Figure cast in bronze 8. Monuments to historical, public, government figures

Sensational knowledge of the ancients, which is hidden from ordinary people: Second-color metal in the ancient world, Causes of Hephaestus’ lameness, Benefits of tin, Boiling of cold water and other secrets of ancient bronze casting.

For those who have just joined, this cycle shows the progressive development of metallurgy from the Neolithic to...

The Ancient World of Bronze Casting

Until people learned to use iron, non-ferrous metals and their alloys were the main material for the manufacture of weapons, tools, tools, household items and, of course, jewelry.

The main metallurgical technologies were foundries: the art of processing liquid metal made it possible to obtain unique bronze products and household items. It was during this era that things appeared that accompany a person in his daily existence, and tools that are symbols of the main technical professions. This time was called the Bronze Age.

In 2000, Japan became the first country in the world to declare itself a recycling economy. A number of laws have been passed aimed at maximizing the use of secondary resources, including scrap metal. Every Japanese first-grader knows the “3R” principle today: these are “Recycling” (use as secondary resources), “Reuse” (reuse) and “Recovery” (recovery of secondary materials). For the first time, an official definition of the above concepts was given in the Regulation on the recycling of used cars, adopted by the European Union in 1997. However, similar, and very strict, laws on the procedure for recycling scrap metal existed in all the great empires of the Ancient World: in Assyria, China, Egypt, Rome. The use of bronze casting and forging technologies made it possible to successfully implement the “3R” principle in ancient non-ferrous metallurgy.

Ancient non-ferrous metallurgy

The key technical transformations of the Bronze Age, which lasted for two millennia, are considered to be the development of irrigation agriculture and the full metallurgical cycle of metal production, including ore mining, charcoal burning, preparation of materials, smelting and refining of rough metal, casting, forging, wire drawing, and other types of metalworking and scrap metal recycling.

During this period, technologies were mastered for smelting and processing metals called the “seven metals of antiquity”: copper, gold, lead, silver, iron, mercury and tin. It is generally accepted that the decisive role in technical progress in the Bronze Age was played by the appearance of cast axes, swords and hoes - the main types of tools and weapons. The basis of civilization was the metallurgy of copper and bronze.

Axe. Village Koban, North Ossetia. End of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC.

Both oxidized and sulfur ores were widely used to produce copper. Copper deposits are usually divided into two zones. The upper part, located above the groundwater level, is an oxidation zone. It contains minerals, the basis of which is easily reduced copper oxides - malachite, azurite. The lower, main part of the deposit is formed by sulfide ores - chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and chalcocite (Cu2S). The copper content in sulfide ores is much lower than in oxidized ores. After depletion of the upper layers, man had to use poorer sulfides, and this required the development of fundamentally new (innovative) metallurgical technologies.

Ancient metallurgists found a solution to the problem. It was found that adding a sufficient amount (about 30%) of reddish or brown material to the charge leads to an increase in the volume of smelting and an increase in the quality of copper. This material was iron ore in the form of hematite or limonite, often present in exposed parts of chalcopyrite deposits. The addition of iron ore fundamentally changed the copper smelting process. One of the products of the reduction reactions was iron monoxide. At a temperature of about 1200°C, it reacted with the SiO2 of the gangue to form fayalite (Fe2SiO4), which became the main constituent of the liquid slag. Thus, iron ore played the role of flux. This technology had a decisive influence on the further development of metallurgy. The slag formed during the smelting of copper is almost identical to the slag that was later obtained during the smelting of iron in cheese furnaces.

When using sulfur ores, a number of preparatory operations were required. Oxidation of crushed ore in air for a long time was widely practiced. Due to the influence of humid air and precipitation, the ore was enriched with oxygen and lost some of the sulfur. An important role was played by the preliminary roasting of sulfur ore, during which the sulfur burned out and the ore loosened. It was carried out in heaps, in specially arranged pits, as well as in special structures - stalls. The dimensions of the stalls were significant: their stone walls reached 12.5 m in length and 1.5 m in width.

An increase in the smelting temperature level depended, first of all, on the improvement of blowing technology and technology. The decisive role was played by the use of natural blowing - wind power. Stoves built into the natural landscape were effective. They were often built on the leeward side of a hill, had connecting horizontal and vertical channels, and were lined with stones and coated with clay. In this case, a “pipe effect” was achieved, increasing the air flow into the unit. In the bottom of some furnaces there were metal receptacles - recesses for installing pots into which metal flowed through special holes.

Significant progress followed the invention of the simplest hand and then foot bellows. They were made from animal skins and were a primitive type of pump with reservoirs adapted to fill them with air. Hand and foot bellows were widely used already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Metallurgical furnaces with artificial blast were, as a rule, rectangular or cylindrical, with thick walls up to 1 m high, made of stone and coated with clay on the inside, entirely made of adobe or lined with brick.

The copper ingots smelted from ore contained a significant amount of slag inclusions. They were separated by hammer blows. Refining of blister copper was carried out in crucibles and small furnaces. At the same time, air was supplied to the molten blister copper by blowing tubes, the bulk of the impurities remaining in it, except for noble metals (gold and silver), oxidized and formed slag.

Bronze casting art

The Bronze Age represents an era of rapid development of metalworking. The technology for manufacturing metal products at this time, as a rule, included the combined use of techniques from both foundry and forging technologies, followed by polishing and engraving of products.

At first, casting was used in open clay or sand molds. They were replaced by open forms carved from stone, and forms in which the recess for the object being cast was located in one door, and the other, flat, played the role of a lid. The next step was the invention of split molds and closed molds for figure casting. In the latter case, an exact model of the future product was first made from wax, then it was coated with clay and fired in a kiln. The wax was melted and the clay took an exact cast of the model and was used as a casting mold. This method is called wax casting. Craftsmen were able to cast hollow objects of very complex shapes. To form a cavity, it was practiced to insert special clay cores into molds - casting rods. Somewhat later, technologies were invented for casting in stack molds, in a chill mold, in various molds with a casting rod attached to a frame, investment casting and reinforced casting.

Ancient foundry molds were made from stone, metal and clay. Clay casting molds were typically made by imprinting specially made models from wood and other materials into clay. Cast metal products themselves could be used as models. It should be noted that molds carved from stone or cast metal, due to their greater value, were not always used for casting products, but could be used to make low-melting models in them. For example, in some areas of England, lead models were cast in bronze molds.

Development of foundry technologies

Metal molds were mainly made from copper, since it has a much higher melting point than the bronze for which they were intended to be cast. The use of chill molds made it possible to obtain castings of complex profiles, with small details, the exact negative of which was difficult to cut out in a stone mold. The transition to a metal mold, stronger than clay and easier to manufacture than stone, made it possible to combine the advantages of double-leaf molds, adapted for repeated use, and wax castings. For example, at the time in question, casting bits from two or four loosely connected links was widely used, to obtain which a separate sprue (channel for supplying metal) and a folding mold of at least four parts were required for each link.

Additional forging of cast products without changing the shape has become a constant practice in order to increase the hardness, density and elasticity (ductility) of the material. The main types of products subjected to such processing were tools and some types of weapons - swords and daggers. Forging was used in the process of making pins, which were also engraved or minted. The same processing techniques were applied to jewelry.

A. Open mold casting
b. Split mold casting with core

The era of metals began when the technology for making cast axes and swords was mastered everywhere. The need to combine a stone ax and a wooden club in one tool arose among humans already in the Stone Age. The first bronze axes, made by casting, repeated the shape of stone ones, however, new requirements for tools and the unusual properties of bronze in comparison with stone contributed to the rapid improvement of cast products. Axes of complex shapes appeared, with edges, lopsided ones, and celts. Their production required a highly developed foundry craft: the complex configuration of the casting and the presence of a hole significantly complicated the construction of split stone molds. The appearance of improved cast bronze axes played an exceptional role in the development of many peoples: it facilitated the construction of dwellings and the production of other tools and household items, simplified the development of wooded areas by farmers, etc. Cast swords and daggers became works of art earlier than other bronze products. Ancient swords found in archaeological excavations often feature not only intricate hilts with cast designs, but also rich inlays of silver, gold and precious stones.

As noted above, the Early Bronze Age was the era of the undivided dominance of arsenic bronze. Tin replaced arsenic only in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Note that the technology for processing tin bronze is noticeably more complicated, since it often requires hot forging (albeit at low temperatures). Tin minerals are quite rare on the earth's surface. Why did tin bronze almost everywhere replace arsenic bronze in the Late Bronze Age? The main reason was the following. In ancient times, people treated metal objects with extreme care due to their high cost. Damaged items were sent for repair or melting down. A distinctive feature of arsenic is its sublimation at a temperature of about 600 °C. It was at this temperature that the repaired bronze items were annealed. With the loss of arsenic, the mechanical properties of the metal deteriorated and products made from bronze scrap were of poor quality. Ancient metallurgists could not explain this phenomenon. However, it is reliably known that up to the 1st millennium BC. e. products made from copper and bronze scrap were cheaper than products from ore metal.

There was one more circumstance that contributed to the displacement of arsenic from metallurgical production. Arsenic vapors are poisonous: their constant exposure to the body leads to brittle bones, diseases of the joints and respiratory tract. Lameness, stoop, and joint deformities were occupational diseases of craftsmen who worked with arsenic bronze. This circumstance is reflected in the myths and traditions of many peoples: in ancient epics, metallurgists are often depicted as lame, hunchbacked, sometimes dwarfs, with a bad character, shaggy hair and a repulsive appearance. Even among the ancient Greeks, the metallurgist god Hephaestus was lame.

Tin bronze

Tin, necessary for the production of tin bronze, was the last of the seven great metals of antiquity to become known to man. It is not present in nature in native form, and cassiterite, its only mineral of practical importance, is difficult to restore and rare.

However, this mineral was known to man already in ancient times, since cassiterite is a companion (albeit rare) of gold in its placer deposits. Due to the high specific gravity, gold and cassiterite remained on the washing trays of ancient miners as a result of washing the gold-bearing rock. And although the facts of the use of cassiterite by ancient artisans are not known, the mineral itself was familiar to man already in Neolithic times.

Apparently, for the first time, tin bronze was produced from polymetallic ore mined from deep areas of copper deposits, which, along with copper sulfides, also included cassiterite. Ancient metallurgists, who already had knowledge of the positive effect of realgar and orpiment on the properties of metal, quickly turned their attention to a new component of the charge - “tin stone”. Therefore, the appearance of tin bronze most likely occurred in several industrial regions of the Ancient World.

Production and recycling of tin bronzes in the 2nd millennium BC. e.

In the tomb of a high-ranking Egyptian official of the 18th dynasty (circa 1450 BC), an image of the technological process for obtaining bronze castings was found. Three workers, under the supervision of a supervisor, bring metal. Two workers with bellows fan the fire in the forge. Nearby are melting crucibles and a pile of charcoal. The center shows the casting operation. The hieroglyphic text explains that these paintings illustrate the casting of large bronze doors for the temple, and that the metal was brought from Syria by order of the pharaoh.

Bronze casting in ancient Egypt around 1450 BC. e.

The oldest tin objects are considered to be bracelets found on the island of Lesvos. They date back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. Tin was one of the most scarce and expensive metals of the Ancient World. Even in the 1st millennium BC. e. metal tin had extremely limited distribution. It was used mainly for the manufacture of small cosmetic utensils and some parts of protective weapons that required high plasticity (for example, cnimids were made from tin - armor that protected the shins of the legs, which were held on them without cords or fasteners, but only due to elasticity and elasticity) . Almost all the tin mined at that time was spent on the production of bronze.

The main deposits of tin in the era of the Ancient World were in Spain, Indochina, and the British Isles, which the Greeks called “tin” - cassiterides. In addition, tin ore was mined on the Apennine Peninsula (by the Etruscans), in Greece (in the Chrysaean Valley near the city of Delphi), and in Syria. According to most historians, bronze owes its name to the large Roman port of Brundisium, through which the empire traded with eastern countries. However, there is another version mentioned by the Roman historian Pliny, who believed that the name of the alloy came from the Persian word meaning “the shine of the sword.”

The advantages of tin bronze over copper, arsenic bronze and brass were high hardness, corrosion resistance and excellent polishability. The ability of tin to increase the hardness of bronze gives rise to its modern international name - “stannum”. Let us note that the root “st”, which sounds in the word “stan” and in many words derived from it in modern languages, is one of the oldest common Indo-European roots and denotes a sign of strength or stability.

Mirror, razor and nail scissors

It became possible to produce many household items and weapons only after mastering the technology of production and processing of tin bronze. This applies, for example, to the making of long swords, razor knives and especially polished mirrors. We can say that the appearance of tin bronze marked a revolution in ancient magic.
A special attitude towards the mirror is characteristic of the entire territory of ancient Eurasia. With the help of a mirror, ancient people could enter into magical relationships with the other world: many peoples had the idea of ​​​​the reflection of a face in a mirror as an expression of the spiritual essence of a person. In this regard, one cannot help but recall the belief that has survived to this day, according to which a broken mirror means misfortune.

The mirror became most widespread as the main ritual object of the cult of the female solar deity. In antiquity, mirror handles were usually made in the form of a female figure holding a mirror above her. The mirror was the main attribute of the Sun goddesses in Iran, Egypt, India, China and Japan. The special attitude towards the mirror was reflected in the choice of metal for its manufacture. The list of requirements for a mirror alloy in ancient times included color and shine that imitated the sun, high reflectivity and a non-tarnishing surface.

On mirrors, like no other type of bronze product, one can trace the stages of mastering by ancient masters the technology of thermal and mechanical processing of copper-tin alloys. For example, ancient Greek, Egyptian and Scythian mirrors, containing up to 12% wt. tin, were subjected only to cold forging. This did not make it possible to achieve high parameters of hardness and polishability. The Etruscans made mirrors from an alloy with 14-15% wt. tin. Before cold forging, such an alloy had to be “homogenized.” Etruscan metallurgists homogenized the alloy for 4-5 hours at a temperature of about 650 °C. Therefore, Etruscan mirrors had excellent polishability and high corrosion resistance. Even more tin (up to 23%) is contained in golden-yellow Sarmatian mirrors made in the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. Products from such an alloy could only be obtained by hot forging bronze at a “red heat” temperature (600-700 ° C) and subsequent hardening in water. Similar technology was also used in India, China and Thailand.

On the threshold of a new era, a ternary alloy of copper, tin and lead became almost ubiquitous. Such bronzes, containing up to 30% tin and up to 7% lead, are the hardest and most difficult to process. However, they produce metal with high reflectivity, as well as excellent castability and polishability. Products made from such an alloy became widespread in China, Central Asia and the Roman Empire, although Pliny notes that they were extremely expensive and were available only to very wealthy people.

Lump molding

Unique bronze casting technologies were created by metallurgists of Ancient China. It is known that already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. China had an original foundry technology. At a time when metallurgists in the West and Middle East produced vessels by forging, sand casting or lost-wax casting, the Chinese mastered the much more labor-intensive, but also significantly more progressive method of “piece molding”.

The technology was as follows. First, a model was made from clay, on which the required relief was cut out. The reverse image was then obtained by pressing slabs of clay, piece by piece, onto the previously made model. Fine finishing of the relief was performed on each piece of the mold. After this, the pieces of clay were fired, which in itself required virtuoso skill, since the design should not be disturbed.

The initial clay model was cleaned to the thickness of the walls of the future casting, obtaining a rod for forming its internal cavity. The pieces of the mold were assembled around the rod, thus creating a solid shape. At the same time, the seams and joints between the pieces of the mold were deliberately not sealed tightly so that metal could flow into them. This was done so that the metal frozen in the seams took on the appearance of an elegant edge, giving the product a special decorative touch. The tradition of using vertical casting seams to decorate products has become a hallmark of Chinese metallurgical art.

Chinese bronze vases

Another example of original Chinese foundry technology is the production of bronze basins with “boiling” water. On the bottom of such basins, craftsmen placed cast drawings of a certain type and direction. They changed the acoustic properties of an object filled with water in such a way that as soon as its handles were rubbed, fountains began to rise from the surface of the water, as if the water, while remaining cold, had actually boiled. Modern research has made it possible to establish the reason for this extraordinary effect: friction produces sound waves that resonate and cause rapid vibrations in the cast protrusions at the bottom of the basin, as a result of which trickles of water are pushed upward.

Perhaps no Bronze Age culture lives up to its name better than that of ancient China during the Shang Yin dynasty (late 2nd millennium BC). At that time, in the cities there were entire quarters of artisans engaged in metal processing, making weapons and special ritual items made of bronze. Apart from a few marble sculptures from this era, all surviving works of art are made of bronze.

Antique statue casting

In the ancient world and the Roman Empire, the fashion for bronze statues, which were dedicated to gods, kings, prominent figures, and winners of games, became widespread. Statues were often melted down, especially for political reasons.

On a ceramic bowl dating back to the 5th century. BC BC, the Greek artist depicted the various stages of making life-size bronze statues of a man. A special furnace allows you to obtain bronze and maintain it in a liquid state. A young man standing behind the stove blows the bellows to increase the temperature in the stove. Painted plates and masks hang on the horns - these are offerings of thanks, providing protection against failure at work, or demonstrations of the types of products made in the workshop. In the next scene, the master attaches his right hand to a bronze statue located on a clay bed. The separately cast head still lies on the floor. Models of hands and feet hang on the wall. A little further on, two workers are polishing a large statue of a helmeted warrior standing on a platform. Two people supervise the work. It is believed that one of them is a sculptor - the author of the statue, and the other is a bronze caster who embodied the sculptor's plan in metal.

Making a bronze statue (drawing on a ceramic vase)

Usually, after casting the parts and assembling the statue, the unevenness of the top layer was eliminated, the surface was polished, and the details were finished with a chisel and a chisel: beard, hair, folds of clothing. The lips were made of red copper, the teeth were made of silver, the eyes were inlaid with glass or stone, and colored strokes were applied.

Making a bronze statue

The ancients did not like the patina that covers antique bronzes today. At the time of creation, the sculptures did not have the current (green, brown or black) shades: the tone of the figures was warm and golden, like a bronze tan. Against the backdrop of an abundance of various statues dedicated to, albeit great, but mortal people, sculptures of powerful gods stood out in size and decoration. The largest metal statue known in antiquity, the Colossus of Rhodes, was one of the seven wonders of the world.

Literature

1. Governors of the Orenburg region. - Orenburg: Orenburg Book Publishing House, 1999. - 400 p.
2. Dorofeev, V.V. Vasily Perovsky and the Orenburg region: to the 250th anniversary of his birth / V.V. Dorofeev. - Orenburg: IPK "South Ural", 1995. - 48 p.
3. Savelzon, V. L. Orenburg history in faces. 50 portraits against the background of the era / V. L. Savelzon. - Orenburg: IPK "South Ural", 2000. - 320 p.
4. Galieva, A. Accept gifts, Orenburg / A. Galieva // Evening Orenburg. - 2005. - September 8 (N 36). - P. 4-5.
5. Ovchinnikova, N. And give everyone what they deserve / N. Ovchinnikova // Southern Urals. - 2005. - August 10 (N 155-156). - P. 1-3.

Honorary citizen of Stavropol, ex-governor of the region Valery Zerenkov received a place on the Alley of Honored Workers of the city. On the monument to this figure, Zerenkov’s lists of merits are engraved in granite, and his image is cast in bronze.

The ex-governor of the Stavropol Territory Valery Zerenkov was cast in bronze and placed in the center of Stavropol. A bas-relief bust of Zerenkov with a list of his services to the city appeared on the Alley of Honorary Citizens of the regional capital. According to the socio-political newspaper “Otkrytaya. For each and everyone”, the grand opening of the bas-relief will take place on City Day, September 21.

Under the bust of the ex-governor his merits and achievements are listed. “The activist made a significant contribution to the socio-economic development of the city. He worked as the head of a number of industrial enterprises, chairman of the Oktyabrsky district executive committee, head of the administration of the Oktyabrsky district, chairman of the regional Duma, governor of the Stavropol Territory, deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation,” information about Zerenkov is carved in granite.

Zerenkov was awarded the title of honorary citizen of Stavropol on September 18, 2013, and nine days later he resigned as head of the region. Zerenkov’s resignation, which was presented as voluntary, was preceded by numerous rumors about it, which he, together with the presidential envoy to the North Caucasus Federal District, Alexander Khloponin, strenuously denied. However, in the end, the head of the region left his post just a year and a half after his appointment. His place, according to the decree of Vladimir Putin, was taken by the Deputy Governor of the Yamalo-Nenets District Vladimir Vladimirov.

Stavropol region

Stavropol region

Stavropol region

Stavropol region

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The term "art bronze" includes a huge variety of techniques and a variety of sculptural, applied and decorative products. These are small sculptures, various office items (writing instruments, paperweights, frames for miniatures and photographs), decorative vases, mantel clocks, etc.

Bronze casting reached its brightest peak in the 18th and 19th centuries. This type of art combines the imagination of the artist and sculptor, the skill of the model maker, the experience of the foundry, the virtuosity of the chaser, the painstakingness of the gilder, the perfection of technical thought and technology of his time. Since the 18th century, France has become the leader in the production of bronze products of unique beauty in Europe. Germany, Italy, Austria (Vienna bronze), Russia, etc. did not lag behind.

"Lucretia" - around 1851. Bronze sculpture from the Thiebaut Frere foundry. (The company was created in 1851 by Victor Thiébaut. A little later, Victor Thiébaut entered into a partnership with famous sculptors: David d'Angers, Carpeaux, Falguière, the Carrier-Belleuse company, Paul Dubois and Pradier. In 1898, Rodin himself signed a contract with this production - two of his works were cast here: St. John the Baptist and Triumph of Youth.) The height of the figurine is 12 inches.

Today, rarities in the form of bronze busts, figurines and items of stationery are from time to time put up for auction. As a rule, things date back to the end of the year before - the beginning of the last century; This is the period of the last heyday of artistic bronze.

Figurine of Grégoire Jean Louis(France, 1840-1890). Bronze on red marble. Height - 21 and a quarter inches.

"Sabrina" - Holmie Cardwell(England, 1815-1887). The bronze figurine was created in 1865. Holme Cardwell was born in Manchester in 1834, moved to Paris in 1841 and studied with David d'Angers (1788-1856). The marble original of the statuette was first exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1855 under the title "Sabrina" with an accompanying poem John Milton.

"Antiope" - Leon(France, 1840-1916). Bronze, date of creation - about 1900. Height 16 inches

"Toilet of Venus" - Karoly Shekeli(Hungary, 1882-1942). The figurine was created in 1931, bronze on pink marble. Height 15.5 inches.

Figurine "Athena". Around 1910. Vienna bronze. Height 14.5 inches

"Bather"(Germany/Austria, circa 1910). Bronze. Height - 23 cm

"Dance of the Nude with Cornucopia" - E. Saalmann(Germany, 1890 -1930). Bronze, date of creation - about 1900. Height 15.5 inches.

"Koy" - Philipp Johann Ferdinand (Fritz) Preuss(Germany, 1882 -1943). Bronze with gilding bronze. Date of creation - 1930. Height 9 cm.

"Forest Nymph" - Marcel Bouraine(France, 1886-1948). Bronze with green patina, chiton with silver foliage and brown enamel. Height 21.5 inches.

"Diana Queen of the Amazons" - Karl Neuhaus(Germany, 1881-). Bronze with gilding, date of creation - 1919. Height 15.14 inches.

Woman posing as a model - Jules Levasseur(France, 1831-1888). Bronze with gilding. Height 8 and 3/4 inches

"Nude" - L. Eisenberger(Germany, 1890-1930). Bronze with cold painting. Height 17 inches.

"Lullaby" (Psyche playing the violin) - Sylvain Kinsburger(France, 1855-1935). Bronze - circa 1891. Height 22 inches

"Andromeda" (unsigned). Vienna bronze polychromed. Date of creation - around 1910. Height 14 inches.