National originality of Russian realism brief summary. Neorealism and realism in Russian literature are: features and main genres

Like every artistic movement, realism is characterized by a set of common characteristics and features; at the same time, it is characterized by internal differentiation. Moreover, in addition to the trends into which realism is divided, within its framework there are significantly different national types and variants. So, for example, French realistic literature differs significantly from English, English from German, German from Russian, and so on. These differences are not limited to certain features of the form of works, but cover different levels of their structure.

The originality of national variants of realism follows first from the specificity of its relationship with reality, in particular with the life of a certain country during a certain historical era. This reality not only fills the content of works of realistic literature, but also actively influences their artistic form, gravitates towards the adequacy of reality and its national specificity.

Cultural and historical factors played a major role in the development of realistic literature in different countries. As already noted, literature does not exist on its own; it is a component of spiritual culture and constitutes a systemic unity. In this unity, in different eras, dominants are determined that have a significant influence on other types of spiritual and creative human activity, including literature. Such dominants can be different in national cultures of the same era; this was clearly evident in the era of realism. The completeness and power of the development of realism in various literatures of the mid-19th century. also depended on the place and role of literature in the national culture, in the spiritual and social life of the country. Russian realistic literature is noted for its particular completeness and originality, but this is explained not by any of its specific “national spirit,” but primarily by the fact that it developed under the special conditions of the “empire of the tsars.” According to A. Herzen, "among a people deprived ... freedom, literature is the only platform from the height of which he makes the voice of his indignation and his conscience heard.” Russian literature acted as the real center of the country's social and spiritual life, covering all spheres and striving to provide answers to all pressing questions. It can be confidently stated that in no other country in Western Europe has realistic literature occupied such a prominent place in the system of spiritual culture and at the same time has not reached such a high artistic level, which is especially convincingly confirmed by the work of L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky.

The opposite situation developed in German literature in the mid-19th century. It did not know the rise of realism; on the contrary, in those days it experienced a decline and lost the global significance that it had in the “era of Goethe,” that is, from the 70s of the 18th century. until the 30s of the 19th century. The reason for this state of affairs was, in particular, that the system of German culture at that time was dominated by philosophy and music rather than literature.

In the formation and development of realism in European literature, an important role belonged to national aesthetic and artistic traditions. It is also worth paying attention to its contacts with other artistic systems in the process of formation and development: of particular importance for national types of realism were the relationships and interactions with romanticism, which developed differently in French, English, Russian and other literatures.

French realism can be called the complete embodiment of realistic literature in those countries where profound social transformations took place and bourgeois society stabilized. The definition of “critical realism,” which in the past was applied to all realistic literature, most closely corresponds to French realism. Criticizing modernity, its representatives were consistent and uncompromising. Hence the development of analyticism as a stylistic constant permeates all French realism. Closely related to it is the orientation towards science and scientific methodology, which is increasingly intensified in French realism. Having begun with Balzac with the formulation of certain principles of the realistic method, this orientation in the second half of the 19th century. is developing into a real cult of science, and Flaubert is already proclaiming: “It is time to introduce into art the inexorable method and precision of the natural sciences.” The “objective method”, which was consolidated in French realistic literature of the second half of the 19th century, determines its poetics. A work is understood primarily as an artistic study of the phenomena of reality, from which the author dissociates himself: being outside the work, the writer observes and analyzes them from some higher, absolute point of view, like a scientist-researcher.

English literature is distinguished by particularly deep realistic traditions, which is usually explained both by the unique history of the country and the peculiarities of the national character of the British, their penchant for practical activity, dislike of theoretical speculation and sober worldview. In English literature, realism was widely developed already in the 18th century. and after the “romantic pause” it convincingly continued in the 19th century.

A characteristic feature of the history of English literature is that an important role in it belonged to the ethical and moral factor (we are talking about the ethical doctrine that developed on the basis of the Protestant ethics of the English early capitalist society). This was clearly manifested in the fact that the English realists in their works brought to the fore ethical problems, the moral side of problems and conflicts, and gravitated towards interpreting life phenomena and solving problems in the coordinates of an ethical and moral system. Material from the site

Therefore, although England was a powerful industrial country of the 19th century, in which natural sciences rapidly developed, English realists did not accept an objectively impartial, “anatomical” approach to life and man. Their emphasis on moral issues was combined with a “humane attitude” towards the characters, the emotional richness of the narrative, and even with some sentimentality. English realists did not strive to remove themselves from the work: the active presence of the author is manifested in Dickens, Thackeray and other writers. The bright originality of English realistic literature is betrayed by its organically inherent comic-humorous direction.

In Russian realistic literature, the mockingly humorous approach to reality, combined with moralizing, common in English literature, was impossible. Incompatible with its spirit and pathos was the critical-analytical, but at the same time scientific-statistical method, which in the second half of the 19th century. developed in French realistic literature. Russian realists gravitated towards criticism and accusatory pathos, but the “non-ideality” into which French realism was increasingly falling was alien to them. They had their own positive program, their own ideals, often tinged with utopianism. The spiritual and aesthetic dominant of their work can be called a focus on man and human values. Integral to it is the affirmation of the spiritual and moral essence of man, elusive in “scientific” coordinate systems, which sounded with particular force in the works of outstanding Russian writers of the 19th century. - Pushkin, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky. Without separating man from his environment, Russian realists at the same time convincingly argued that it does not descend into the influences of the environment and biological nature and retains its spiritual and moral intrinsic value.

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On this page there is material on the following topics:

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At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher explains to students the essence of the concept of realism and talks about the concept of “natural school”. Next, the postulates of naturalism of the French writer Emile Zola are given, and the concept of social Darwinism is revealed. A detailed account is given of the features of Russian realism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the most significant works of Russian writers are examined and how they shape the literature of that period.

Rice. 1. Portrait of V. Belinsky ()

The key event for Russian realism in the mid-19th century was the publication of two literary collections in the 40s - the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection”. Both of them came with a foreword by Belinsky (Fig. 1), where he writes that Russia is disunited, there are many classes in it that live their own lives and know nothing about each other. People of different classes speak and dress differently, believe in God and earn their living. The task of literature, according to Belinsky, is to introduce Russia to Russia, to break down territorial barriers.

Belinsky's concept of realism had to go through many difficult trials. From 1848 to 1856 it was even forbidden to mention his name in print. Issues of Otechestvennye zapiski and Sovremennik with his articles were confiscated from libraries. Profound changes began in the very camp of progressive writers. The “natural school” of the 40s, which included a variety of writers - Nekrasov and A. Maykov, Dostoevsky and Druzhinin, Herzen and V. Dahl - was possible on the basis of a united anti-serfdom front. But by the end of the 40s, democratic and liberal tendencies intensified in it.

The authors spoke out against “tendentious” art, for “pure artistry”, for “eternal” art. On the basis of “pure art”, Botkin, Druzhinin and Annenkov united into a kind of “triumvirate”. They bullied Belinsky’s true students, such as Chernyshevsky, and in this they received support from Turgenev, Grigorovich, and Goncharov.

These individuals did not simply advocate the aimlessness and apolitical nature of art. They challenged the pointed bias that the Democrats wanted to give to art. They were satisfied with the outdated level of bias, although they barely came to terms with it during Belinsky’s lifetime. Their position was typically liberal, and they were later completely satisfied with the meager “glasnost” that was established as a result of the tsarist reform. Gorky pointed to the objectively reactionary meaning of liberalism in the conditions of preparation for the democratic revolution in Russia: “The liberals of the 1860s and Chernyshevsky,” he wrote in 1911, “are representatives of two historical trends, two historical forces, which from then until our time determine the outcome of the struggle for a new Russia.”

Literature of the mid-19th century developed under the influence of the concept of V. Belinsky and was called the “natural school”.

Emile Zola (Fig. 2) in his work “The Experimental Novel” explained that the task of literature is to study a certain period in the life of its heroes.

Rice. 2. Emile Zola ()

In his ideas about man, E. Zola relied on the research of the famous French physiologist C. Bernard (Fig. 3), who considered man as a biological being. Emile Zola believed that all human actions are based on blood and nerves, that is, biological motives of behavior determine a person’s life.

Rice. 3. Portrait of Claude Bernard ()

The followers of E. Zola were called social Darwinists. Darwin's concept is important for them: any biological individual is formed by adapting to the environment and fighting for survival. The will to live, the struggle for survival and the environment - all these principles will be found in the literature of the turn of the century.

Imitators of Zola appeared in Russian literature. For Russian realism-naturalism, the main thing was to photographically reflect reality.

Naturalist writers of the late 19th century were characterized by a new look at classes from the outside, a realistic presentation in the spirit of a psychological novel.

One of the most striking manifestos of literature of this time was the article by critic A. Suvorin (Fig. 4) “Our poetry and fiction,” which answered the questions “Do we have literature?”, “How to write?” and “What does the author need?” He complains that new people from the works of this time - representatives of different classes - are engaged in old activities familiar to literary heroes (falling in love, getting married, getting divorced), and for some reason the writers do not talk about the professional activities of the heroes. The writers do not know about the activities of the new heroes. The biggest problem writers face is ignorance of the material they are writing about.

Rice. 4. Portrait of Suvorin ()

“A fiction writer should know more or should choose one corner for himself as a specialist and try to become, if not a master, then a good worker,” wrote Suvorin.

At the end of the 80s, a new wave appeared in literature - M. Gorky, Marxists, a new idea of ​​​​what sociality is.

Rice. 5. Collection of the partnership “Znanie” ()

“Knowledge” (Fig. 5), a book publishing partnership in St. Petersburg, organized in 1898-1913 by members of the Literacy Committee (K.P. Pyatnitsky and others) for cultural and educational purposes. Initially, the publishing house published mainly popular science books on natural science, history, public education, and art. In 1900 M. Gorky joined Znanie; at the end of 1902 he headed the publishing house after its reorganization. Gorky united realist writers around “Knowledge,” who reflected in their works the oppositional sentiments of Russian society. Having released in a short time the collected works of M. Gorky (9 vols.), A. Serafimovich, A.I. Kuprina, V.V. Veresaev, The Wanderer (S. G. Petrova), N.D. Teleshova, S.A. Naydenova and others, “Znanie” has gained fame as a publishing house targeting a wide democratic circle of readers. In 1904, the publishing house began publishing “Collections of the Knowledge Partnership” (40 books were published before 1913). They included works by M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhova, A.I. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, L.N. Andreeva, I.A. Bunina, V.V. Veresaeva and others. Translations were also published.

Against the backdrop of the critical realism of the majority of the “Znanievites”, on the one hand, Gorky and Serafimovich, representatives of socialist realism, stood out, on the other, Andreev and some others, subject to the influences of decadence. After the revolution of 1905-07. this division has intensified. Since 1911, the main editing of the “Knowledge” collections passed to V.S. Mirolyubov.

Along with the publication of collected works of young writers and collections, the Znanie partnership published the so-called. “Cheap library”, in which small works of “knowledge” writers were published. In addition, on instructions from the Bolsheviks, Gorky published a series of socio-political pamphlets, including works by K. Marx, F. Engels, P. Lafargue, A. Bebel, etc. In total, more than 300 titles were published in the “Cheap Library” (total circulation - about 4 million copies).

During the years of reaction that came after the revolution of 1905-07, many members of the Knowledge partnership left book publishing. Gorky, forced to live abroad during these years, broke with the publishing house in 1912. M. Gorky's letters talk more and more about the timeliness of literature and its usefulness, that is, the need to develop the reader and instill in him the correct worldview.

At this time, not only writers, but also readers are divided into friends and foes. The main reader for Gorky and the Znanievites is a new reader (a working person, a proletariat who is not yet accustomed to reading books), and therefore the writer needs to write simply and clearly. The writer must be a teacher and leader for the reader.

The Znaniev concept in literature will form the basis of the concept of Soviet literature.

Since what is presented in a work of art must be clear and understandable, the main trope for Znanievo literature becomes allegory I (allegory, abstract concept illustrated by a specific object or image).

For each concept: “valor”, “faith”, “mercy” - there were stable images that were understood by readers. In this period of literature, such concepts as “stagnation” and “revolution”, the “old” and “new” world are in demand. Each of the stories of the partnership contains a key allegory image.

Another important feature of realism at the end of the 19th century is the appearance of writers from the provinces: Mamin-Sibiryak, Shishkov, Prishvin, Bunin, Shmelev, Kuprin and many others. The Russian province appears unknown, incomprehensible, and in need of study. The Russian outback of this time appears in two forms:

1. something motionless, alien to any movement (conservative);

2. something that preserves traditions and important life values.

The story “Village” by Bunin, “Uyezdnoye” by Zamyatin, the novel “Small Demon” by F. Sologub, stories by Zaitsev and Shmelev and other works that tell about the provincial life of that time.

1. Naturalism ().
2. "Natural school" ().
3. Emile Zola ().
4. Claude Bernard ().
5. Social Darwinism ().
6. Artsybashev M.P. ().
7. Suvorin A.S. ().

Publishing house of the Znanie partnership

What is realism in literature? It is one of the most common trends, reflecting a realistic image of reality. The main task of this direction is reliable disclosure of phenomena encountered in life, using a detailed description of the characters depicted and the situations that happen to them, through typification. What is important is the lack of embellishment.

In contact with

Among other directions, only in the realistic is special attention paid to the correct artistic depiction of life, and not to the emerging reaction to certain life events, for example, as in romanticism and classicism. The heroes of realist writers appear before readers exactly as they were presented to the author's gaze, and not as the writer would like to see them.

Realism, as one of the widespread trends in literature, settled closer to the middle of the 19th century after its predecessor - romanticism. The 19th century is subsequently designated as the era of realistic works, but romanticism did not cease to exist, it only slowed down in development, gradually turning into neo-romanticism.

Important! The definition of this term was first introduced into literary criticism by D.I. Pisarev.

The main features of this direction are as follows:

1. Full compliance with the reality depicted in any work of the painting.
2. True specific typification of all the details in the images of the heroes.
3. The basis is a conflict situation between a person and society.
4. Image in the work deep conflict situations, the drama of life.
5. The author pays special attention to the description of all environmental phenomena.
6. A significant feature of this literary movement is considered to be the writer’s significant attention to the inner world of a person, his state of mind.

Main genres

In any direction of literature, including realistic, a certain system of genres develops. The prose genres of realism had a particular influence on its development, due to the fact that they were more suitable than others for a more correct artistic description of new realities and their reflection in literature. Works of this direction are divided into the following genres.

1. A social and everyday novel that describes a way of life and a certain type of character inherent in this way of life. A good example of a social genre was “Anna Karenina”.
2. A socio-psychological novel, in the description of which one can see a complete detailed disclosure of the human personality, his personality and inner world.
3. A realistic novel in verse is a special type of novel. A remarkable example of this genre is “”, written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
4. A realistic philosophical novel contains eternal reflections on such topics as: the meaning of human existence, the confrontation between good and evil sides, a certain purpose of human life. An example of a realistic philosophical novel is “”, the author of which is Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov.
5. Story.
6. Tale.

In Russia, its development began in the 1830s and was a consequence of the conflict situation in various spheres of society, the contradictions between higher ranks and ordinary people. Writers began to turn to pressing issues of their time.

Thus begins the rapid development of a new genre - the realistic novel, which, as a rule, described the hard life of ordinary people, their hardships and problems.

The initial stage in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature is the “natural school”. During the period of the “natural school,” literary works tended to a greater extent to describe the position of the hero in society, his belonging to some kind of profession. Among all genres, the leading place was occupied by physiological essay.

In the 1850s–1900s, realism began to be called critical, since the main goal was to criticize what was happening, the relationship between a certain person and spheres of society. Issues such as: the measure of the influence of society on the life of an individual were considered; actions that can change a person and the world around him; the reason for the lack of happiness in human life.

This literary trend has become extremely popular in Russian literature, as Russian writers were able to make the world genre system richer. Works appeared from in-depth questions of philosophy and morality.

I.S. Turgenev created an ideological type of heroes, the character, personality and internal state of which directly depended on the author’s assessment of the worldview, finding a certain meaning in the concepts of their philosophy. Such heroes are subject to ideas that they follow until the very end, developing them as much as possible.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy, the system of ideas that develops during the character’s life determines the form of his interaction with the surrounding reality and depends on the morality and personal characteristics of the heroes of the work.

Founder of realism

The title of pioneer of this trend in Russian literature was rightfully awarded to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. He is the generally recognized founder of realism in Russia. “Boris Godunov” and “Eugene Onegin” are considered striking examples of realism in Russian literature of those times. Also distinguishing examples were such works by Alexander Sergeevich as “Belkin’s Tales” and “The Captain’s Daughter”.

Classical realism gradually begins to develop in Pushkin’s creative works. The writer’s portrayal of the personality of each character is comprehensive in an effort to describe the complexity of his inner world and state of mind, which unfold very harmoniously. Recreating the experiences of a certain person, his moral character helps Pushkin overcome the self-will of describing passions inherent in irrationalism.

Heroes A.S. Pushkin appear before readers with open sides of their being. The writer pays special attention to describing the aspects of the human inner world, depicts the hero in the process of development and formation of his personality, which are influenced by the reality of society and the environment. This was due to his awareness of the need to depict a specific historical and national identity in the characteristics of the people.

Attention! Reality in Pushkin’s depiction collects an accurate, concrete image of the details of not only the inner world of a certain character, but also the world that surrounds him, including his detailed generalization.

Neorealism in literature

New philosophical, aesthetic and everyday realities at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries contributed to a change in direction. Implemented twice, this modification acquired the name neorealism, which gained popularity during the 20th century.

Neorealism in literature consists of a variety of movements, since its representatives had different artistic approaches to depicting reality, including the characteristic features of the realistic direction. It is based on appeal to the traditions of classical realism XIX century, as well as to problems in the social, moral, philosophical and aesthetic spheres of reality. A good example containing all these features is the work of G.N. Vladimov “The General and His Army”, written in 1994.

Representatives and works of realism

Like other literary movements, realism has many Russian and foreign representatives, most of whom have works of the realistic style in more than one copy.

Foreign representatives of realism: Honoré de Balzac - “The Human Comedy”, Stendhal - “The Red and the Black”, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Dickens - “The Adventures of Oliver Twist”, Mark Twain - “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer”, “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”, Jack London – “The Sea Wolf”, “Hearts of Three”.

Russian representatives of this direction: A.S. Pushkin - “Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “Dubrovsky”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, M.Yu. Lermontov - “Hero of Our Time”, N.V. Gogol - “”, A.I. Herzen - “Who is to blame?”, N.G. Chernyshevsky - “What to do?”, F.M. Dostoevsky - “Humiliated and Insulted”, “Poor People”, L.N. Tolstoy - "", "Anna Karenina", A.P. Chekhov – “The Cherry Orchard”, “Student”, “Chameleon”, M.A. Bulgakov - “The Master and Margarita”, “Heart of a Dog”, I.S. Turgenev - “Asya”, “Spring Waters”, “” and others.

Russian realism as a movement in literature: features and genres

Unified State Exam 2017. Literature. Literary movements: classicism, romanticism, realism, modernism, etc.

System of artistic images

The image of Mrs. Prostakova
The sovereign mistress of her estate. Whether the peasants are right or wrong, this decision depends only on her arbitrariness. She says about herself that “she doesn’t lay down her hands: she scolds, she fights, and that’s what the house rests on.” Calling Prostakova a “despicable fury,” Fonvizin claims that she is not at all an exception to the general rule. She is illiterate; in her family it was considered almost a sin and a crime to study.
She is accustomed to impunity, extends her power from the serfs to her husband, Sophia, Skotinin. But she herself is a slave, devoid of self-esteem, ready to grovel before the strongest. Prostakova is a typical representative of the world of lawlessness and tyranny. She is an example of how despotism destroys the person in man and destroys the social ties of people.
Image of Taras Skotinin
The same ordinary landowner, like his sister. He has “every fault to blame”; no one can fleece the peasants better than Skotinin. The image of Skotinin is an example of how “bestial” and “animal” lowlands take over. He is an even more cruel serf owner than his sister Prostakova, and the pigs in his village live much better than the people. “Isn’t a nobleman free to beat a servant whenever he wants?” - he supports his sister when she justifies her atrocities with reference to the Decree on the Liberty of the Nobility.
Skotinin allows his sister to play with him like a boy; he is passive in his relationship with Prostakova.
Image of Starodum
He consistently sets out the views of an “honest man” on family morality, on the duties of a nobleman engaged in the affairs of civil government and military service. Starodum’s father served under Peter I and raised his son “in the way of that time.” He gave “the best education for that century.”
Starodum wasted his energy and decided to dedicate all his knowledge to his niece, the daughter of his deceased sister. He earns money where “they don’t exchange it for conscience” - in Siberia.
He knows how to control himself and does not do anything rashly. Starodum is the “brain” of the play. In Starodum's monologues, the ideas of enlightenment that the author professes are expressed.

Composition
Ideological and moral content of the comedy by D.I. Fonvizin "Minor"

The aesthetics of classicism prescribed strict adherence to the hierarchy of high and low genres and assumed a clear division of heroes into positive and negative. The comedy “The Minor” was created precisely according to the canons of this literary movement, and we, the readers, are immediately struck by the contrast between the heroes in their life views and moral virtues.
But D.I. Fonvizin, while maintaining the three unities of drama (time, place, action), nevertheless largely departs from the requirements of classicism.
The play “The Minor” is not just a traditional comedy, the basis of which is a love conflict. No. “The Minor” is an innovative work, the first of its kind and signifying that a new stage of development has begun in Russian drama. Here the love affair around Sophia is relegated to the background, subordinating to the main, socio-political conflict. D.I. Fonvizin, as a writer of the Enlightenment, believed that art should perform a moral and educational function in the life of society. Having initially conceived a play about the education of the noble class, the author, due to historical circumstances, rises to consider in the comedy the most pressing issues of that time: the despotism of autocratic power, serfdom. The theme of education, of course, is heard in the play, but it is accusatory in nature. The author is dissatisfied with the system of education and upbringing of “minors” that existed during the reign of Catherine. He came to the conclusion that the evil itself lies in the serf system and demanded a fight against this silt, pinning hopes on the “enlightened” monarchy and the advanced part of the nobility.
Starodum appears in the comedy “Undergrowth” as a preacher of enlightenment and education. Moreover, his understanding of these phenomena is the author’s understanding. Starodum is not alone in his aspirations. He is supported by Pravdin and, it seems to me, these views are also shared by Milon and Sophia.
etc.................

Realism is a trend in literature and art that aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features. The dominance of realism followed the era of Romanticism and preceded Symbolism.

1. At the center of the work of realists is objective reality. In its refraction through the worldview of art. 2. The author subjects life material to philosophical processing. 3. The ideal is reality itself. The beautiful thing is life itself. 4. Realists approach synthesis through analysis.

5. The principle of the typical: Typical hero, specific time, typical circumstances

6. Identification of cause-and-effect relationships. 7. The principle of historicism. Realists turn to the problems of the present. The present is the convergence of past and future. 8. The principle of democracy and humanism. 9. The principle of objectivity of the story. 10. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate

11. psychologism

12. .. The development of poetry is somewhat calming down 13. The novel is the leading genre.

13. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main features of Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol

14. The main feature of realism as a creative method is the increased attention to the social side of reality.

15. The images of a realistic work reflect the general laws of existence, and not living people. Any image is woven from typical traits manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. An image cannot be correlated with a living person; it is richer than a specific person - hence the objectivity of realism.

16. “The artist should not be a judge of his characters and what they say, but only an impartial witness

Realist writers

Late A. S. Pushkin is the founder of realism in Russian literature (the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” back in the 1820s - 1830s)

M. Yu. Lermontov (“Hero of Our Time”)

N. V. Gogol (“Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”)

I. A. Goncharov (“Oblomov”)

A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”)

A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”)

N. G. Chernyshevsky (“What to do?”)

F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “White Nights”, “Humiliated and Insulted”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Demons”)

L. N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”).

I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, “Asya”, “Spring Waters”, “Fathers and Sons”, “New”, “On the Eve”, “Mu-mu”)

A. P. Chekhov (“The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”, “Student”, “Chameleon”, “The Seagull”, “Man in a Case”

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country.

Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people. End of the 19th century - The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature. . Realism becomes, to a certain extent, a method of artistic cognition of reality. In the 40s, a “natural school” arose - the work of Gogol, he was a great innovator, discovering that even an insignificant event, such as the acquisition of an overcoat by a minor official, can become a significant event for understanding the most important issues of human existence.

The “Natural School” became the initial stage in the development of realism in Russian literature.

Topics: Life, customs, characters, events from the life of the lower classes became the object of study by “naturalists”. The leading genre was the “physiological essay,” which was based on accurate “photography” of the life of various classes.

In the literature of the “natural school,” the hero’s class position, his professional affiliation, and the social function he performs decisively prevailed over his individual character.

Those who joined the “natural school” were: Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Panaev, Druzhinin and others.

The task of truthfully showing and exploring life presupposes in realism many techniques for depicting reality, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse in both form and content.

Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. received the name of critical realism, because its main task was the criticism of reality, the question of the relationship between man and society.

To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for a person being unhappy? What to do to change a person and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular.

Psychologism - the characterization of a hero through the analysis of his inner world, consideration of the psychological processes through which a person’s self-awareness is realized and his attitude to the world is expressed - has become the leading method of Russian literature since the formation of the realistic style in it.

One of the remarkable features of Turgenev’s works of the 50s was the appearance in them of a hero who embodied the idea of ​​the unity of ideology and psychology.

Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, who at the end of the 19th century became the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deep layers

Turgenev is credited with creating literary types of ideologists - heroes, whose approach to personality and characterization of their inner world is in direct connection with the author’s assessment of their worldview and the socio-historical meaning of their philosophical concepts. The merging of the psychological, historical-typological and ideological aspects in Turgenev’s heroes is so complete that their names have become a common noun for a certain stage in the development of social thought, a certain social type representing a class in its historical state, and the psychological makeup of the individual (Rudin, Bazarov, Kirsanov , Mr. N. from the story “Asya” - “Russian man on rendez-vous”).

Dostoevsky's heroes are at the mercy of ideas. Like slaves, they follow her, expressing her self-development. Having “accepted” a certain system into their soul, they obey the laws of its logic, go through all the necessary stages of its growth with it, and bear the yoke of its reincarnations. Thus, Raskolnikov, whose concept grew out of rejection of social injustice and a passionate desire for good, passing through all its logical stages along with the idea that took possession of his entire being, accepts murder and justifies the tyranny of a strong personality over the voiceless masses. In lonely monologues-reflections, Raskolnikov “strengthens” in his idea, falls under its power, gets lost in its ominous vicious circle, and then, having completed the “experience” and suffering internal defeat, begins to feverishly seek dialogue, the possibility of jointly assessing the results of the experiment.

In Tolstoy, the system of ideas that the hero develops and develops in the course of his life is a form of his communication with the environment and is derived from his character, from the psychological and moral characteristics of his personality.

It can be argued that all three great Russian realists of the mid-century - Turgenev, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky - depict the mental and ideological life of a person as a social phenomenon and ultimately presuppose obligatory contact between people, without which the development of consciousness is impossible.