the questions. Share your thoughts with your classmates

How does Averchenko portray new students in Soviet Russia? What do they care about most?

How did the teacher answer the students' question about the lack of food?

At the end of the story, the teacher leaves the class, “taking his Gogol.” What does “yours” mean? How do you understand this expression?

View document contents
"MK (2)"

Lesson topic: Russian abroad. Russian literature and literature of Russian abroad.

Names and works returned to Russian literature

Lesson objectives:

1. Introduce students to one of the most dramatic pages in the history of the Fatherland.

2. Help students understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its impact on the development of Russian and foreign culture.

3. Develop students’ intelligence, replenish their active vocabulary, develop the ability to logically and consistently present educational material.

4. Using examples from the biographies and destinies of cultural figures and their works, instill in students love for their homeland, moral culture, and aesthetic taste.

Equipment: epidiascope, magnetic board, tape recorder (or multimedia projector), portraits of F. I. Chaliapin, I. Bunin, M. Tsvetaeva, S. Rachmaninov, K. Balmont, reproductions from paintings by N. Roerich, music (“Polonaise” by M. Oginsky , romances).

Lesson type: integrated lesson.

Interdisciplinary connections: literature, history, aesthetics.

Methodological goal of the lesson: active forms of training and education of students based on the integrated use of didactic and technical means, advanced task techniques.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

P. Updating of reference knowledge.

1. What do you think is the main content of the pre-October period of our history?

2. What do you think is the main content of the Soviet period of our history?

3. What moral lessons does the Russian history of the 20th century teach us?

III. Learning new material.

“Polonaise” by M. Oginsky sounds.

How many of you know the title of this work? (Farewell to the Motherland). It was not by chance that I chose this music, because today we will talk about the Motherland and people who were forced for one reason or another to leave their Motherland - Russian emigrants.

Various motives prompted them to do this: political, economic, religious, etc. Today, the Russian diaspora appears before us in all its diversity. This is our common drama and tragedy, not fully realized and revealed.

Many people fled from Russia in different eras - Prince Kurbsky and the writer A. Herzen, Doukhobors, schismatics, enemies of tsarism - Narodnaya Volya and Social Democrats. However, the turning point that changed the meaning of the previous concept of “emigration” was October 1917.

The purpose of our lesson: to understand and feel the drama of human destinies, to understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its influence on the development of Russian and foreign culture

Students write down the topic of the lesson and the epigraph:

You are in my heart, Russia!

You are the goal and the footstool,

You are in the murmur of blood, in the confusion of dreams!

And should I get lost in this age of roadlessness?

You still shine for me...

V.Nabokov.

1). The reasons for the emergence of the “first wave” of Russian emigration.

The disasters of the First World War, the shocks of two revolutions, finally, the troubled time of intervention, the Civil War, the “Red” and “White” terrors, famine, rampant crime - all this became the main reasons that hundreds of thousands of Russian citizens were forced to leave their homeland. The mass exodus of refugees began in early 1919 and reached its peak in 1920, when the troops of Denikin and Wrangel left Novorossiysk and Crimea. The fact that the Bolsheviks not only did not interfere with the emigration process, but also practiced forced repatriation themselves, also played a role. Thus, more than 250 thousand people were officially expelled from the country alone: one can recall the infamous “philosophical ship”, on which about 300 Russian thinkers were expelled in 1922. By the mid-20s. In connection with the “Iron Curtain” policy established by the Bolsheviks, the flow of emigrants is drying up: many Russian citizens are trying in vain to obtain permission to leave, but instead of expulsion, the authorities are increasingly practicing the extermination of dissidents or sending them to concentration camps. Almost the last of the Russian writers who managed to leave the country legally, E. Zamyatin, after long ordeals and written appeals to Stalin, obtained permission to leave in 1931. In total, according to the League of Nations, as a result of the October Revolution and the events that followed it, 1 million 600 thousand Russian citizens left the country and registered as refugees; emigrant organizations put the figure at 2 million. There was also a reverse process - before the war, no more than 182 thousand Russians returned to their homeland, among them were such famous writers as A. Bely (1923), A. N. Tolstoy (1923), M. Gorky (1928, finally in 1933), I. Ehrenburg (1934), A. Kuprin (1937), M. Tsvetaeva (1939) and some others.

2). Composition of the Russian emigration.

The “first wave” of Russian emigration was mainly made up of people of a fairly high educational, cultural, professional and material level: first of all, these were Russian white officers, professors, bureaucrats, people employed in non-productive spheres (lawyers, doctors, teachers, entrepreneurs, etc.) . etc.), including representatives of creative professions - writers, musicians, actors, artists, leaders of parties opposition to the Bolsheviks. Therefore, it is not surprising that a powerful culture was created (or, one might say, preserved and continued) in exile. Among those who make up the galaxy of major figures in world culture are our compatriots who lived far from Russia: singer F. I. Chaliapin; composers S. Rachmaninov, A. Glazunov, writers and poets I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Tsvetaeva, K. Balmont, ballerina A. Pavlova, artist K. Korovin. (Their portraits are shown through the epidiascope.) Among the biographies of famous compatriots who lived abroad, the unusual life story of the famous artist N. Roerich stands out. (Biographical information, through an epidiascope - a portrait, reproductions of his paintings.)

If you take a good look at the reproductions of his paintings, you will feel the great miracle of harmony between the human soul and the cosmos.

The pride of Russia, the embodiment of the best features of the Russian people, their deep talent is F. I. Chaliapin (portrait). A story about a singer (audio recordings).

Music by S. Rachmaninov and a portrait of the composer are playing. A story about him.

Tragic was the fate of I. Bunin, who lived with memories of that Russia that was close and understandable to him (portrait, story about the poet, poem “Motherland”).

Living most of their lives abroad, many poets were never able to find peace and solitude there. The homeland was always constant, before my eyes. Their poems, letters, and memoirs speak about this. The name of Konstantin Balmont was widely known in the literary world (portrait, short story about the poet, poem “In the Dead Days”). The Russian diaspora had its own network of higher educational institutions (Russian University, Technical Institute, Agricultural School in Prague).

In the early 20s, in Prague, Belgrade, and Paris, using state financial support, associations of Russian zemstvo and city leaders (Zemgor) arose. In Paris, Zemgor was headed by Prince G. Lvov, the former prime minister of the Provisional Government. With the help of Zemgor, Russian schools were created similar to the old gymnasiums. The Russian gymnasium in Paris was created in the fall of 1920 and existed for 40 years. Russian emigration organized various scientific societies: engineers, chemists, etc. Igor Sikorsky made a great contribution to science.

3). “Second wave” of Russian emigration: reasons, composition.

The “second wave” of emigration was caused by the events of the Second World War. The main stream of emigrants, according to one of the leading researchers of this period, V. Agenosov, “...citizens of the Baltic republics who did not want to recognize Soviet power; prisoners of war who rightly feared returning home; young people taken from Nazi-occupied territory to Germany as cheap labor; finally... people who consciously took the path of fighting Soviet totalitarianism.” Data on the number of emigrants of the “second wave” differ significantly, since before the 1951 convention, which actually marked the beginning of the Cold War, representatives of the Soviet Repatriation Commission traveled freely throughout Europe and where, by persuasion, and where by force, they forced emigrants to return to their homeland, and many, fearing repatriation, hid their true citizenship, nationality and name. Therefore, according to the League of Nations, only 130 thousand people registered as official refugees, while according to other data, in Europe alone by 1952 there were 452 thousand, and in the USA by 1950 there were 548 thousand displaced persons from the USSR. Basically, the “second wave” emigrants concentrated in Germany and (the majority) in the USA.

4). Main representatives. Literary fate.

The composition of the “second wave” of emigrants, in contrast to the “first”, was more random: among the displaced people there were many people who were culturally unenlightened, and this was the main reason why the “second wave” did not become as powerful a cultural phenomenon as the “first” " The biggest names among the writers of this period are the poets and prose writers Ivan Burkin, Ivan Elagin, Yuri Ivask, Dmitry Klenovsky, Vladimir Maksimov, Nikolai Morshen, Vladimir Markov, Nikolai Narokov, Leonid Rzhevsky, Boris Filippov and Boris Shiryaev. In 1946, the “magazine of literature, art and social thought” “Grani” began to be published, and in Paris it was resumed as the magazine “Renaissance” (1949-1974), in New York since 1942 and still exists “New Journal "(by the end of 1999, more than 214 issues were published).

5). “The third wave” of Russian emigration: reasons, composition.

Disappointment of the “sixties” in the short duration of the “thaw”, the onset of “stagnation” in the social and cultural life of the country; a change in the policy of the Soviet state, again, as in the era of Lenin’s reign, which replaced the physical elimination or isolation of those undesirable with their deportation abroad; Western support for the dissident movement in the USSR caused by the Cold War; Israel's policy of “reunification” of Jews - all this became the reasons for the emergence of the 2nd half of the 60s. "third wave" of Russian emigration. The first official emigrant was the writer Valery Tarsis (1966); in the 70s the process of departure became widespread. The main countries receiving Russian emigrants were the USA, Israel and Germany, and to a lesser extent France, Canada and Australia.

6). The main representatives of the literature of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

Vasily Aksenov (1980), Joseph Brodsky (1972, exiled), Vladimir Voinovich (1980), Alexander Galich (1974), Anatoly Gladilin (1976), Friedrich Gorenstein (1980), Sergei Dovlatov (1978), Alexander Zinoviev (1977), Naum Korzhavin (1973), Yuri Kublanovsky (1982), Eduard Limonov (1983), Vladimir Maksimov (1974), Viktor Nekrasov (1974), Sasha Sokolov (1975), Andrei Sinyavsky (1973), Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1974, exiled), Boris Khazanov (1982) and many others. etc.

7). Features of the literature of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

There is a belief that the best works of “third wave” emigrant writers published abroad were, at least in general terms, written in their homeland. Unlike the authors of the “first wave,” these writers mainly developed as creative individuals in the context and logic of Soviet literature and culture (it is not without reason that some critics find features of the poetics of socialist realism in A. Solzhenitsyn’s prose), although they were also influenced by foreign literature. literature, primarily works published during the Khrushchev “thaw” (E. M. Remarque, E. Hemingway, F. Kafka), as well as works of the Silver Age and the 20s, gradually published in the 60-70s . or those who went to “samizdat” (A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak, I. Babel, B. Pilnyak, D. Kharms and many others). In fact, the works of the authors of the “third wave” of emigration are distinguished only by a greater degree of political courage and aesthetic emancipation in comparison with the works that found an official path to the reader in the USSR.

8). The literary process of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

In exile, many writers were forced to combine literary activity with journalism, working on radio stations broadcasting in the USSR (Voice of America, Svoboda, Deutsche Welle, BBC, etc.), as well as in emigrant periodicals - magazines "Grani" (Frankfurt am Main, Germany), "Echo" (Paris), "Time and We" (Tel Aviv, New York, Paris), "Continent" (Munich), "Vestnik RHD" ( Paris, Munich, New York), “Syntax” (Paris), “New Journal” (New York), etc. The same publications published works of art by emigrant authors. There were several fairly large Russian publishing houses that published both writers from Russia abroad and disgraced authors who remained in their homeland. The most famous of these publishing houses: named after A.P. Chekhov (New York), YMCA-Press (Paris), Posev (Frankfurt am Main). However, according to the testimony of many exiles, the literary environment of the Russian diaspora was torn apart by contradictions: there was a serious struggle between representatives of either the real and national conservative camps, rivalry over funding, many emigrants were forced to observe “political correctness” in relation to countries and organizations, their sheltered. In a word, there was much less unity among the emigrant writers of the “third wave” than among their predecessors. With the fall of the Iron Curtain and the beginning of liberalization of the Russian economy and politics, Russian emigration lost its political significance: some (like A. Solzhenitsyn and Sasha Sokolov) chose to return, others (like V. Voinovich, E. Limonov) spend most of their time in Russia, while others (I. Brodsky (1996), A. Galich (1977), S. Dovlatov (1999), V. Nekrasov (1987), etc.) will never return. At the same time, some critics have started talking about the “fourth wave” of emigration, which is based on reasons of a material or psychological rather than a political nature: many prominent writers now prefer to live abroad, while remaining participants in the Russian literary process, and among them is E. Yevtushenko, T. Tolstaya et al.

How do you understand the words of V. Nabokov: “The result is a striking paradox: inside Russia there is an external order, outside Russia there is an internal one”!

Faith in their special writing mission, a sense of duty to Russia led to the fact that, having parted with their homeland, emigrant writers turned all their creativity to it, and while Soviet authors were forced, in accordance with the dogmas of socialist realism, to idealize the Soviet reality surrounding them , then the authors of the Russian diaspora did the same in relation to the recent past.

We have turned over only a few pages from the life of Russians abroad.

According to the Rodina society, in 1999 the number of our compatriots abroad was more than 30 million people. About 10 million Russians live in the USA alone.

V. Securing the topic. Conclusions.

The global significance of the culture of Russian emigration.

Tragic events of the 20th century. determined the emergence of such a unique phenomenon as the literature of Russian diaspora. Its main feature in all periods was that, even enriched as a result of contacts with neighboring literatures, it retained spiritual ties with the national culture, remaining its most important and inseparable part.

The significance for world culture of the tragic history of the expulsion of the creative elite of Russia from their native country is difficult to overestimate: the music of S. Rachmaninov I. Stravinsky, the painting of the father and son of the Roerichs and V. Kandinsky, the ballet of V. Nijinsky and S. Lifar, the singing gift of F. Chaliapin and P. Leshchenko, the philosophical works of L. Shestov and N. Berdyaev, the scientific achievements of the economist V. Leontyev and the inventor I. Sikorsky and many others. etc. - all this was a precious contribution of Russian culture and science to the world. The global recognition of Russian literature abroad is evidenced by the fact that among its representatives there are two Nobel Prize laureates (I. Bunin 1934 and I. Brodsky 1987), which is also claimed by D. Merezhkovsky and I. Shmelev, whose works, like books

M. Aldanova, R. Gulya, N. Berberova and many others. etc., are also translated into different languages and find resonance in the world. It is safe to say that the contribution - intellectual, cultural, material, even genetic - of the best representatives of our people, whom their native country abandoned, played a role in the rapid development of the countries of the West and America.

V. Lesson summary.

VI. Homework: select material about emigrant writers, read V.V. Nabokov’s work “The Circle”.

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"MK"

Topic: “Russian Abroad (first wave)”

Goals and objectives:

During the classes

Organizing time.

Teacher's opening speech.

Slide 1. The topic of today's lesson is “Russian Abroad (first wave).”

Slide 2 Objectives of today's lesson:

To give an idea of the reasons that prompted our compatriots to leave Russia;
- show students the scale and significance of the cultural heritage of Russian diaspora;
- to form in students a sense of love and devotion to their Motherland using the example of the tragic fates of representatives of the Russian emigration, who remained faithful to Russia, its culture and people until the end of their days.

Slide 3. This is how the historian of Russian emigration P. Kovalevsky characterizes the Russian emigration: “In world history there is no phenomenon similar in scope, number and cultural significance that could be compared with the Russian emigration.”

Teacher's word: The Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. A large number of its subjects left for various reasons: religious, economic, political.
The first powerful wave of emigration is “white” emigration. October 1917 divided Russia into “red” and “white”, “us” and “aliens”, basing it on the class principle. “Aliens” had no place in Soviet Russia. Following those who left the country in the glow of the flames of the civil war, those who remained were deported, but did not want to put up with the removal of the right to act as their conscience dictated, to have their own opinion, different from the official one. In August 1922 without trial or investigation, an administrative decision of the OGPU expelled a large group of cultural figures - “counter-revolutionary elements from among professors, doctors, agronomists, writers...”. Upon deportation, they had to sign a document according to which they would be shot if they returned to Russia. People were literally expelled from their fatherland.

Slide 4 Conventionally, in the history of emigration there are three periods, three waves:
1) 1920-1940 - about 4 million people
2) 1941-1947 - about 10 million people
3) 1948-1990 - about 1.1 million people

Teacher's word: The total number of our compatriots abroad was approximately twenty million people.

Name the names of the largest Russian writers and poets known to you from past lessons who found themselves in exile. (I. Bunin, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, A. Kuprin, I. Severyanin, etc.)

Slide 5.List of Russian writers who found themselves abroad:

A. T. Averchenko, M. A. Aldanov, L. N. Andreev, M. N. Artsybashev, K. D. Balmont, 3. N. Gippius, G. D. Grebenshchikov, Don Aminado, O. Dymov, A. P. Kamensky, A. I. Kuprin, D. S. Merezhkovsky, N. M. Minsky, I. Nazhivin, Igor Severyanin, I. D. Surguchev, A. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Teffi, Sasha Cherny, E.I. Chirikov, S. Yushkevich and others. In 1921 - 1923, G.V. Adamovich, A.V. Amfiteatrov, B.K. Zaitsev, G.V. Ivanov, Vas. emigrated. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. M. Remizov, V. F. Khodasevich, M. I. Tsvetaeva, I. S. Shmelev. In 1924, Vyach went abroad. Ivanov; in 1931 - E. I. Zamyatin.

Teacher's word: Several centers played a special role in the formation and development of Russian foreign literature: Berlin, Paris, Prague, Belgrade, Warsaw, Sofia, Constantinople and “Russian China” - the cities of Harbin and Shanghai.

Slide 6: But Berlin and Paris became recognized literary capitals.

It was in Paris that Bunin, Kuprin, Gippius and Merezhkovsky, Remizov, Zaitsev, Khodasevich, Teffi and many other famous poets, prose writers, critics, and publicists settled.

Slide 7: The most famous literary and artistic magazine of the Russian diaspora, "Modern Notes" (70 volumes from 1920-1940), is published here, and the most popular newspapers among emigrants: "Last News" and "Renaissance" are published.

Teacher's word: It is in Paris that most ideological and literary movements will be experienced with particular acuteness. Despite the fact that Russian emigrants lived far from Russia, they did not lose touch with their native land: their thoughts and souls were with their Motherland. A common thread running through the entire work of many writers and poets is a feeling of longing for the Motherland.

Slide 8:

Say goodbye to your home!

How the heart beats, sadly and loudly,
When I enter, being baptized, into someone else's rented house
With your own old knapsack!
I. Bunin.

Slide 9:“There is not a day when I do not yearn for Russia, there is not an hour when I do not long to return...” K. Balmont
“Life in exile was the most difficult period of my life. There I understood what it means to be... a person cut off from the Motherland...” A. Tolstoy
Teacher's word: Let's move on to getting acquainted with individual representatives of the Russian diaspora, whose work you can subsequently get acquainted with on your own.

Presentation 1 I. Shmelev.

Presentation 2 B. Zaitsev.

Presentation 3 A. Averchenko.

Presentation 4 N. Teffi.

Presentation 5 Sasha Cherny.

Presentation 6 A. Tolstoy.

Teacher's word: Emigration was getting old. They left for a short time, but it turned out that they left for life.
The Russian cemetery near Paris in Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois has become notorious. The history of its origin is as follows. The old, infirm emigrants had to be looked after. For this purpose, the “Russian House” was established on the initiative of Princess V. Meshcherskaya. 30 km. from Paris, in the town of Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois, in a beautiful old estate, a boarding house was opened for elderly emigrants from Russia. As the boarders died, the local cemetery became more and more full of Russian graves.

Slide 10:Some famous people buried in the cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois

Bunin, Ivan Alekseevich(1870-1953) - writer, first Russian winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (in 1933). Buried with his wife Vera Muromtseva, niece Chairman of the First Duma.

Galich, Alexander Arkadevich- playwright, poet, bard.

Zaitsev, Boris Konstantinovich- writer

Ivanov, Georgy Vladimirovich- Russian poet, prose writer, translator; one of the largest poets of the Russian emigration.

Merezhkovsky, Dmitry Sergeevich- poet (1865-1941) and Zinaida Nikolaevna Gippius(1869-1941) - poetess.

Nekrasov, Viktor Platonovich(1911-1987) - writer, journalist and screenwriter, chief editor. magazine "Continent".

Remizov, Alexey Mikhailovich(1877-1957) - writer.

Teffi (Nadezhda Lokhvitskaya) (1875-1952) - writer.

Shmelev, Ivan Sergeevich(1873-1950) - writer; reburied in the necropolis of the Donskoy Monastery.

Teacher's word: Russian emigrants had a special trait - a reluctance to stop being Russian, a desire to preserve their culture, an irresistible longing for their homeland. We often say that they suffered in separation from their Motherland, that they missed it, but the time has come to say that the Motherland also missed many of them. Today's Russia has finally realized that these are its children.
Slide 11:“Russian people, wherever you are, love Russia, present, past and future, and always be her faithful sons and daughters,” is the inscription on one of the unknown graves of Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois.

Teacher's word: The state of mind of the emigrants is conveyed by a poem by the poet R. Rozhdestvensky, written in 1948.

CEMETERY NEAR PARIS

Small church. The candles have melted.
The stone is worn white by the rains.
The former are buried here. Former.
Cemetery of Saint-Genevieve-des-Bois.
Dreams and prayers are buried here.
Tears and valor.
"Goodbye!" and “Hurray!”
Staff captains and midshipmen.
Grips of colonels and cadets.
White guard, white flock,
White army, white bone...
Wet slabs sprout grass.
Russian letters. French churchyard...
I touch history with my palm.
I'm going through the Civil War...

How they wanted to go to the Mother See
One day ride on a white horse!..
There was no glory. The Motherland was no more.
There was no heart.
And the memory was...
Your Lordships, their Honors -
Together in Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois.
They lie tightly, having learned enough,
Your torments and your roads.
After all, they are Russian. It seems to be ours.
Just not ours,
And draws...
How they are after - forgotten, former
Cursing everything now and in the future,
Eager to look at her -
The winner, albeit incomprehensible,
Let the unforgiving
Motherland and die...
Noon.
Birch glow of peace.
Russian domes in the sky.
And the clouds are like white horses,
Rushing over Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois.

E that poem can be listened to as a song performed by A Malinin (5 min. 40 sec.)

Slide 12: The theme of Russian diaspora in cinema:

Feature Film

1970 - Running, a film based on the works of M. A. Bulgakov “Running”, “White Guard” and “Black Sea”.

Documentary film

Multi-part documentary film " Russians without Russia» Nikita Mikhalkov about the fate of the Russian white emigration

Teacher's word: I suggest you now make a list of literature for independent reading.

Slide 13 Create a word document, go back to your presentations, and copy the information you need. We will then check the completeness of this list and print it out to everyone .

(Completing of the work )

Slide 14 In conclusion, I ask you to go through final testing based on our lesson materials.

View document contents
“Lesson No. 40. Literature of the Russian diaspora of the first wave (review).”

Grade 11
Lesson #40.	Literature of the Russian abroad of the first wave (review).
Goals:	show students the scale and significance of the cultural heritage of Russian diaspora; help understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its influence on the development of Russian and foreign culture; develop students’ intelligence, replenish active vocabulary, develop the ability to logically and consistently present educational material; Using the examples of the destinies of cultural figures and their works, to instill in students love for their homeland, moral culture, and aesthetic taste.
Expected results:	students know the concept of “Russian Abroad”, the reasons for emigration, time frames, are able to interpret educational text, determine the significance of the cultural heritage of the Russian Abroad
Equipment:	textbook, workbooks, RM
During the classes	Teacher activities	Student activities
Organizational ny stage.	Greeting students. Creating a psychological mood.	Greetings from teachers
Goal setting stage.	Exit to the topic. Analysis of statements Vladislav Khodasevich: “The nationality of literature is created by language and spirit, and not by the territory on which its life takes place, or by the way of life reflected in it” Dmitry Likhachev: “We, in essence, gave the West the beginning of our century” Sergey Dovlatov: “Each of us lives not in Moscow or New York, but in language and history” What literary phenomenon unites these statements? What will we talk about in today's lesson? “Polonaise” by M. Oginsky sounds (“ Farewell to the Motherland") It was not by chance that I chose this music, because today we will talk about people who were forced for one reason or another to leave their homeland - Russian emigrants. Various motives prompted them to do this: political, economic, religious, etc. Today, the Russian diaspora appears before us in all its diversity. This is our common drama and tragedy, not fully realized and revealed. Many people fled from Russia in different eras - Prince Kurbsky and the writer A. Herzen, Doukhobors, schismatics, enemies of tsarism - Narodnaya Volya and Social Democrats. However, the turning point that changed the meaning of the previous concept of “emigration” was October 1917. The purpose of our lesson: to understand and feel the drama of human destinies, to understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its influence on the development of Russian and foreign culture	Students participate in the discussion, determine the topic, purpose of the lesson and objectives.
Operational stage	Teacher's lecture (accompanied by presentation) Term "Russian Abroad" introduced by literary historian Gleb Struve. This is more of a cultural-geographical than a creative concept, because literature of the Russian Abroad - “part of the great Russian literature” First wave Russian emigration is associated with the beginning of the 1917 revolution. This emigration is largely forced and therefore the fate of these people is the most tragic. Bunin I.A. Kuprin A.I. Shmelev I.S. Tsvetaeva M.I. Second wave associated with the 2nd World War. These are people who were captured or found themselves in occupied territory. This wave did not produce big names. Boris Shiryaev Nikolay Narokov. Third wave dates back to the 70s of the XX century. It is associated with the beginning of the struggle for human rights, the right to travel outside the country. Often permission to travel abroad was only a one-way trip. There was a practice of forced expulsion from the country. Solzhenitsyn A.I. Voinovich V.I. Aksenov V. Brodsky I. Fourth wave emigration arose in connection with the collapse of the USSR. Paths of Russian emigration: Constantinople, Paris, Prague, New York, Harbin, Berlin, Warsaw. Behind this concept are the sad voices of former Russian poets - I. Bunin, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Khodasevich, V. Nabokov, bringing to us across the distance of kilometers and years the high structure of Russian speech. Behind him are the mocking lines of inveterate wits - A. Averchenko, N. Teffi, followed by the inescapable longing for Russia in the works of M. Osorgin and I. Shmelev. It contains branches of the powerful tree of Russian culture, which for many years were hidden from us. Now these destinies are Russian abroad. This concept hides talents; works are open to our consciousness, our heart. Literature of the Russian abroad of the first wave. Working with textbook material . 1 group. Compiling the cluster “Geography of creativity of Russian emigration” (pp. 223 -225) 2nd group . Compiling a table “Topics of Russian emigration” (pp. 225 – 228) 3rd group. Prepares expressive readings and brief analyzes of poems by emigrant poets. + ? 4th group. Reads Averchenko’s story, prepares a short retelling, answers questions, and draws a conclusion. Individual task. “...The sweetest, but crafty rumor” of the homeland in the works of V.V. Nabokov or “V. Nabokov – the bearer of Russian traditions in the literature of the Russian Abroad of the first wave” (implementation of homework)	Listen to a lecture, take notes in a notebook They work in groups. Present developments FO: “Plus-minus-interesting”
Reflective-evaluative stage	Summarizing. Poet, literary critic, translator Gleb Petrovich Struve(also an emigrant) wrote about this literature this way: “Foreign Russian literature is a temporarily set aside stream of all-Russian literature, which - the time will come - will flow into the general mainstream of this literature.” The October Revolution and the Civil War divided Russian literature into Soviet and foreign. And for a long time, the literature of Russian diaspora remained in oblivion. But at the end of the 20th century, the poet’s prophecy finally came true Vladislav Khodasevich about the merger of two streams of Russian literature: In Russia, new but great, They will put up my two-faced idol At the crossroads of two roads, Where is time, wind and sand. Reflection. Strategy "THREE M"	Students summarize the lesson by naming three positive aspects of the lesson.
Homework.	Answer the question in writing: “What is the cultural and historical significance of Russian literature abroad, its uniqueness?” Prepare 2 questions for classmates on the material studied

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"Task 3 group"

3rd group.

Study the material, prepare an expressive reading of poetry, draw a conclusion

Despite the fact that Russian emigrants lived far from Russia, they did not lose touch with their native land: their thoughts and souls were with their Motherland. A feeling of longing for the Motherland runs through the entire work of many writers and poets.

I. Bunin.« The bird has a nest...» :

The bird has a nest, the beast has a hole.
How bitter it was for the young heart,
When I left my father's yard,
Say goodbye to your home!

The beast has a hole, the bird has a nest.
How the heart beats, sadly and loudly,
When I enter, being baptized, into someone else's rented house
With his already old knapsack!

Z. Gippius « For what?»

Swinging on the moon
Palm feathers.
Is it good for me to live?
How do I live now?

A thread of golden fireflies
They fly by, blinking.
Like a cup full of melancholy
Soul - to the very edge.

Sea distances - fields
Pale silver lilies...
My native land,
Why were you killed?

I. Severyanin« Words of the Sun».

I have seen many countries and no worse than hers -

The whole earth is dearly loved by me.

But compare with Russia?.. My heart is with her,

And she is incomparable for me!

Whose cosmic soul is a bad patriot:

The whole world is the same for me:

I know why my people are strong and weak,

I know the meaning of insignificant signs:

Condemning the war, condemning the pogrom,

There is violence against every nationality,

I love Russia - my parental home -

Even with all the dirt and dust:

The thought that there is darkness above the dead is inconceivable to me:

I believe, I believe in her Sunday

With all the strength of the soul, with all the wings of the mind,

With all the fire of your inspiration!

Know, believe: it is close, our holiday,

And it’s not like he’s just around the corner -

The expanse of our native villages will be revealed to us

Orthodox bells!

And the dark but prophetic people will repent

In their sins before God.

He will stop before he enters the church,

Hesitantly before the threshold:

And, in delight, throwing a beam into the air like a spear

Golden, all-good words

The sun will say from heaven: “On your Sunday

Russia forgives all those guilty!"

GeorgiyIvanov

And I'm not here at all

Not in the south, but in the northern, royal

I stayed there to live. Real. I -

The emigrant story is just for me

And Berlin, and Paris, and hateful Nice.

"Literature of Russian Abroad"

In the Silver Age Russian culture declared itself as one of leaders of the world spiritual movement. The Silver Age was cut short by political, military and social upheavals of 1917 - 1920.

But a powerful cultural movement could not disappear overnight just from external unfavorable circumstances.

silver Age didn't disappear. It was torn apart, and most of it continued to exist in the culture of “Russia No. 2,” as the Russian emigration of 1920-1930 is sometimes called.

Literature of Russian Abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. Distinguish three periods or three waves Russian emigrant literature.

First wave -

from 1918 until the beginning of the Second World War - it was widespread.

Second wave arose at the end of World War II. Third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and brought the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov).

The works of writers have the most cultural and literary significance first wave Russian emigration.

By the mid-1920s, it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia.

K. Korovin

Sergei Bulgakov

Sasha Cherny

Alexey Tolstoy

Arkady Averchenko

The birthday of A.S. Pushkin became a national holiday of Russian emigration

Since 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, great books were created in Russian .

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books:

Nobel Prize 1933

Among poets, whose work developed in Russia, went abroad

David Burliuk

K. Balmont

Vyacheslav Ivanov

The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme of nostalgic memory of the lost homeland.

Most frequently used themes - This

longing for “eternal Russia”;
events of revolution and civil war;
Russian history;
memories of childhood and youth.

Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration.

This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps?” Bunin wondered. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

The younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in exile held a different position.

The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia.

Mark Aldanov

Vladimir Nabokov

Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapino worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra.

Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty.. People sit at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and find it difficult in the evening ask yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.”

If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration .

The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is depicted in novels

Apollo Be images

A novel from emigrant life .

Irina Odoevtseva. "Angel of Death"

Irina Odoevtseva. "Isolde". "Mirror".

“Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction literature” - G. Struve (researcher of emigrant literature)

Essays

Philosophical prose

High journalism

Memoir prose

The poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia found themselves in an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger”. In emigrant poetry they stand apart.

Ladder

Poem of the Mountain

Khodasevich publishes his top collections in exile

European night

Ivanov receives the status of the first poet of emigration, publishes poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry.

Posthumous diary

Portrait without likeness

The specialization of cultural centers of Russian emigration gradually emerged:

Paris - literary

Prague - scientific

Berlin was a publishing center

Emigrants were always against the authorities in their homeland, but they always passionately loved their homeland and fatherland and dreamed of returning there. They preserved the Russian flag and the truth about Russia. Truly Russian literature, poetry, philosophy and faith continued to live in Foreign Rus'. Main target everyone had " bring a candle to your homeland", preserve Russian culture and the uncorrupted Russian Orthodox faith for a future free Russia.

Day Angel celebrated, but there is almost no birthday

Check yourself! 1 . Name the main motive of the works of younger generation writers emigrants? 2. What forms of non-fiction literature were introduced into Russian literature by emigrant writers? 3. Explain the term “intermediate position” of some poets. Name these poets. 4. What was the goal of the emigrant writers?

Finish the sentence In exile Berlin was... Prague -… Paris - …

Test 1. In emigration they celebrated a) November 7 b) c) May 1 d) March 8 2. A) b) New Year was celebrated for children 3. A) Birthday b) c) Labor Day was widely celebrated

Christmas tree

Day Angel

Read excerpts from Irina Odoevtseva’s book “On the Banks of the Neva” and answer the question: “How does Blok appear to readers in her memoirs: “Of course, Blok, like all of us, and perhaps even more than all of us, is overwhelmed with work. He is practically the director of the Alexandrinsky Theater and treats his duties so honestly that he goes into everything decisively, lectures the actors about Shakespeare, analyzes roles with them, and so on. True, the actors idolize him. Monakhov said the other day: “We play only for Alexander Alexandrovich. For us, his praise is the highest reward.” “Of course, Blok is overwhelmed with work. Moreover, he carries the wood himself to the third floor and splits it himself, he is such a white-handed gentleman. And his home is a complete hell, not a “quiet hell”, but with slamming doors, screaming throughout the house and women’s hysterics. Lyubov Dmitrievna, Blok's wife, and his mother cannot stand each other and quarrel from morning to night. They have all moved in together now. And Blok loves them both more than anything in the world.” “The block is a mystery. Nobody understands him. They judge him wrongly... It seems to me that I have solved him. Blok is not at all a decadent, not a symbolist, as he is considered. Blok is a romantic. A romantic of the purest water, and also a German romantic... The German blood is strongly felt in him and is reflected in his appearance. Yes, Blok is a romantic with all the advantages and disadvantages of romanticism. For some reason no one understands this, but this is the key, the solution to his work and his personality.

Emigrants made up abroad unique community. Its uniqueness lay in the super-task that history set before refugees from Russia: “Not a single emigration... has received such an imperative order continue and develop the work of our native culture, like foreign Rus'"

The preservation and development of Russian culture in the traditions of the Silver Age puts the emigration of the 20s - 30s in a position cultural phenomenon.
Neither the second nor the third waves of emigration from Russia set common cultural and national goals.

In composition, the group of expelled “unreliables” (the first wave of emigration) consisted entirely of intelligentsia, mainly the intellectual elite of Russia: professors, philosophers, writers, journalists.

Emigrant newspapers called this action a “generous gift” for Russian culture abroad.

Abroad, they became the founders of historical and philosophical schools, modern sociology, and important directions in biology, zoology, and technology.

The “generous gift” to the Russian diaspora resulted in the loss of entire schools and trends for Soviet Russia, primarily in historical science, philosophy, cultural studies, etc. humanities.

The expulsion of 1922 was the largest state action of the Bolshevik government against the intelligentsia after the revolution. But not the latest one. The trickle of expulsions, departures and simply flight of the intelligentsia from the Soviet Union dried up only by the end of the 20s, when the “iron curtain” of ideology fell between the new world of the Bolsheviks and the entire culture of the old world.

By 1925 – 1927 The composition of “Russia No. 2” was finally formed. In emigration, the share of professionals and people with higher education exceeded the pre-war level.

The active continuation of the spiritual traditions of the Silver Age was also facilitated by the high proportion of cultural people in the emigration. A unique situation has been created: there is no state, no government, no economy, no politics, but there is culture.

The collapse of a state does not entail the death of a nation!

Only the death of a culture means the disappearance of a nation !

This ephemeral “Russia No. 2”, having neither a capital, nor a government, nor laws, was held together by only one thing - the preservation of the former culture of Russia in a foreign cultural, foreign environment. In this the emigration saw the only historical meaning of what happened, the meaning of their existence.

“We are not in exile. We are in the message,” said D.S. Merezhkovsky.

The task of preserving the culture of the disappeared old Russia grew into the mission of Russian emigration.

“Our goal is to firmly say: raise your head! A mission, a mission, difficult but also lofty, has been entrusted to us by fate.” I.A.Bunin

“We didn’t leave Russia, we took it with us.”

Roman Gul .

In a situation of national “dispersion,” the Russian language turned out to be the main sign of belonging to the bygone Russia. Newspapers, magazines, books - all this was the only effective way to preserve and transmit cultural traditions.

Newspapers, magazines, books have become the most effective means of uniting emigration.

To establish some semblance of national spiritual life, a creative unification was required.

The spiritual life of the emigration began to gather around small intellectual points of gravity: publishing houses, educational and educational institutions.

Emigrant libraries and archives were formed quite quickly.

Among the libraries, the library named after. I.S. Turgenev in Paris. It was founded back in 1875 by I.S. Turgenev himself with the support of singer Pauline Viardot.

In the 20s and 30s, the Turgenev Library experienced its second heyday. Its funds received not only books and magazines published in exile, but also literature, documents, letters, and diaries exported from Russia.

The Turgenev Library began to have its own museum with paintings donated by artists, with personal belongings of Chaliapin, Bunin, Lifar, Nijinsky, Benois.

Disaster struck in 1940 when the German army occupied Paris.

Most of the library's collection was taken to Germany.

The exported funds disappeared, their fate is still unknown.

After World War II, the Turgenev Library in Paris was restored, albeit on a more modest scale.

It is still in effect today.

Russian cultural centers in emigration provided a kind of “protection” from a different cultural environment and contributed to the preservation of their own cultural traditions.

So many purely Russian institutions were created that one could be born, study, marry, work and die without speaking a word of French.

There was even a joke among emigrants: “Paris is a good city, but there are too many French here.”

In Paris, literary bohemia gathered in Montparnasse at the Rotunda and Dome cafes »

But the real, full-fledged literary salon in Paris can be considered the Sunday meetings in the apartment of Gippius and Merezhkovsky on Colonel Bonnet Street.

Politicians and philosophers were here, sometimes Bunin came in.

The queen of the salon was the owner herself - “the magnificent Zinaida.”

The literary society with Pushkin's name "Green Lamp" turned out to be popular and existed for more than 10 years. At its meetings, they listened to reports on culture and literature, read new works...

P. Milyukov, A. Kerensky, I. A. Bunin, A. N. Benois, G. Ivanov, I. Odoevtseva and others were here.

The main mechanism for the existence of Russian culture abroad was the principle of the “cultural nest”, which assumed close interaction between all spheres of creativity: literature, music, painting, scenography.

Artistic tastes also became relatively more conservative: realism, symbolism, modernism.

Avant-garde searches of the 10s. did not take root in emigration.

The interaction of artists in exile sometimes turned into a direct necessity for survival.

check yourself

Why is the society formed by emigrants considered unique?

What makes it unique?

2. What “generous gift” did the Russians write about?

emigrant newspapers?

3. What do you know about Russia No. 2?

4. Which method of uniting emigrants was the most

effective?

“No emigration has ever received such an imperative order...”
“In emigration, the share of professionals and people with higher education...”
“The collapse of the state does not entail... It only... means...”
Dmitry Merezhkovsky said: “We are not in exile. We…."

"We did not leave Russia..."

View presentation content
"Literature of the first wave of emigration"

First wave of emigration

Literature of Russian Abroad

First wave. 1917-1924
Reason: October Revolution and Civil War.
1917-1924 – Russian White emigration (soldiers and officers of the White Army, as well as citizens dissatisfied with the established Bolshevik regime).
forced deportation of leading scientists, artists, writers, poets.
During this time, about 4 million people left the country or were deported.

Second wave. 1938-1947
About 10 million people left the country
a large number of Soviet prisoners of war, as well as former residents of the Russian Empire who lived in Western European countries before the war.
All these people mainly moved en masse to Latin American countries, Canada, the USA and Australia.

Third wave. 1948-1990
originates during the Cold War and the dissident movement,
is relatively voluntary and, at the same time, is strongly limited by the authorities.
During this period, about 1.1 million people left abroad.

Fourth wave. 1990-2000
During this period, in most cases people leave the country for economic reasons and mainly because of the rather low standard of living compared to the West.
According to statistics, between 1990 and 2000, about 1 million people left Russia. Moreover, every fifth emigrant had a higher education or an academic degree.

After October 1917, almost all newspapers and magazines published before the revolution were closed.
Almost all societies and unions that existed in Russia before the revolution were dissolved.
A massive renaming of streets, squares and alleys began, and later alleys, and later many cities that had a rich history.

Monuments that (according to the Bolsheviks) symbolized the power of the old regime were destroyed everywhere.
Mass looting of noble estates began, destruction of unique libraries, masterpieces of architecture, sculpture, and painting.
Despite the so-called “safe conduct letters,” rare collections, unique works of art, and antiquities were confiscated from their owners. (For example, Chaliapin’s entire collection of paintings and jewelry was confiscated).

Orthodox churches were destroyed everywhere, Orthodox monasteries were destroyed, bells were removed and melted down for metal.
For example, in Moscow in 1917 there were 846 active churches, of which 426 were destroyed, and 340 were closed and disfigured.

Centralized, mass export of masterpieces of art abroad - due to the ruin of state museums (in particular, the Hermitage).
Displacement of classics from the repertoire of drama and opera theaters.

Fyodor Chaliapin,
Sergei Rachmaninov,
Wassily Kandinsky,
Igor Stravinsky

Konstantin Balmont
Andrey Bely (returned to the USSR)
Nikolay Berdyaev
Ivan Bunin
Gaito Gazdanov
Zinaida Gippius
Boris Zaitsev
Evgeny Zamyatin
Vyacheslav Ivanov
Georgy Ivanov
Mikhail Karateev
Alexander Kuprin (returned to the USSR)
Dmitry Merezhkovsky
Pavel Muratov
Vladimir Nabokov
Arseny Nesmelov
Mikhail Osorgin
Boris Poplavsky
Alexey Remizov
Igor Severyanin
Vladislav Khodasevich
Marina Tsvetaeva (returned to the USSR)
Lev Shestov
Ivan Shmelev
Vladimir Vinnichenko (Ukraine)
Evgen Malanyuk (Ukraine)

Since 1921, we can already talk about several centers of Russian dispersion in Europe with their own cultural life: newspapers, magazines, book publishing houses, schools, even universities and scientific institutes.
The main ones were Paris, Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, Sofia. From the second half of the 20s. Paris becomes the political center of foreign Russia, its unofficial capital.

“A Russian town was formed inside the capital of France. Its inhabitants had almost no contact with the French. On Sundays and holidays they went to Russian churches, in the mornings they read Russian newspapers, bought provisions in Russian shops and there they learned the news that interested them; they had a snack in Russian restaurants and cheap canteens, sent their children to Russian schools; in the evenings they could go to Russian concerts, listen to lectures and reports, and participate in meetings of various societies and associations... During these years, there were more than three hundred organizations in Paris. All these societies organized meetings, dinners, “cups of tea”, prayers and memorial services were served..."

Literature of the Russian emigration of the first wave

"Older generation

"Younger" generation

Traditions of classical Russian literature

New literature created at the intersection of Russian and European

M. Aldanov, I. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin, A. Remizov, N. Teffi, I. Shmelev, as well as A. Averchenko, A. Amfiteatrov, M. Artsybashev, G. Grebenshchikov, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov, I. Severyanin, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, Sasha Cherny

N. Berberova, G. Gazdanov, V. Nabokov, V. Yanovsky, G. Adamovich, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, B. Poplavsky, P. Stavrov, A. Bely, A. Tolstoy, V. Shklovsky, I. Ehrenburg, L. Andreev, E. Zamyatin

Ivan Sergeevich Shmelev

Shmelev’s top books: “The Summer of the Lord,” “Pilgrim,” “Native.”

“In it,” Shmelev said about his book (“Summer of the Lord”), “I show the face of Holy Rus', which I carry in my heart.”

Ivan Alexandrovich Bunin

On January 26, 1920, on a French ship, Bunin left Russia forever.
“The end,” “destruction” are the key words in the writer’s notes during the first years of emigration. (“Russia is the end” - this thought first pierced him in the cabin of the ship sailing to Constantinople. “Almost three weeks have passed since the day of our death”, “Russia has disappeared”, “It’s as if I was burying everything - my whole old life, Russia”, “And it’s all over! And all this was my life!” - these thoughts fill the writer’s diary entries in the early 20s.

Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov

“He turned out to be possible only due to the peculiarity, the extremely rare type of his talent - a writer who exists outside the environment, outside the country, outside the rest of the world... He will be ideally and terribly alone,” his outstanding contemporary G. Gazdanov wrote about Nabokov.

In Gazdanov’s short story “Waterfall” there is the following monologue:
“How do you want me to write?” one of my comrades told me. “You stop in front of a waterfall of terrible power, surpassing human imagination: water mixed with the sun’s rays is pouring, a sparkling cloud of spray stands in the air. And you hold in your hands "An ordinary tea glass. Of course, the water you collect will be the same water from a waterfall, but will the person to whom you then bring and show this glass - will he understand what a waterfall is? Literature is the same fruitless attempt."

Topic: Russian literary abroad of the 40-90s (review).

Goals: give concepts about the literature of Russian abroad; determine the features of the creativity of Russian emigrant authors.

During the classes

I. Introductory conversation.

– What do you know about Russian emigration? What are its reasons?

– What do you know about Russian writers who worked abroad?

Recently, a mass of previously banned works by Russian writers abroad, including our contemporaries, emigrants of the so-called “third wave”: V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, V. Voinovich, V. Nekrasov, Yu. Kublanovsky, have joined Russian literature , E. Limonov and many others. Their human and creative destinies have a lot in common. All of them left Russia after 1970 for one reason - persecution by the authorities for sharply exposing the Soviet system and ideology.

Emigration was often forced (at the request of the KGB) due to the participation of writers in Samizdat or the publication of works in foreign press organs. However, it is simply impossible to identify “third wavers” by their worldview. In addition to the natural individual position for each, it should be noted that they are fundamentally divided into two main groups.

V. Aksenov said in an interview in 1990: “America is my home, but I did not feel like an American and never will; but over these ten years he formed as a kind of cosmopolitan renegade” (Glad J. “Conversations in Exile. Russian Literary Abroad”). Similar statements are sometimes made without a shadow of doubt or regret, as a result of stable well-being.

This is exactly how E. Limonov’s confession sounded: “The people are always a crowd, here there is also a crowd. I write my books in Russian, but I will never belong to the crowd, neither the Russian, nor the French, nor the American... I am a pariah of Russian or Soviet literature” (J. Glad). More often than not, the “interplanetary” situation is regarded as a consequence of current circumstances. S. Sokolov, in his words, learned to “get out of his own Russian skin”; “And here you involuntarily become a cosmopolitan: a literary, spiritual, international writer” (J. Glad).

The emigrant writers of the “third wave” also developed an opposite worldview. A. Zinoviev shared his acutely painful (even thoughts of suicide) experiences when saying goodbye to Russia: “I am a deeply Russian person. For me, leaving the country was tantamount to the most severe punishment. I never expected to emigrate and did not want to. I was counting on prison or, at best, internal exile, say, deportation to Siberia.”

And explained this emotional condition: “One of the traits of Russians is a deep attachment to the places where they live. And therefore, Russians suffer from nostalgia in emigration much more than representatives of other nationalities” (J. Glad).

V. Maksimov took his farewell to his homeland tragically; all his work is permeated with this mood.

This or that attitude towards the homeland is the free right of any person; violence against the individual is unacceptable. But the view on this matter determines the cultural orientation and direction of the authors’ artistic search.

S. Dovlatov contrasted his creative quests with Russian classics: “The activity of a writer in the traditional Russian understanding is connected with the formulation of some historical, psychological, spiritual, moral tasks. And I tell stories."

B. Khazanov evaluates the “Russian literary tradition” even more harshly. What is new, in his opinion, is in “the complex vision of a person who observes reality from a variety of angles, takes into account... verbal, cultural, folklore, historical, all sorts of associations, and who widely uses wordplay.”

The tendency to expand the “field” of the author’s vision, to master original figurative structures and linguistic forms was common to representatives of the “third wave.” But, as A. Tsvetkov said, for many of them and for himself, “the homeland will remain in Russian literature.” Therefore, A. Tsvetkov strictly judges American and Russian poetry “from the point of view of real tradition”, taking into account the achievements of the “old masters”, “charting his own course” while observing the sacred laws of artistic literature (J. Glad).

The situation among the “third wave” emigrants is tense, causing not just polemics, but sharp, often brutal mutual attacks from multidirectional forces. We must, apparently, agree with I. Suslov, who pointed out back in 1983 the main reason for such a nervous state of his fellow exiles: “... all publishing houses are crammed with the so-called Russian theme... That is, it’s all about the monstrosity of totalitarianism, if you like. And because some of these books don't get enough distribution, publishers are afraid to take them on."

Now, decades later, when previously banned materials are widely published in Russia, the difficulties have only increased. There was a need to overcome outdated topics - exposing the totalitarian system, the need to move towards some observations that are generally significant for our time. Modern emigrant literature has again combined two heterogeneous lines of search: in the area of the dark, disharmonious human subconscious and in the area of the eternal spiritual values of existence.

II. The work of Sergei Dovlatov.

1. Conversation.

– What do you think patriotism is?

– Is it possible to love your homeland while being far away from it?

– Do you consider yourself a patriot?

2. Storyabout the life and work of Dovlatov.

One of those who was forced to engage in creativity far from their homeland is Sergei Dovlatov.

Very briefly, here are the main dates of Dovlatov’s life. The future writer was born on September 3, 1941. In 1954 he entered the philological department of Leningrad University. From 1962 to 1965 he served in the army in the security system of forced labor camps. The set of the first book was destroyed by order of the KGB, and the author is engaged in “samizdat” and published abroad. As a result, in 1978 he was forced to emigrate. He published 12 books abroad and was engaged in journalism. He died in 1990 from heart failure.

Dovlatov said about himself: “I was born in evacuation in Ufa. Since 1945 I lived in Leningrad, I consider myself a Leningrader. He lived in Tallinn for three years, worked in the Estonian party newspaper. Then I was expelled from there: I had no Estonian registration. Actually, my mother is Armenian, my father is Jewish. When I was born, they decided that my life would be more cloudless if I became an Armenian, and I was recorded in the register as an Armenian. And then, when the time came to leave, it turned out that to do this you had to be a Jew. When I became a Jew in August 1978, I was given the formal opportunity to leave.”

Here is his opinion on the “national question”: “Hating a person for his origin is racism. And loving a person for his origin is racism. Be Jewish. Be Russian. Be Georgian. Be who you feel like you are. But be something else besides this... For example, a decent, kind, hard-working person.” “New American” Dovlatov never tired of emphasizing: “I... want to be a Russian writer. Actually, that’s all I’m trying to achieve.”

This desire appeared at the height of the Khrushchev thaw. “I flooded the editors with my works. And he received at least a hundred refusals. It was strange. I was not a rebellious writer. Was not interested in politics. He did not allow excessive eroticism in his writings. Did not touch upon the Jewish problem. It seemed to me that I was writing the history of the human heart. That's all. I wrote about the suffering of a young Vokhrovets whom I knew well. About the criminal camp. About the drunken underbelly of a big city. About petty black marketeers and literary bohemia...

I was not an anti-Soviet writer, and yet I was not published. I kept thinking - why? And finally, I understood. What I am writing about does not exist. That is, in life, of course, it exists. But it doesn’t exist in literature . The authorities are pretending that this life does not exist.”

Dovlatov could not pretend. Why? You may get an answer to this question by listening to this writer’s “conspiracy parable.”

Literary reading.

“Once upon a time there was an artist Dolmacio. Irritable and gloomy. Always dissatisfied. The king called him to a reception and said:

- Draw something for me.

- What exactly?

- Anything.

- So how?

- All you want. River, sun, house, flowers, cow... anything. Except for the blue ciliate.

“Okay,” said Dolmacio. And he retired to his workshop.

I was missing for a whole year. They sent for him.

– Is the painting ready?

- But why? - the king exclaimed.

“I keep thinking about the blue ciliate,” the artist answered, “only about her, about her, about her... Without the ciliate, the picture of the world is false.” Everything is falling apart. I spit on such art...”

– How did you understand the meaning of this parable?

The thaw passed: “It was some kind of mixture of luck and bad luck. On the one hand, it would seem to be complete bad luck - I was not published. I could not earn money from literary work. I became a psycho, I became a heavy drinker. I was surrounded by the same drunken unrecognized geniuses. On the other hand, wherever I brought my stories, all my life I heard only compliments. No one has ever expressed doubts about my right to engage in literary work.”

In 1976, three Dovlatov stories were published in the West. “I was both proud and scared.” The persecution began. My wife and daughter left the country. Still, the decision to emigrate was not easy for Dovlatov: “I left to become a writer, and became one, making a simple choice between prison and New York. The only purpose of my emigration was creative freedom. I didn’t have any other ideas, I didn’t even have any special complaints against the authorities... If they had published me in Russia, I wouldn’t have left.”

In exile, Dovlatov became one of the initiators of the creation and editor-in-chief of the weekly newspaper “New American,” which existed for two years. Wrote books. His letters to friends from America, however, are filled with some kind of bitterness.

Student. From a letter from 1984 : “My drinking has subsided, but attacks of depression are becoming more frequent, namely depression, that is, causeless melancholy, powerlessness and disgust for life. I will not undergo treatment and I do not believe in psychiatry. It’s just that I’ve been waiting for something all my life... and now everything has happened, there’s nothing more to wait for, there are no sources of joy. My main mistake is in the hope that, having become legalized as a writer, I will become cheerful and happy. This did not happen".

From a letter dated August 13, 1989: “My wife Lena does not change at all, like the speed of light. Daughter Katya works on the radio, on some kind of advertising rock wave... Our seven-year-old son Kolya is a typical American, namely, a constant smile on his face and no problems. As for me, I’m a sick old man with pretensions.”

Teacher. Dovlatov’s life in exile is imbued with longing for his homeland. Here are his lines: “I love America, I admire America, I am grateful to America, but my homeland is far away. Beggar, hungry, crazy and drunk! ...Where can she be kind, cheerful and affectionate?! Birch trees, it turns out, grow everywhere. But does that make it any easier? Our homeland is ourselves. Our first toys. Older brothers' altered jackets. Sandwiches wrapped in newspaper. Girls in strict brown skirts. Change from my father's pocket. Exams, cheat sheets... Ridiculous, terrifying poems... Thoughts about suicide... A glass of "Agdam" in the gateway... Army shag... Daughter, mittens, leggings, the turned-up heel of a tiny shoe... Crossed out lines askew... Manuscripts, police, OVIR... Everything that happened to us , - homeland."

The Iron Curtain has fallen. There was talk about the possibility of going home. But Dovlatov never returned: he didn’t have time. Death overtook him in the ambulance. On August 24, 1990, the Russian writer died in New York.

3. Features of the creativity of Sergei Dovlatov.

The writer died. But his books remained. Dovlatov considered his best works to be “Performance”, “Extra”, “Anniversary Boy”.

– Which works of this writer have you read on your own? What do you see as the peculiarity of this author’s style?

During the conversation, repeat the terms: “anecdote”, “lyrical prose”, “lyrical hero”, “humor”. This could be a certificate from a prepared student or a reference to a literary reference book during the lesson itself.

III. Working with individual texts from Sergei Dovlatov’s book “The Zone”.

So, "Zone". “Old Kalyu Pakhapil hated the occupiers. And he loved it when they sang in chorus...” This is how the story begins. “When they tied me up with a telephone wire, I calmed down.” These are the first words of the book's final story.

– Try to explain why Dovlatov begins his first phrases as if “from the middle”? (This creates the effect of continuing a friendly, confidential conversation, and is part of poetics aimed at combining documentary with a free manner.)

– Who is the central character? (In the center is Boris Alikhanov. This is not a mask. And not a self-portrait. This is an image in which there is autobiography, and fiction, and confession, and a share of the game. M. Prishvin argued that a lyrical hero is called “the created self.” In in the reference book we read: “... such an author’s image is accompanied by a special sincerity and “documentary” lyrical outpouring, introspection and confession prevail over fiction...”.)

– What are the features of the composition of the work? (In “The Zone” Dovlatov’s game of “was - was not” found a compositional expression (I. Sukhikh). “Notes of a Warden” are written in two layers and even printed in different ways... Alikhanov’s stories, typed in straight font, are layered with Dovlatov’s “comments- in italics”, in which the very history of the book is mystified (mention of the secret transportation of the manuscript across the border).)

– Why do you think such a two-layer structure is necessary? (This is an age-old literary device - a novel or story in letters. The device of a lost and returned manuscript allows the author to present the book as “chaotic notes, a collection of unorganized materials.”)

In reality, of course, we have before us a single book, where one lyrical hero acts, and a certain unity of time and place is observed. A kind of novel in stories. What does the “fundamental fragmentation” of Dovlatov’s narrative give? Each new story is like a window through which we look into life, unaware of our presence.

There is another explanation: Dovlatov’s fragments (texts, stories - the writer himself used different names) are often based on anecdotal situations (staging a play about Lenin in a criminal camp, replacing one person with another at a funeral, etc.). A consistent, thorough description is unusual for the anecdote genre (remember: an anecdote is a short story about an insignificant but characteristic incident with a humorous overtones and often an unexpected ending, which is widely circulated in oral form). Therefore, the characters' characters are revealed mainly in dialogues.

– What are the features of portraits and landscapes in the “Zone”? (The description has been replaced by a sign, a detail. The faded flag and the howling of guard dogs already create an emotional atmosphere.)

– What can you say about the language of the work?

The language in Dovlatov’s works practically does not attract attention. According to the writer, he strove precisely to “develop a restrained, unpretentious word, in which the reader and listener master the content without noticing how they assimilate it.” Originality hidden under the cover of a commonly used form is an undoubted sign of Dovlatov’s style. Alas, “unprintable” expressions in the “Zone” are not uncommon.

– What is your attitude to their use in a work of art?

The writer motivates the use of profanity: “Language cannot be bad or good. Qualitative and especially moral assessments are not applicable here. After all, language is only a mirror. The same mirror that it’s stupid to blame.”

– Do you agree with this point of view?

– What can you say about the heroes of the “Zone”? Who are they?

Here, as in other books by Dovlatov, “crowds of unsettled and restless people roam, equally capable of crime and heroic deeds.” People “with a lack of experience of normal life and a displaced center of morality,” noted critic M. Nekhoroshev.

Both prisoners and guards are equally restless. Dovlatov’s book clearly does not fit into the tradition of “convict” literature, which sympathizes with prisoners, or into the rut of literature that glorifies the guardians of the law. The writer invented the “third way”.

Here is a fragment of “Letter to the Publisher” (March 19, 1982): “I discovered a striking similarity between the camp and the will. Between prisoners and guards... Almost any prisoner was suitable for the role of a guard. Almost any warden deserved to go to jail."

Life in the book does not follow any clear pattern. Stories in which “nothing happens” (just prisoners talking by the fire or an officer’s wife languishing in boredom and hopelessness) are replaced by tough, dynamic stories (refusenik Kuptsov sacrifices his hand to save his reputation).

– What story can be called the culmination of the book?

The story “Performance”... and the scene of the singing of “The Internationale”. There are various interpretations of this episode. William Grimes, for example, wrote that “the funniest story about camp amateur performances ends with a choral singing of the Internationale with a call for freedom and justice, which reverberates like a piercing pain in the heart of the author.”

Francis Starne, reflecting on the moment when “after an unusually awkward performance of a political play dedicated to the anniversary of the Great October Revolution, the audience, hardened criminals, sing “The Internationale” with tears in their eyes, concludes: “The ideas of the author, no doubt, have nothing to do with to the triumph of the Soviet state, although he also choked with tears when the prisoners sang “The Internationale.”

– So what is the point of this episode? (If it is true, as W. Grimes pointed out, that “the writer’s task was to find the human in an inhuman set of circumstances,” then here this human comes to the fore. It seems that Lebedeva’s compressed temples and Gurin’s dreamy smile amaze the hero no less than the sudden general impulse. “Suddenly my throat tightened painfully. For the first time I was part of my special, unprecedented country.”)

An idea very close to the Russian proverb, which forces one not to swear off money and prison, runs through many of Dovlatov’s works. One of the chapters of the book “Ours” begins: “Life turned my cousin into a criminal. I think he was lucky. Otherwise, he would inevitably become a major party functionary.”

Here a former “exemplary Soviet boy”, an excellent student and football player who planted a birch tree in his yard and played the role of Young Guards in the drama club, becomes a prisoner... “I was a security guard. And my brother was a prisoner... We returned almost simultaneously.”

In Dovlatov’s Notebooks there is the following reasoning:

“What could be more important than justice?

– More important than justice? At least – mercy for the fallen.”

Dovlatov believes that “it is stupid to divide people into good and bad,” since “a person changes beyond recognition under the influence of circumstances. And especially in the camp.”

He wrote: “Man is capable of everything – good and bad. I'm sad that this is the case. Therefore, God give us perseverance and courage. And even better - circumstances of time and place that are conducive to good ... "

The author sympathizes with those whose circumstances were not the best. Here is the camp bread slicer. To occupy this position, a prisoner had to “curry favor, lie, climb over corpses,” “bribery, blackmail, extortion.” The writer compares his efforts with the efforts of those who are free and prosperous: “The heights of state power are reached in similar ways.”

IV. Lesson summary.

– What feelings did you have after meeting the personality and work of Sergei Dovlatov?

Different feelings fill the reader’s soul, but there is no feeling of hopelessness. Apparently, the answer is that the author himself smiled at people. He didn’t brand, didn’t ridicule, didn’t get angry, didn’t preach. “True courage is to love life, knowing the whole truth about it!” - he declared, accepting living life in all its manifestations. Isn’t this where his “radiance and secret tragedy”, noticed by B. Akhmadulina, come from?

He didn't serve. Didn't entertain. He wrote the history of the human heart and managed to take his own special place in our literature.

The content of the article

LITERATURE OF RUSSIAN ABROAD. Literature of Russian abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 to the beginning of the Second World War, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov).

The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance.

FIRST WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1918–1940)

The situation of Russian literature in exile

The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October Revolution of 1917, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - “Russia in miniature” was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church was active. But despite the preservation of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society by the first wave of emigration, the situation of the refugees was tragic. In the past they had the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - a cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-1920s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability; most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated. Religious philosophers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Don-Aminado, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: the absence of a mass reader, the collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, and the need of the majority of writers were bound to inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one, it seems, has lost his talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And, in addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Having lost loved ones, homeland, any support in life, support anywhere, exiles from Russia received in return the right of creative freedom. This did not reduce the literary process to ideological disputes. The atmosphere of emigrant literature was determined not by the political or civil lack of accountability of writers, but by the variety of free creative searches.

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, the “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Be aware that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general...” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

The older generation of emigrant writers.

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: Life of Arsenyev(Nobel Prize 1933), Dark alleys Bunin; Sun of the Dead, Summer of the Lord, Pilgrimage Shmeleva; Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina; Gleb's journey, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh Zaitseva; Jesus Unknown Merezhkovsky. Kuprin releases two novels Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia And Juncker, story Wheel of Time. A significant literary event is the appearance of a book of memoirs Living faces Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burlyuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov went abroad. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger and others. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of a lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ( Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin ( My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin ( Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic and enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past ( Pilgrimage, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by Kuprin ( Juncker), the last autobiographical book of a Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin ( Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev ( Gleb's journey) and Tolstoy ( Nikita's childhood). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams and visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, the Russian spirit in Remizov's books Swirling Rus', Music teacher, Through the fire of sorrows. Bunin's diaries are filled with mournful accusatoryness. Damn days. Roman Osorgina Sivtsev Vrazhek reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - an epic Sun of the Dead, which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic brilliance.” Dedicated to understanding the causes of the revolution Ice trek R. Gulya, Beast from the Abyss E. Chirikov, historical novels by Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation ( Key, Escape, Cave), three volume Rasputin V. Nazhivina. Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

The younger generation of writers in exile

A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in emigration (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky), who rose in a different social and spiritual environment, refusing to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders”. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in Poplavsky’s collections ( Flags), Otsupa ( In the smoke), Steiger ( This life, Two by two is four), Chervinskaya ( Approximation), Smolensky ( Alone), Knut ( Parisian nights), A. Prismanova ( Shadow and body), Knorring ( Poems about yourself). If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in Poplavsky’s novels Apollo Bezobrazov, Home from Heaven. Also enjoyed considerable popularity Romance with cocaine Ageeva. Everyday prose has also become widespread: Odoevtseva Angel of Death, Isolde, Mirror, Berberova The last and the first. A novel from emigrant life.

Researcher of emigrant literature G. Struve wrote: “Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction literature - criticism, essays, philosophical prose, high journalism and memoir prose.” The younger generation of writers made significant contributions to memoirs: Nabokov Other shores, Berberova Italics are mine, Terapiano Meetings, Warsaw The Unsung Generation, V. Yanovsky Champs Elysees, Odoevtseva On the banks of the Neva, On the banks of the Seine, G. Kuznetsova Grasse Diary.

Nabokov and Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 1920s - 1960s. At the heart of his worldview is the philosophy of life as a form of resistance and survival. In the first, largely autobiographical novel Evening at Claire's Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the theme of nostalgia, traditional for emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In novels Night roads, The Ghost of Alexander Wolf, Return of Buddha Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform. The experience of a Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel Mashenka, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov portrays brilliant characters, victorious heroes who triumphed in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations Invitation to execution, Gift, Ada, Feat. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the play doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: a collection of short stories Spring in Fialta, global bestseller Lolita, novels Despair, Pinhole camera, King, Queen, Jack, Look at the harlequins, Pnin, Pale Flame and etc.

In an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” were the poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia: Khodasevich, Ivanov, Tsvetaeva, Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, they wrote to her Tsar Maiden, Poem of the Mountain, Poem of the End, Poem of the Air, Pied Piper, Ladder, New Year's, Room attempt. Khodasevich publishes his top collections in exile Heavy lyre, European night, becomes a mentor to young poets united in the group “Crossroads”. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: Poetry, Portrait without likeness, Posthumous diary. Ivanov’s memoirs occupy a special place in the literary heritage of emigration St. Petersburg winters, Chinese shadows, his famous prose poem Atomic decay. Adamovich publishes a program collection Unity, a famous book of essays Comments.

Scattering centers

The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 1920s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 1920s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people. From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, Russian classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, works of modern authors - Bunin, Remizov, Berberova, Tsvetaeva were published in large editions, the House of Arts was restored (in the likeness of Petrograd), a community of writers, musicians, artists "Vereteno", the "Academy of Prose" worked. An essential feature of Russian Berlin is the dialogue between two branches of culture - foreign and those remaining in Russia. Many Soviet writers travel to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of books, there is no division between Soviet Russia and emigration,” declared the Berlin magazine “Russian Book”. When the hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris, from the mid-1920s the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The following people live in Paris: Bunin, Kuprin, Remizov, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, Khodasevich, Ivanov, Adamovich, Gazdanov, Poplavsky, Tsvetaeva, etc. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are connected with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the Green Lamp. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Gippius and Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the works of older Russian writers were discussed. The “Green Lamp” united “seniors” and “youngers” and was the busiest literary center in Paris throughout the pre-war years. Young Parisian writers united in the “Kochevye” group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parisian emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cultural and literary life of the Russian diaspora. Literary discussions took place in the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, and a new school of emigrant poetry, known as the “Parisian note,” was created. The literary life of Paris will come to naught with the outbreak of World War II, when, according to Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Russian emigrant writers will remain faithful to the country that sheltered them, occupied Paris. The term “Resistance” will arise and take root among Russian emigrants, many of whom will be its active participants. Adamovich will sign up as a volunteer for the front. The writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in a German concentration camp, Gazdanov, Otsup, Knut will join the Resistance. During the bitter years of occupation, Bunin will write a book about the triumph of love and humanity ( Dark alleys).

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association “Churaevka” in Harbin. His meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of “Churaevka” in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine “Rubezh” published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baykov In the wilds of Manchuria, Great Wang, Around the world). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.

For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration. The Russian People's University was founded in Prague, and 5 thousand Russian students studied there for free. Many professors and university teachers also moved here. The Prague Linguistic Circle played an important role in the preservation of Slavic culture and the development of science. The work of Tsvetaeva, who creates her best works in the Czech Republic, is associated with Prague. Before the start of World War II, about 20 Russian literary magazines and 18 newspapers were published in Prague. Among the Prague literary associations are the “Skete of Poets” and the Union of Russian Writers and Journalists.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house “Alatas” here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

Main events in the life of Russian literary emigration

One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classical rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Crossroads” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents,” and raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which entered the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note” (A. Steiger, L. Chervinskaya, etc.). The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

Disputes about literature also took place among the “unnoticed generation.” Articles by Gazdanov and Poplavsky on the situation of young emigrant literature contributed to the understanding of the literary process abroad. In the article Oh young emigrant literature Gazdanov recognized that the new social experience and status of the intellectuals who left Russia made it impossible to maintain the hierarchical appearance and artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture. The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? – Poplavsky asked in the article About the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration. – Perish. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is an ideal environment for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation; they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921 a collection was published in Prague Change of milestones(authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. Among the Smenovekhites, the idea of national Bolshevism and the use of Bolshevism for national purposes arose. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron worked for the Soviet secret services. Also in 1921, a collection was published in Sofia Exodus to the East. Premonitions and accomplishments. Eurasian statements. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine “Versty” was published on the Eurasian platform, in which Tsvetaeva, Remizov, and Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration

One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920–1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. The following was published in Modern Notes: Luzhin's defense, Invitation to execution, Gift Nabokov, Mitya's love And Life Arsenyev Bunin, poems by Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina, The Road to Calvary Tolstoy, Key Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of “Modern Notes” also began to publish the monthly magazine “Russian Notes” (Paris, 1937–1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published works by Remizov, Achair, Gazdanov, Knorring, and Chervinskaya.

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930–1934, editor Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the “unnoticed generation”, the opposition to the traditional “Modern Notes”. “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published Ivanov, Adamovich, Poplavsky, Bloch, Chervinskaya, Ageev, Odoevtseva. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine this way: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high quality of printing, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications.

Among the most famous newspapers of the Russian emigration is the organ of the republican-democratic association “Last News” (Paris, 1920–1940, ed. P. Milyukov), the monarchist which expressed the idea of the white movement “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925–1940, ed. P. Struve ), newspapers “Link” (Paris, 1923–928, ed. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925–1932, ed. A. Kerensky), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928–1934, ed. Zaitsev ) and etc.

The fate and cultural heritage of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration is an integral part of Russian culture of the 20th century, a brilliant and tragic page in the history of Russian literature.

SECOND WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1940s – 1950s)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war and displaced persons - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany - left the USSR. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside their homeland were I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 1940s faced difficult trials. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of the Bolshevik terror.

In emigrant poetry of the 1940–1950s, political themes predominate: Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems ( Seal, On the evening of November 7). Criticism most often names Elagin as the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main “nodes” of his work. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Ivask, Klenovsky, and Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in Ivask’s poems. Acceptance of the world - in Sinkevich’s collections Coming of the day, Flowering herbs, I live here. Optimism and harmonious clarity mark the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of life, Towards the sky, Touch, Outgoing sails, Singing burden, Warm evening e R, Last thing). Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made significant contributions to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in Yurasov’s novel is tragic Parallax. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov Virgin soil upturned in the novel Denis Bushuev. B. Filippov addresses the camp theme (stories Happiness, People, In the taiga, Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Bunker Girl (Between two stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Blockade, Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki ( Unquenchable lamp). Rzhevsky's books stand out Dina And Two lines of time, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, of overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication.

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the magazine Grani.

THIRD WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1960–1980s)

With the third wave of emigration, mainly representatives of the creative intelligentsia left the USSR. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”; the fact of its formation in war and post-war times played an important role for this generation. The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw,” but it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

In the early 1970s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the third wave of emigration, the following are leaving abroad: Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu. Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, etc. Most writers emigrate to the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora is being formed (Brodsky, Korzhavin, Aksenov, Dovlatov, Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (Sinyavsky, Rozanova, Nekrasov, Limonov, Maksimov, N. Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (Voinovich, Gorenshtein).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; in many ways they were not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages prevented the formation of connections between generations. The Russian language in the USSR and abroad has undergone significant changes over 50 years; the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 1960s, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), and anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

Two major writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates an epic novel in exile Red wheel, which addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes a novel General and his army, which also touches on a historical theme: at the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. Dedicates his novel to the fate of the peasant family Seven days of creation V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel In the trenches of Stalingrad, publishes after departure Notes from an onlooker, A little sad story.

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950–1970s, the evolution of his generation. Novel Burn gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in Moscow saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare, not typical for Russian literature, combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. Written in exile Foreign woman Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street Queens, pictured in Foreign woman, – a gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich is trying his hand at the dystopian genre abroad - in a novel Moscow 2042, which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes in exile Walking with Pushkin, In the shadow of Gogol.

Sokolov, Mamleev, and Limonov include their work in the postmodernist tradition. Sokolov's novels School for fools, Between a dog and a wolf, Rosewood are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown my head, Eternal Home, Voice from nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story We had a wonderful era, denies the establishment in the books It's me – Eddie, Diary of a Loser, Teenager Savenko, Young scoundrel.

A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, he publishes poetry collections and poems.

Finding themselves isolated from the “old emigration,” representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses and created almanacs and magazines. One of the most famous magazines of the third wave, Continent, was created by Maximov and was published in Paris. The magazine “Syntax” was also published in Paris (M. Rozanova, Sinyavsky). The most famous American publications are the New American and Panorama newspapers, and the Kaleidoscope magazine. The magazine “Time and We” was founded in Israel, and “Forum” was founded in Munich. In 1972, the Ardis publishing house began operating in the USA, and I. Efimov founded the Hermitage publishing house. At the same time, such publications as “New Russian Word” (New York), “New Journal” (New York), “Russian Thought” (Paris), “Grani” (Frankfurt am Main) retain their positions. .

Tatiana Skryabina

Literature:

Gul R. I took Russia away. New York, 1984–1989
Glad John. Conversations in exile. M., 1991
Mikhailov O. . M., 1995
Struve G. Russian literature in exile. Paris - M., 1996
Agenosov V. Literature of Russian Abroad(1918–1996 ). M., 1998
Russian Paris. M., 1998
Modern Russian abroad. M., 1998
Menegaldo E. Russians in Paris. 1919–1939. M., 2001