Stylistic layers of vocabulary. Examples of text styles: a kaleidoscope of speech variations

The language of fiction (prose, poetry, drama) does not belong to specifically written varieties of speech (as well as to specifically oral types of speech).

The vocabulary of fiction, based on neutral words, can include words of both oral and written speech (as well as, along with them, all varieties of popular vocabulary: dialectisms, professionalisms, jargons).

There are two types of written vocabulary:

1) Vocabulary book;

2) Vocabulary high(poetic, solemn).

Noted functional-style stratification book vocabulary:

1) Official business;

2) Scientific;

3) Newspaper and journalistic.

Official business vocabulary is used in government documents of the following types:

1) Laws;

2) Regulations;

3) Charters;

4) Instructions;

5) Office and administrative papers;

6) Business letters;

7) Agreements;

8) Legal business documents;

9) International agreements;

10) Communiqué;

11) Diplomatic notes, etc. This vocabulary is characterized by:

A) isolation(there are no foreign style inclusions;

b) semantic clarity;

c) maximum unambiguity;

d) availability cliches, stereotypes, cliches. Main lexical groups of business style:

1) Names of business papers:

Application, instruction, explanatory, dotsaadnaya, note, certificate, progress sacrament;

2) Names of documents:

Diploma, passport, certificate, charter;

3) Business and production technical terminology:

Cargo turnover, carrying capacity, supply, recyclable materials, medical staff, overalls, financial department;

4) Nomenclature names (names of various institutions, officials and their posts):

General Directorate, Ministry, Engineer, Inspector. In modern business style, abbreviations are widely used:

KB - design bureau;

UKS - capital construction management etc. for scientific vocabulary foreign style inclusions are also unusual. In the scientific style, words with abstract semantics are used. In the lexical system of the scientific style, first of all, general scientific vocabulary can be distinguished:

Abstraction, argumentation, research, classification, method, methodology, object, systematization and etc.

Features of scientific style vocabulary include the mandatory presence terms. Term- is a word or phrase used to maximize exact name special concepts in the field of production, science, art.

Set of terms a certain area or branch of knowledge forms terminological system(terminology), we call) "yu" metalanguage of this science.

Each science necessarily has its own terminology (metalanguage). An example of a developed terminological sphere (developed meta-language) is linguistics:

Morpheme, sentence, prefix, phrase, suffix, inflection and etc.

Main function newspaper and journalistic style is a function impact, After all, the main feature of journalism is political sharpness, citizenship, and polemical intensity.

Newspaper and journalistic vocabulary is most common in newspaper and magazine reviews, in socio-political and literary critical articles, in pamphlets, feuilletons, essays, proclamations, and so on, for example:

Humanism, unity, neutrality, autonomy, patriotism, propaganda, event, progressive and etc.

Unlike book vocabulary, which accurately names abstract concepts, but is somewhat dry (that is, minimally emotional), vocabulary high characterized by elation, often solemnity and poetry. Words of high vocabulary belong to four parts of speech:

1) Nouns:

Daring, chosen one, homeland, accomplishment, creator;

2) Adjectives:

/(sovereign, daring, radiant, irreversible;

3) Adverbs:

Forever, from now on;

4) Verbs:

To erect, to erect, to delineate, to accomplish.

High vocabulary gives speech a solemn, upbeat or poetic sound. It is used in cases when we are talking about significant events in the life of the country and people, when the author’s feelings are high and festive.

L. Leonov justified the need to use high words: “Just as, according to Belinsky, it’s a shame to talk about Pushkin mass media turnip prose, the name of Tolstoy today requires a festive verbal frame.”

For example, remembering the first meeting with Leo Tolstoy,

V.A. Gilyarovsky wrote: “This meeting with the great Lev Nikolaevich unforgettable This is the best moment of my life." In this passage the word unforgettable sounds more sublime than unforgettable.

Vocabulary of fiction (poetry, prose, drama), which may include:

1) Neutral words;

2) Words of oral and written speech;

3) Neo-national vocabulary.

From the point of view of stylistic coloring (stylistic characteristics), the vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large categories: 1) stylistically neutral vocabulary; 2) stylistically colored vocabulary.
Stylistically neutral vocabulary constitutes the largest circle of words that is not assigned to any functional style of the Russian literary language (official business, scientific, journalistic, artistic or colloquial) and is appropriate in various spheres of communication: water, house, read, difficulty, white, fifty and etc.
Included stylistically colored vocabulary First of all, bookish words and colloquial, slang and colloquial words are distinguished.
Book words are characteristic of the book and written version of the national language. They are used primarily in scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic styles. Wed: oscilloscope(scientific), above-mentioned(official business) prohibited(official-business); cohesion(publ.), sacrament(artist-poet.), dreams(artist-poet.). There are also common words, for example: intelligence, erudition, law.
Spoken words- these are words inherent in the colloquial style of the Russian literary language and used primarily in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday everyday communication, for example: reader, bully, dumbass, yeller, braggart, grandpa and etc.
Colloquial words are used in casual, informal communication, so they are characterized by a certain reduction. Wed: old man(high) - old man(neutral) - old man(colloquial, descending).
Vernacular words are words that are located outside the literary language or on its periphery, but are not limited in their use either by territory (unlike dialectisms) or by the framework of social groups (unlike jargon). There are two types of colloquial words: a) those that violate the actual linguistic norms of literary usage (tranway instead of tram, shoes instead of shoe, quarter instead of quarter and so on.); b) violating moral and ethical norms to one degree or another. The last category includes crudely colloquial words ( head - head, drag yourself - come); rude colloquial words ( mug - face, rubbish - about a person), as well as vulgar, obscene, abusive language that offends a person’s dignity.

Phraseologisms(phraseological units) are non-free integral units that are not created in the process of communication, but are reproduced in finished form. By meaning, phraseological units can correspond to one word (the cat cried - few, Nick down - remember, seven spans in the forehead - smart) or the whole expression (catching fish in troubled waters - take advantage of someone's difficulties run aground - find yourself in an extremely difficult, difficult situation).
In a sentence, phraseological units act as one member of the sentence He handyman.
In terms of origin phraseological units are divided into native Russian ones (all over Ivanovskaya, like a gulkin, out of the frying pan and into the fire), Old Slavonic (out of this world, massacre of infants, eye for an eye) and borrowed from other languages ( blue stocking - from English language, somersault - from italian language, Honeymoon- from French language).
From a stylistic point of view phraseological units are divided into the following groups:
1) neutral, or inter-style: keep your word, draw a line, put an end to it, swan song;
2) stylistically colored, among which stand out:
A) colloquial(brew the porridge like the back of your hand, with all your might, two boots in a pair, fill your pocket);
b) vernacular(screw your brains, it's in the bag, stupid head);
V) book(finest hour, crown of thorns, apple of discord).
Colloquial and colloquial phraseological units are classified as reduced; book phraseological units - to the category of high, solemn.

common manner, the usual way of performing any specific type of speech acts: oratory, editorial in a newspaper, scientific (not highly specialized) lecture, judicial speech, everyday dialogue, friendly letter, etc.; style in this sense is characterized not only by a set (parameters) of linguistic means, but also by the composition of the act;

individual manner, the way in which a given speech act or work is performed, including literary and artistic work (cf., for example, “the style of your speech at a meeting”; “the language and style of Lermontov’s early poems”);

same as language paradigm of the era, the state of the language in terms of style in a given era (cf. the expression “in the style of the Russian literary language of the 1st half of the 19th century”).

Despite the differences in the above five understandings of style, each of them has a basic common invariant feature; style is always characterized principle of selection and combination available linguistic means, their transformations; differences in style are determined by differences in these principles. Each style is characterized by certain differential features, differences from another, comparable to it, i.e. deviations. This characteristic reaches its maximum in individual style, which is “a measure of deviation from the neutral norm.” In addition, “from the inside” the style is characterized by some constant components, “integral features”, which also reach a maximum in the individual style, leading to its definition as “the highest measure of proportionality and conformity.” The concept of selection, in turn, presupposes the idea of what is correct, with what deviations should be compared - the concept of a norm (see Linguistic norm). The concept of combination presupposes the concept of proportionality and harmony. Thus, style is not only a historical category, but also a subjective-objective one, since both the objective material elements of style and the subjective principles of their selection and combination change in history. There are cases when the national language (for example, Estonian) does not have clear boundaries between styles.

In the history of styles from the point of view of the material composition of the elements the three main styles of the language have 3 different historical sources. In modern European languages, the book style usually goes back to the literary and written language of the previous period, often different from the everyday spoken language of the bulk of the population. Thus, the book style in the countries of Romanesque speech - France, Italy, Spain, etc. - goes back to Latin as the literary language of the Middle Ages in terms of vocabulary and partly syntax; English in its book style in this respect also goes back to the Latin and partly French languages of the Middle Ages. The book style in all Slavic languages largely goes back to the Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language - the literary language of the Middle Ages. At the same time, in the Romance and Slavic languages, a literary language on a national basis played a certain role, for example, the language of the heroic epic in France and Spain, the language of chronicles and other written documents in Kievan Rus; At the same time, the question of the relationship between the two languages in Kievan Rus and other Russian states of the Middle Ages remains debatable.

The neutral colloquial style goes back to the common language, especially to the language of the urban part of the population. The familiar vernacular style has its source in the language of the urban lower classes and peasant dialects, as well as the languages of professional groups, jargons - artisans, soldiers, students, etc.

The system of styles is affected by their literary processing and codification. Thus, the normalization of the French literary language in the 17th century, during the era of literary classicism, contributed to the strict codification of written speech and its difference from spoken language according to the principle “they never write as they speak”; therefore, the neutral style of the French language was consolidated in its proximity to book and written speech. The norm of the Russian literary language took shape in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, in the era of Pushkin, the era of the formation of literary realism, due to which democratic elements of the language were much more widely accepted into the book style, and the neutral style turned out to be closer to colloquial speech.

The prototype of three language styles already existed in the Latin language of Ancient Rome: 1) urbanitas - the speech of the city of Rome itself (Urbs), considered a model; 2) rusticitas (from rusticus - rustic, rural) - speech of rural areas, not entirely correct, “uncouth”; 3) peregrinitas (from peregrinus - foreign), perceived by the Romans as the incorrect Latin speech of remote Roman provinces, from which the Romance languages subsequently developed.

The three styles also had another source, also three-part: the three main genres of literature of that time - “low”, “medium” and “high”. In Rome, they were usually associated with three different genre cycles of Virgil's works - "Bucolics" (lit. - shepherd poems), "Georgics" (lit. - agricultural poems), "Aeneid" - a heroic epic poem. According to the three genres, not only words, but also the objects they denote, as well as proper names, had to be different. In the late Roman era they were illustrated as follows:

This stylistic difference has a more ancient analogue - the difference between the languages of epic and tragedy (“high”), lyricism (“middle”), comedy (“low”) in Ancient Greece, which, in turn, apparently goes back to more ancient differences between sacred, including poetic, language and the language of everyday communication. The “Theory of Three Styles” was especially relevant in Europe during the era of literary classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries. In Russia it was developed by M.V. Lomonosov (see Language of fiction).

In the history of style from the point of view of selection principles The most ancient principle of differences in styles turns out to be social prestige, which directly corresponds to the concepts-evaluations “high”, “average”, “low” of words and objects that are designated by words. To speak in a high style meant to speak in a high style and about high subjects; at the same time, the high style of speech indicated the high social position of the speaker. The practice of linguistic assessments of speech, adopted in Ancient Rome, has been maintained until modern times. So, according to the definition of a 17th century grammarian. C. de Vogelat (France), “good use of language”, or “good custom”, is “the manner of speaking of the most sound part of the royal court, in accordance with the manner of writing of the most sound part of the writers of a given time.” “Good custom” in modern terminology corresponds to a neutral and bookish style, or a linguistic norm in the strictest sense of the word. Vozhle's definition also contains another important feature - the “conformity” of speech, its correspondence to the social status of the speaker. Thus, the “low” speech of the peasant does not correspond to “good custom”, but corresponds to “conformity”.

In the 19th century Wherever there has been a general democratization of public life, the concept of norm is expanded, and the “low” style, the natural speech of the democratic strata of the population, is included in the norm in a broad sense, in the system of literary language styles. Dialectal speech and slang remain outside the norm. However, the sign of social prestige remains; to a certain extent, this makes itself felt even in the definition of the norm in Soviet scientific literature of the 30-40s, cf.: “The norm is determined by the degree of use, provided authority sources" (E. S. Istrina). In the linguistic literature of the 80s. in developed countries, in accordance with the developing structure of society, the sign of “high” or “low” social assessment is gradually excluded from the concept of language norms and, accordingly, from the assessment of styles; Wed in relation to the modern Russian language, where the norm is the rules of speech “accepted in social speech practice educated people" (however, this feature is preserved for modern French).

In parallel to this, there is a separation of such features of style as the word and its subject correlation; the last feature is excluded from the definition of style: in modern literary languages, in any style of language one can talk about the same reality, the same objects. This is facilitated by developed synonymic series (see Synonymy), formed from various sources (for example, in the Russian language, Old Slavonicisms and native Russian vocabulary: “battle” - “battle”, “battle” - “skirmish”, “lik” - “face” - “face”, “throw” - “throw” - “throw”, “throw”, etc.).

The concept of style as an individual manner of speech or writing was formalized in the 18th century. and reaches its peak in the era of literary romanticism in connection with the development of the concept of an individual “genius” - a human creator, writer, artist. In 1753, J. L. L. Buffon formulated the following definition of style: “Knowledge, facts and discoveries are easily alienated and transformed... these things are outside of man. Style is the person himself. Style can neither be alienated, nor transformed, nor transmitted.” This definition, reflecting one of the objective aspects of the phenomenon of “style,” plays a large role in literary stylistics. In French linguistics, the tasks of stylistics as a whole are determined on its basis.

In the 19th century, in connection with the understanding of the diverse speech functions of a person (everyday speech, public speaking, speech in court, etc.), an understanding of style as a variable value, as language adaptation person to the social environment (A.I. Sobolevsky, 1909). This understanding corresponds to a certain extent to the understanding of style as a generally accepted manner of performing speech acts. Style in this understanding is most fully studied in the theory of speech acts as one of the conditions for their success (see Pragmatics).

In the 50-70s. In the 20th century, in connection with the development of the history of science, the history of human knowledge, the concept of style, common to science, art and language, was formulated as “a style of thinking, worldview.” In this meaning, different terms are used: “epoch” (M. P. Foucault), “writing” (in relation to fiction, R. Barth), “paradigm” (in relation to science and scientific style, T. Kuhn). But the most general and successful term here remains “style”, in accordance with the definition of M. Born (1953): “... there are... general tendencies of thought that change very slowly and form certain philosophical periods with their characteristic ideas in all areas of human activity, including science... Styles of thinking are styles not only in art, but also in science.”

Sobolevsky A.I., About style, Kharkov, 1909;
Istrina E. S., Norms of the Russian literary language and the culture of speech, M.-L., 1948;
Distiller G. O., On the tasks of the history of language, in his book: Selected works on the Russian language, M., 1959;
Conrad N.I., On the literary language in China and Japan, in: Issues of the formation and development of national languages, M., 1960;
Gelgardt R.R., On the language norm, in the book: Issues of speech culture, v. 3, M., 1961;
Longevity L., Gausenblas K., On the relationship between poetics and stylistics, in the book: Poetics. Poetyka. Poetics, ;
Born M., The state of ideas in physics, in his book: Physics in the life of my generation, [trans. from English], M., 1963;
Vinogradov V.V., Problems of literary languages and patterns of their formation and development, M., 1967;
his, Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th-19th centuries, 3rd ed., M., 1982;
Budagov R. A., Literary languages and linguistic styles, M., 1967;
Language and society, M., 1968;
Kozhina M.N., On the foundations of functional stylistics, Perm, 1968;
Yartseva V.N., Development of the national literary English language, M., 1969;
Semenyuk N.N., From the history of functional-stylistic differentiation of the German literary language. M., 1972;
Russian colloquial speech, M., 1973;
Shcherba L.V., On different pronunciation styles and the ideal phonetic composition of words, in his book: Language system and speech activity, Leningrad, 1974;
Belchikov Yu. A., Russian literary language in the 2nd half of the 19th century, M., 1974;
Zhirmunsky V. M., The problem of social differentiation of languages, in his book: General and German linguistics, L., 1976;
McDavid R.I. (Jr.). Dialectal and social differences in urban society, trans. from English, in the book: New in linguistics, in. 7 - Sociolinguistics, M., 1975;
Foucault M., Words and things. Archeology of the Humanities, trans. from French. M., 1977;
New in foreign linguistics, in. 8 - Text linguistics, M., 1978; V. 9 - Linguistics, M., 1980;
Distiller T. G., Patterns of stylistic use of linguistic units, M., 1980;
Melnichuk A. S., Discussion of the problem of the linguistic situation in Kievan Rus at the IX International Congress of Slavists, Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences, ser. LiYa, 1984, vol. 43, no. 2;
Buffon G. L. L., Discours sur le style, P., ;
Cressot M., Le style et ses techniques, P., 1947;
Guiraud P., La stylistique, 8 ed., P., 1975.

To vocabulary writing These include words that are used primarily in written varieties of the literary language: in scientific articles, textbooks, in official documents, in business papers, and are not used in casual conversations or in everyday speech.
The language of fiction (prose, poetry, drama) does not belong to specifically written varieties of speech (as well as to specifically oral types of speech).
The vocabulary of fiction, based on neutral words, can include words of both oral and written speech (as well as, along with them, all varieties of popular vocabulary: dialectisms, professionalisms, jargons).
There are two types of written vocabulary:
1) Book vocabulary;
2) High vocabulary (poetic, solemn).
A functional-style stratification of book vocabulary is noted:
1) Official business;
2) Scientific;
3) Newspaper and journalistic.
Official business vocabulary is used in government documents of the following types:
1) Laws;
2) Regulations;
3) Charters;
4) Instructions;
5) Office and administrative papers;
6) Business letters;
7) Agreements;
8) Legal business documents;
9) International agreements;
10) Communiqué;
11) Diplomatic notes, etc. This vocabulary is characterized by:
a) isolation (there are no inclusions of other styles);
b) semantic clarity;
c) maximum unambiguity;
d) the presence of clichés, stereotypes, cliches. Main lexical groups of business style:
1) Names of business papers: application, instruction, explanatory, report, note, certificate, petition;
2) Names of documents: diploma, passport, certificate, charter;
3) Business and production-technical terminology: cargo turnover, carrying capacity, supply, recyclable materials, medical personnel, overalls, financial department;
4) Nomenclature names (names of various institutions, officials and their posts): general directorate, ministry, engineer, inspector. In modern business style, abbreviations are widely used: KB - design bureau; UKS - capital construction management, etc.
For scientific vocabulary foreign style inclusions are also not typical. In the scientific style, words with abstract semantics are used. In the lexical system of the scientific style, first of all, general scientific vocabulary can be distinguished: abstraction, argumentation, research, classification, method, methodology, object, systematization, etc.
Features of the vocabulary of the scientific style include the mandatory presence of terms. Term- this is a word or phrase used to most accurately name special concepts in the field of production, science, and art.
The set of terms of a certain field or branch of knowledge forms a terminological system (terminology) called metalanguage of this science.
Each science necessarily has its own terminology (metalanguage). An example of a developed terminological sphere (developed meta-language) is linguistics: Morpheme, sentence, prefix, phrase, suffix, inflection, etc.
Main function newspaper and journalistic style is a function of influence, because the main feature of journalism is political emphasis, citizenship, and polemical intensity.
Newspaper and journalistic vocabulary is most common in newspaper and magazine reviews, in socio-political and literary critical articles, in pamphlets, feuilletons, essays, proclamations and so on, for example: humanism, unity, neutrality, autonomy, patriotism, propaganda, event, progressive, etc.
Unlike book vocabulary, which accurately names abstract concepts, but is somewhat dry (that is, minimally emotional), vocabulary high characterized by elation, often solemnity and poetry. Words of high vocabulary belong to four parts of speech:
1) Nouns: Daring, chosen one, fatherland, accomplishment, creator;
2) Adjectives: Sovereign, daring, radiant, irreversible;
3) Adverbs: Forever, from now on;
4) Verbs: To erect, to erect, to delineate, to accomplish.
High vocabulary gives speech a solemn, upbeat or poetic sound. It is used in cases when we are talking about significant events in the life of the country and people, when the author’s feelings are high and festive.
L. Leonov justified the need to use lofty words: “Just as it is shameful to speak about Pushkin, according to Belinsky, in humble prose, the name of Tolstoy today requires a festive verbal frame.”
For example, recalling his first meeting with L.N. Tolstoy, V.A. Gilyarovsky wrote: “This meeting with the great Lev Nikolaevich is unforgettable, this is the best minute of my life.” In this passage, the word unforgettable sounds more sublime than unforgettable.
Vocabulary of fiction (poetry, prose, drama), which may include:
1) Neutral words;
2) Words of oral and written speech;
3) Non-national vocabulary.

The words of the language are heterogeneous in terms of expressive and stylistic capabilities. In the lexicon there are such units, the choice of which depends on the situation of verbal communication, on the goals and topic of the statement. In relation to the Russian language, this issue was raised by M.V. Lomonosov, who developed the “theory of three calms”: high, middle and low. The basis of the vocabulary of a language is stylistically neutral(interstyle) vocabulary(bed, sleep, big, fun, if, because). These are words that are not assigned to any particular style and can be used in any situation. Neutral vocabulary is the starting point relative to which the attribution of some words to the “high” style is determined (cf.: bed - bed, sleep - rest, big - titanic), and some - to the “low” (cf.: sleep - sleep , if - if only). “High style” includes words that are used primarily in written speech and in special situations that require the creation of an unusual, solemn atmosphere. High vocabulary includes bookish, high and official vocabulary. High vocabulary is characterized by solemnity, poetry, it is used mainly in oratorical and poetic speech (titanic, chosen one, creator, death). Book These are words that are not assigned to any type of written speech (unprecedented, view, declare, extremely). TO official vocabulary includes words used in clerical and administrative documents (certify, complicity, as a result). Words of “high style” belong to the literary language and are placed in explanatory dictionaries with the marks “high”, “bookish” or “official”. “Low style” includes vocabulary of oral speech, used in casual conversation, but not used, as a rule, in written genres (scientific, official business speech). Within the framework of the “low style” there are conversational vocabulary that does not go beyond the literary language (hard worker, train, take a nap, careless, most interjections: eh, yeah, etc.) and colloquial vocabulary that is outside the literary language; colloquial vocabulary can be rudely expressive, which determines its frequent use in the oral speech of many native speakers (dumb, talker, dreary, lousy, in trouble) and rude, including profanity (obscene). If words of this kind are included in explanatory dictionaries, then they are labeled colloquial and colloquial-reduced. The definition of vocabulary as bookish or colloquial does not mean that bookish vocabulary is not used in oral speech, and colloquial vocabulary is not used in written speech. The point is that, when used, for example, in everyday colloquial speech, the book word is all the more recognized by speakers as stylistically colored, foreign.