Lossky character of the Russian people abstracting the work. Russian national character (in the works of Russian philosophers) The character of the Russian people Lossky summary

Gaston-Armand Amodruz The Russian People and the Defense of the White Race Although it is somewhat risky to start with subjective impressions, I cannot help but recall the wonderful chorus of peasants from Glinka’s opera “Ivan Susanin”. Music comes from the soul and moves the soul. Literature is natural

V. L. Makhnach p. N. Marochkin Russian city and Russian home Where should the Russian people live? Man of the modern biological species is about 40 thousand years old. For more than seven thousand years, people have lived in the city. Famous Jericho, the oldest urban settlements in Cyprus and the southern part

54. “Your people are my people” Giyur Your people are my people, your God is my God. Ruth 1:16 When Ruth, a Moabite, decides to convert to Judaism after the death of her Jewish husband, she speaks these words to her mother-in-law Naomi. Since then, these words have defined the essence of Judaism. "Your people are my people"

N. Lossky. The immanent philosophy of W. Schuppe The epistemological research of W. Schuppe is presented mainly in his extensive “Erkenntnisstheoretische Logik” (1878) and in the short “Grundriss der Erkenntnisstheorie und Logik” (1894, 2nd ed. 1911)1. In approaching the study of truth, Schuppe distinguishes epistemology and logic

1. The versatility of gifts.

The Russian people amaze us with the versatility of their abilities. He is characterized by high religious talent, the ability for higher forms of experience, observation, theoretical and practical intelligence, creative ingenuity, inventiveness, a subtle perception of beauty and associated artistry, expressed in both noce everyday life and in the creation of great works of art.

The main property of the Russian people, the search for absolute good, is the source of diversity of experience and versatility in the exercise of various abilities. From here naturally arises a rich development of the spirit and an abundance of talents. The religious talent of the Russian people and the ability for higher forms of experience are discussed in detail in the first and second chapters. Here we will deal with the question of the mind of the people and art.

Russia became familiar with Western European culture only under Peter the Great and amazingly quickly assimilated it to such an extent that it began to manifest itself creatively in this area. Already in the 18th century, such a versatile genius appeared as Lomonosov, the son of a peasant fisherman, born in the harshest living conditions near the White Sea. The nineteenth century was very rich in outstanding scientists in all fields of knowledge. I will indicate only a few names of people known throughout the world: such are mathematicians Lobachevsky, M.V. Ostrogradsky, P.L. Chebyshev, physicist P.N. Lebedev, who discovered the pressure of light, P.L. Kapitsa, chemists Mendeleev, Ipatiev, crystallographer and mineralogist Evgraf Stepanovich Fedorov, V. I. Vernadsky (biosphere and its laws), Dokuchaev, founder of the science of soil science, physiologist I. P. Pavlov,

S. N. Vinogradsky, *) statesman B. N. Chicherin, historians Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, Klyuchevsky, Platonov, researcher of Roman and Hellenistic history and archaeologist M. I. Rostovtsev, philosopher Vladimir S. Solovyov. Convincing proof of the high level of Russian science in all fields can be the merits of the articles in the Russian “Encyclopedic Dictionary” of Brockhaus and Efron. After the Bolshevik revolution, in all schools of all countries, children of Russian emigrants are among the first students in terms of ability and success.

The practical mind of the Russian people was manifested in the rapid and very successful development of industry and engineering in the second half of the 19th century. The Soviet government, having begun to instill exaggerated nationalism in our time, is trying with comic zeal to prove that all inventions were made in Russia. However, we must not forget that some important inventions were actually made by Russians; Let us remember, for example, the electrical engineer Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov (1847-1894), A. S. Popov, the inventor of the wireless telegraph, or in our time Zvorykin (electron microscope, participation in the development of television). The ingenuity of the Russian peasant and worker has long been noticed even by foreigners. The practical mind of the Russian people is well expressed in the proverbs and sayings that V. Dal collected in his book “Proverbs of the Russian People.”

The love for beauty and a refined perception of it is reflected among the Russian people in the way even completely uneducated people are able to see the beauty of nature. Shchedrin talks about his conversation with a retired soldier, a seventy-year-old man who was going to Mount Athos and, by the way, started talking about miracles. “There is no sign in the world that, by God’s will, could not happen! It’s just difficult to assure, because for this you need to have great simplicity in your heart - then every thing will appear to you on its own. Some people are smart and overflowing, but they walk, roughly across a field, Anddoesn't notice anything. Because in his eyes the width, and the valley, and the heights, and the grass, and the past - everything is everyday life. . . And another person, with an innocuous mind, an ingenuous heart, acting beyond the width, and the valley, and the heights, here hears the voices of the Archangels, and sees disembodied beauties.” “The bird of God sings a song to you, soft breezes cool your head, leaves rustle with quiet sounds in your ears. . . and you become so happy and carefree that you can even cry!” **)

*) V. A. Ryazanovsky. Development of Russian scientific thought in the 18th-20th centuries (natural sciences). 1949.

**) Shchedrin. Provincial essays. III. pilgrims, pilgrims and travelers.

The book “Frank Stories of a Wanderer to His Spiritual Father,” the content of which is the spiritual experience of a peasant wanderer, reports exactly the same perception of nature. Shmelev in the story “Bogomolye” also talks about such a vision of beauty. One might think that Dostoevsky, depicting with amazing power the visions of ordinary people of the glory of God in nature, not only expressed his own experiences, but also observed them among Russian peasants. In “The Teenager,” the wanderer Makar Ivanovich speaks about nature in this way, and in “The Brothers Karamazov,” the elder Zosima talks about a similar vision of nature, in which a young peasant took part with him.

There will be a time when science will free itself from pseudoscientific ideas about “scientificness” and begin to study the purposefulness of all processes in nature, and, consequently, the realization of values ​​in it. Then humanity will learn to see what we hear during every liturgy in the church: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts! Fill heaven and earth with Your glory!” (Isaiah 6, 3).

G. P. Fedotov in his book “Spiritual Poems” speaks of the Sophia religiosity of the Russian people. In spiritual verses the angelic beauty of the earth is praised, not its passionate, but its maternal beauty (pp. 76-79); He characterizes the entire cosmology in them as Sophian (140). In connection with sophiology, the Earth is understood as a living being, as Mother Earth. In the book "Russian Religions Mind"he points out that Orthodoxy already in Byzantium had a cosmological, sophiological character. On the Greek icons of Pentecost, under the Apostles, the “King-Cosmos” is depicted, also receiving the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Russian Orthodoxy gave this cosmology great warmth and strength (369). In Russian chronicles, says Fedotov, the moral characteristics of the princes are given, but at the same time their physical beauty is never lost sight of (267).

The love for beauty and artistry of the Russian people was also noticed by foreigners; For example, Legra speaks about her in the book"L'A me russe" (p. 247).

Language is a means for expressing thoughts and creations of the imagination. The virtues of the Russian language can be used as strong evidence of the talent of the Russian people. Literary language was developed by word artists, but it is based on the creativity of the entire people. To agree with this, it is enough to read Krylov’s fables and appreciate in them the accuracy, accuracy, expressiveness and richness of shades of the Russian folk language. It is remarkable that the speech of ordinary Russian people is close to the literary language. No wonder Pushkin said: “It’s not bad for us sometimes to listen to Moscow’s

malt, they say amazingly pure Andin the right language." Already Lomonosov highly valued the Russian language and praised it, perhaps, beyond measure, and in the 19th century, thanks to great writers, he truly achieved a high degree of perfection. Let's remember Turgenev's prose poem. “In days of doubt, in days of painful thoughts about the fate of my homeland - you alone are my support and support, oh great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! “If it weren’t for you, how could I not fall into despair at the sight of everything that’s happening at home?” “But one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people!”

In the most important manifestation of spiritual life, in worship and religious worship in general, the Russian people have developed a high degree of beauty. In the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg, on the anniversary of Tchaikovsky’s death, his liturgy was always performed. The beauty of this service was amazing - the vestments of the clergy, the beauty of the appearance and voices of the deacons, the singing of the choir, all the details were unusually good and harmoniously correlated with each other. Potapenko's story "Octave" shows how even in small provincial towns, worship was a school of aesthetic education.

The love of beauty and the gift of creative imagination are among the factors contributing to the high development of art in Russia. Let's start with Russian literature.

2. Fiction

Speaking here about fiction, let us focus not on beauty, but on the aspects of literature that serve as proof of the basic properties of the Russian people, discussed in previous chapters.

The sublime character of Russian literature is well known. The search for absolute good, the meaning of life, the denunciation of evil, deep penetration into the recesses of human spiritual life, the educational nature of Russian literature - all these high properties of it are undoubted. I will mention here only a few well-known names, which are enough to recognize the greatness of Russian literature.

The favorite of the Russian people, Pushkin, six months before his death, in the poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands,” described his poetry as follows:

And for a long time I will be so kind to the people.

That I awakened good feelings with my lyre,

That in my cruel age I glorified Freedom

And he called for mercy for the fallen.

Pushkin correctly defined the essence of his poetry, as Lev Lvovich Kobilinsky (1874-1947), a philosopher who emigrated from Russia in 1911 as a result of an insult inflicted on him, thoroughly clarified. *)

Wanting to introduce Western Europe to the high spirit of Russian literature, Kobilinsky published a book in German about Zhukovsky and wrote an extensive study about Pushkin, which he did not have time to print. In his work on Pushkin, Kobilinsky, by analyzing such works as “Mozart and Salieri”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Miserly Knight”, etc., convincingly proves that Pushkin was a realist, but he portrayed reality in the light of God’s truth.

In the field of poetry, Pushkin is one of the creators similar to Raphael. There are no flashy colors or sharp forms in his works. Even in depicting the deepest stages of evil or exceptional characters and situations, or everyday reality, he is able to achieve such versatility and harmony, such a synthesis, due to which sharp corners do not appear and the creation of his fantasy turns out to be as meaningful and full of meaning, difficult for us to comprehend, as and world reality itself, guided by Providence. To agree with this, it is enough to recall such works of Pushkin as “Boris Godunov”, “Feast during the Plague”, “The Bronze Horseman”, “Mozart and Salieri” or the poems “Memories”, “Renaissance”, “For the Shores of the Distant Fatherland” , “On the Hills of Georgia.” However, we will not list the pearls of his work: to rename them all, we would have to give too long a list. Anyone who knows these works, who has penetrated sufficiently into their content and form, will not doubt that Pushkin belongs to the ranks of first-class geniuses, in the ranks that include Aeschylus, Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller, Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy.

Dostoevsky, in his speech delivered during the celebrations associated with the opening of the monument to Pushkin in Moscow, said that “Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon. . . and prophetic." He showed the ability of “worldwide responsiveness”, “had the ability to completely transform into someone else’s nationality.” He “shares this “most important ability of our nationality” with our people” and therefore he is our “people's poet.” “The strength of the spirit of the Russian people” is “its striving, in its ultimate goals, for universality and all-humanity.”

*) About his personality and fate, see the memoirs of Andrei Bely “At the Pass”, “Between Two Revolutions”. See also my about him "History of Russian Philosophy", Ch. XXVI.

eternity." Pushkin is a prophetic phenomenon because his poetry expressed “the people of our future.” *)

Lermontov, with his mysterious character, was able to write the blasphemous poem “Gratitude,” addressed to God with ironic expressions of gratitude and ending with the request:

Arrange only so that from now on you

It didn't take me long to thank him.

His wish was fulfilled: six months later, during a duel, a bullet hit him straight in the heart. And this same Lermontov had a high capacity for religious experience. He sometimes perceived nature as it is seen by wanderers with a pure heart, contemplating the glory of God in it. To agree with this, you need to read the poem “When the yellowing field is agitated” and then its end will become clear:

Then the anxiety of my soul is humbled,

Then the wrinkles on the forehead disperse,

And I can comprehend happiness on earth,

And in the heavens I see God.

The same contemplation of nature is expressed in the poem

I go out alone on the road;

Through the fog the flinty path shines;

The night is quiet, the desert listens to God,

And star speaks to star.

On the same basis, the prayer “In a difficult moment of life” arose. . .

Lermontov’s deep religiosity was expressed in his prayer:

“I, Mother of God, am now in prayer.” . . to “Warm intercessor of the cold world.”

It is possible that the mystery of Lermontov’s rebellious soul would be resolved if we understand his fate as he describes in the poem “An Angel Flew Across the Midnight Sky” the life of a soul brought to earth by an angel:

*) See also the valuable article by S. Frank “Pushkin on the relationship between Russia and Europe”, Vozrozhdenie, 1949, notebook 1.

And for a long time she languished in the world,

Full of wonderful desires,

And the sounds of heaven could not be replaced

She finds the songs of the earth boring. *)

Lermontov’s love for Russian nature and for the Russian people is remarkable, expressed, for example, in the poem “I love my fatherland, but with a strange love.” **)

The poem “Three Palms” can only be understood on the basis of a philosophy that recognizes the permeation of the entire world order with moral meaning.” ***)

About Gogol, Merezhkovsky said, referring to his own words, that he set out to fight the devil, depicting him in a comic form, as well as people who, under his influence, had reached extreme degrees of devastation of the soul or its ugliness.

Turgenev, with his “Notes of a Hunter,” promoted the sympathy of Russian society for the liberation of peasants from serfdom. Sensitive to beauty, he excellently depicted the beauty of Russian nature, Russian song and language, the beauty and fortitude of the Russian woman. Following new phenomena in our social life (nihilism, going to the people), he, as a gentle and kind man, outlined their shadow sides, without losing sight of their connection with the desire for good.

Dostoevsky revealed the satanic depths of evil in man and showed that salvation from evil is possible only with the gracious assistance of the Lord God. ****)

Leo Tolstoy in his novel “War and Peace” depicted not just the life of individual Russian people, but the soul of all of Russia as a whole. With all his creativity, he contributes to freeing a person from caring about his little self and nurturing in him all-encompassing love.

Vsevolod Mikhailovich Garshin was close to the ideal of all-encompassing love. Sensitive to evil, at the beginning of his work he focused attention on the imperfections of social life, and in the end

*) About how intensely Lermontov’s thought was directed towards heaven and hell, see N. Brodsky’s book “M. Yu. Lermontov", 1945.

**) About the love of Russian poets for the modest Russian nature and the Russian people, see my book “The World as the Realization of Beauty.”

***) Ohm. my book “Conditions of Absolute Good” is about this(„Des conditionsde la moral absolute "),chapter “Harborgs of Morality in Prehuman Nature”de." (“Forerunners of morality in prehuman nature”).

****) See mine book “Dostoevsky and his Christian worldview.”

in works such as"Attalea princeps" and “The Red Flower”, came to the consciousness of the all-encompassing evil in our kingdom of existence, without seeing how to get out of it.

Only a Christian who believes in Christ and his preaching of the Kingdom of God as absolute good, truly realized in the highest realm of transformed existence, knows that there is a way out of the world’s evil. They say that Garshin once exclaimed, referring to religion: “Why did they erase all this from me!” *)

In the works of Leskov**), Chekhov, Korolenko, we find all the listed high virtues of Russian literature - the search for absolute goodness, the meaning of life, love of humanity, denunciation of vulgarity, defense of personal dignity, the fight against social untruths and all kinds of injustices. And in modern emigrant writing the high character of Russian literature is preserved: let us remember the names of Bunin, Shmelev, Zaitsev.

Valuable characteristics of the work of Russian writers, expressed in excellent language, can be found in the three volumes of Y. Aikhenvald’s book “Silhouettes of Russian Writers.” The Jew Aikhenwald is one of those representatives of the highly talented Jewish people who deeply penetrated the spirit of Russian culture, fell in love with it and made a valuable contribution to it with their creativity.

As for Russian poetic poetry, its deep meaning and high beauty are undeniable. Suffice it to recall the following names: Pushkin, Lermontov, Tyutchev, Fet, Blok.

The extraordinary talent of the Russian people is reflected, among other things, in the fact that three undoubted geniuses appeared in Russian literature within one century: Pushkin, Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy.

It should be especially noted that the exposure of evil is often expressed among the Russian people in the form of satire. Ostrovsky speaks of the “satirical cast of the Russian mind” and points to “lively, lively” folk words to characterize all phenomena. ***) Known as nickname marks given to people by the Russian people.

*) G. A. Byaly. V. M. Garshin and the literary struggle of the eighties, Moscow 1937, p. 181. This book, in its analysis of Garshin’s work, is full of boring And superficial Marxist cliches, for example, in discussions about the petty-bourgeois nature of populism, but it also did very valuable work, namely, it provided information about many facts of the literary struggle of the last quarter of the 19th century. It, for example, reports extremely different assessments of the Russian-Turkish war for the liberation of the Slavs and even more complex facts of the struggle of public sentiments that are connected with Garshin’s work.

**) There is an excellent monograph about Leskov by L. Grosmann.

***) A. Revyakhin. A. N. Ostrovsky, p. 91.

Before the revolution, Zavadsky was the prosecutor of the Trial Chamber in Petrograd; under the Provisional Government he became a senator. Sergei Vladislavich was a man of exceptional nobility; in complex social issues and conflicts, his decisions could serve as a guarantee of moral correctness of behavior. In his entire figure, manner of speech and deportment there was an imprint of the refined noble Turgenev culture. In addition to issues of jurisprudence, Zavadsky was fond of studying the Russian language. In this area he had many original observations and considerations. He founded a society in Prague for studying the Russian language. His knowledge of Russian and foreign literature was amazing. Sergei Vladislavich especially loved ancient Greek literature and the Greek language. Not being satisfied in some respects with the existing translations of Greek tragedians, he was the first to translate all the tragedies of Aeschylus and some of the works of Sophocles. He provided each of his translations with a valuable introduction and commentary. In 1937, Piotrovsky's translation of all the tragedies of Aeschylus appeared in Soviet Russia. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that even now the publication of Zavadsky’s translation would also be of great value.

At the Faculty of Law of the Russian University in Prague, Zavadsky was a professor of civil law. His theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of jurisprudence was remarkable. Zavadsky especially loved and highly valued the Russian court, as it was organized thanks to the reform of Alexander II. Due to his long service at all levels of this court, he knew its features perfectly and deepened this information by comparison with justice in Western Europe and the United States, where he attended court sessions during trips abroad. He outlined his thoughts about the Russian court in ten two-hour popular lectures that he gave in Prague six months before his death.

Ostrovsky's work, examples of which were given in the previous chapter in connection with the issue of tyranny and family despotism, represents a good example of the “satirical direction of the Russian mind.”

Dostoevsky gave a stunning portrayal of the satanic side of the Russian revolutionary movement in his novel “Demons,” but in the same novel he also condemned the gubernatorial arbitrariness. In general, the satirical depiction of police strangulation of life was very common in Russian literature of the tsarist era, when, despite censorship, it was possible to largely combat the shortcomings of public and state life. belongs to Dostoevsky

mocking expression "administrative delight". Shchedrin created the image of “Gloomy-Burcheev”, Chekhov - “Unter Prishibeev”.

Russian writers often also fought against evil using gentle humor. Chekhov set out to conquer evil with humor. Vladimir Solovyov, who was extremely sensitive to any deviation from goodness, loved jokes and humor. He owns the poem

From ringing laughter and from muffled sobs

The harmony of the universe has been created.

Sound, laughter, like a free wave

And at least for a moment, drown out the sobbing.

You, poor Muse! over the dark path

Show up at least once with a young smile

And evil life with kindly mockery

Disarm for a moment And tame.

But the master of evil ridicule was Saltykov-Shchedrin, who ranks among the greatest satirists of world literature. In “The History of a City,” he depicts the History of Russia under the guise of the history of a people of “bunglers” who banged their heads on everything, on the wall, even on the floor, when they prayed to God. Having begun to organize their land, they began by “mixing the Volga with oatmeal. . ., they bought a pig for a beaver, and killed a dog for a wolf. . . Then we went eight miles away to catch a mosquito, and the mosquito was sitting on the Poshekhonets’ nose.” When they decided to look for a prince, “they searched and searched for the prince and almost got lost in three pines.” The prince announced: “those of you who don’t care what does it matter,I will have mercy and execute everyone else.” And in fact, during the Sevastopol campaign, when Russian society began to worry, learning about the abuses of the commissariat and other shortcomings, Emperor Nicholas I exclaimed: “What do they care!” Before the restriction of autocracy by the manifesto of October 17, 1905, the Russian people did not even have the right to submit petitions. True, after the October Revolution, the Soviet government went much further: it even abolished the right of silence.

All corners and customs of Russian life attracted Shchedrin's attention and he mercilessly denounced all vulgarity. In the essays “Abroad”, for example, he talks about a gentleman who says: I served and I’m waiting for “a simple Russian thank you!” In the essays “All Year Round,” speaking about Russian landowners squandering their fortunes while enjoying life in Paris and at resorts, he cites a telegram from Nice from a mother congratulating her son on receiving the rank of collegiate councilor:„ Suis toute fi è re b é nis conseiller coll è ge Vendez Russie

vendez vite argent envoyez Suis à sec Nathalie“ ( Full of pride. I bless the college adviser. Sell ​​Russia, sell quickly, send money. I'm broke. Natalia). The recipient of the telegram explains: “We have Ruskin’s wasteland, but the telegraph misrepresented: Russie. - Hm. . . what, one might say, a providential mistake!”

“Letters to Auntie” tells about Nozdryov, who publishes the newspaper “Pomoi”, a daily publication, “without pretensions and sweet. The announcement program says, we mean the truth – even sweeter.” In our time, it is necessary to publish Shchedrin's works with comments revealing who his attacks were directed against. But they remain important even for our time, when the Soviet press publishes, for example, the newspaper Pravda, where there is almost not a single word of truth.

Shchedrin finds something to say not only about reactionaries, about the exploits of the Gloomy-Burcheevs, about “protective” journalism, but also about liberals. In “Fairy Tales” he depicts the degrees of compliance of a soft-hearted liberal: “if possible,” “within limits”—freedom, security, initiative; “at least something” and, finally, knowledgeable people advised: reduce ideals and act “in relation to meanness.”

The names invented by Shchedrin are magnificent, for example, the names of the kulaks - Kolupaevs, Razuvaevs; He called the modern critic Burenin, talented but rude, Disrespect-Trough. Having in mind the properties of the population of various provinces, Shchedrin used mocking characteristics of them, invented by the Russian people themselves: cross-bellied, lip-slappers, lop-eared, bow-eaters, etc. “The Russian people are masters of nicknames,” says Turgenev in the story “Singers” and gives several examples, characterizing persons who were with him in the tavern, for example, Oboldui, Morgach.

Foreigners, reading Russian literature, which is replete with denunciations of the shortcomings of Russian life and the Russian state, often imagine that the Russian people are especially vicious, primitive and pitiful. They do not understand that the emphatically satirical nature of Russian literature testifies to the struggle of the Russian people with their shortcomings and this struggle is highly successful. Sociologist Bruford found(W. N. Bruford), so unaware of this meaning of satirical literature that in 1947 he wrote a book„ Chekhov and his Russie “ and called his work “sociological research”(Asociological study): he imagined that, using the works of Chekhov, who one-sidedly focused attention on the negative phenomena of Russian life and rarely depicted sex,

living aspects of it, we can characterize Russia as a whole. He does not know what Chekhov, who knew Russia well, said in a letter to his sister: “My God, how rich Russia is in good people.” Chekhov himself, in his service to the people, as a zemstvo doctor, embodied in his behavior all the good qualities of the Russian intelligentsia, remarkable for its high merits. Without knowing any of this, Bruford at the end of his book sympathetically refers to Ernest Barker's book(„Reflections on Gouvernement“, Oxford 1942, p. 313), who says that in Russia there is an ignorant, shoddy(wretched) the peasantry and the “hypocritical, deceitful, hysterical, uneducated (un educated), lazy intelligentsia"; such a people, he says, needed a Bolshevik dictatorship (Bruford, p. 219). The whole world now knows that the godless and inhumane Soviet regime is a satanic evil. What a lack of moral sensitivity is shown by people who think that it would be beneficial for any nation to be subject to such a regime! If Bruford had known about Russia what people who have truly studied it, Leroy-Beaulieu, Graham, Baring, Paire, Schubart, know about it, he would blush with shame while reading his book.

3. Music. Theater.

At the end of the 19th century, researchers of Russian music in Russia and at the same time the Czech Cuba drew attention to the high merits of Russian folk song. In the detailed “History of Russian Music”, published in Moscow in 1940 under the editorship of Professor Pekelis, the first chapter is devoted to “Russian folk song”. “The song-making of the Russian people,” we read in this book, “is the basis of Russian classical music” (p. 7). “The Russian people are distinguished by their exceptional musicality. Poetry and music - in particular song - occupy a large place in his life. The song accompanied all the main moments in the life of the Russian peasantry: a lullaby, lamentations at funerals, wedding songs, during children's games, during agricultural work, coachmen's songs; love for one’s history - heroic epic, historical songs (11 p.). “Russian folk musical culture is distinguished by an extraordinary variety of song genres. A harsh, majestic epic about the heroic past next to rebellious, rebellious songs about the leaders of peasant uprisings - Razin and Pugachev; mournful lamentations, lyrical and philosophical reflections of “lingering” songs, biting jokes, sometimes parody, ditties, funny games, round dances, dances - here

This is not a complete list of existing genres of Russian folklore.”

“The peculiar polyphonic and mode-harmonic texture is a distinctive feature of Russian folk musical culture, distinguishing it both among the peoples inhabiting the territory of the Soviet Union and among the musical folklore of Western European countries, most of which do not have polyphonic forms (13). “The basis of Russian folk polyphony is a system of echoes, forming the so-calledsubvocal polyphony"(41). It consists in the fact that the choral song begins with the singer, and after him gradually other singers join the choir, performing variations of the original melody. “The undervoice is a variant of the initial melody; the echo represents, as it were, a development, an elaboration of the main intonations of the leading melody” (42). “The basis of the art of vocalists is the principle of free improvisation. Therefore, a peasant choir will not sing the same song the same way twice.” There is a folk choir“the free unification of many individuals into one whole” (42).

Englishman Alfred Swan(Swan) professor of music history at Swarth more College, near Philadelphia, who studied Russian church singing and folk song wrote an article„The Nature of the Russian Folk - Song“. *).

The choral song begins with the singer, he writes, then gradually other singers begin; each voice performs a variation of the main melody, improvising, and yet these improvisations “wonderfully, with unerring instinct and musical purpose, create perfect harmony” (509).

Russian funeral laments were collected in the Pechora region near Pskov by Elizaveta Mahler(Mahler), professor at the University of Basel, and published them in a book„Die Russische Totenklage“, 1936. In addition, she collected folk songs in the same region and, using a phonograph, recorded their performances:„ Altrussische Volkslieder aus dem Pecoryland“. Basel. Bärenreiter - Verlag, 1951.

“Every Russian song comes from the deepest depths of the soul,” says Stepun. **) The enchanting power of Russian folk song is captivatingly characterized by Gogol. "Rus! Rus! poor, scattered and uncomfortable in you; The daring divas of nature, crowned by the daring divas of art, of the city with numerous high palaces, will not amuse or frighten the eyes.” . . “Everything in you is open, deserted and even; How

*) In The Musical Quarterly, October 1943, vol. XXIX, no. 4.

**) F.Stepun. "Vergangenes and Unvergängliches" T . I, 83.

Dots like icons stick out inconspicuously among the plains of your low cities; nothing will seduce or enchant the eye. But what incomprehensible secret force attracts you? Why is your melancholy song, rushing along your entire length and width from sea to sea, heard and heard incessantly in your ears? What's in it, in this song? What calls and cries and grabs your heart? What sounds painfully kiss and strive into the soul and curl around my heart? *)

In Turgenev's "Notes of a Hunter" there is an extremely beautiful story "Singers". It describes a competition between two singers in a village tavern. Yakov, who won this competition, sang the song “There was more than one path in the field.” His song contained “genuine deep passion, youth, strength, sweetness, and some kind of fascinatingly carefree, sad sorrow. The Russian truthful, ardent soul sounded and breathed in him, and just grabbed you by the heart, grabbed you right by its Russian strings.” “He sang, and from every sound of his voice there was a breath of something familiar and vastly wide, as if the familiar steppe was opening up before you, going into an endless distance. I felt tears boiling in my heart and rising to my eyes.” And other listeners, writes Turgenev, had tears in their eyes.

The Englishman Baring talks about the musicality of the Russian people, and about the charm of Russian folk songs, which express melancholy, heartache or exciting fun. **)

As for Russian instrumental music, the whole world knows such composers as the brilliant Glinka, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky, Glazunov, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Shostakovich. Pushkin’s ability to embody in his works not only Russian life, but also the spirit of other peoples is also demonstrated by these musicians, for example, in compositions based on oriental motifs. Their operas belong to the realm of sublime art due not only to their musical beauty, but also to the significance of their content. In the production of such an opera as “Kitezh,” a harmonious combination of three arts was achieved: the music of Rimsky-Korsakov, the talented poetic work of V.I. Belsky and the excellent scenery of the artist Korovin.

Even among Russian romances there are works that attract upward to perfect goodness. This is, for example, Tchaikovsky’s romance to Khomyakov’s poem:

*) Dead Souls, vol. I, ch. AND.

**) M.Baring. "The Russian People" page . 60 s.

There is feat in battle,

There is feat in struggle too,

The highest feat in patience,

Love and prayer. . .

The feat has wings

And you will fly on them. . .

Thanks to the ability of Russian people to enter into the spiritual life of others, theatrical art is at a high stage of development in Russia. Let us recall at least a few such names as Mochalov, Shchepkin, or in a more recent time - Savina, Ermolova, Komissarzhevskaya, Orlenev (especially in the role of Tsar Feodor Ioannovich), Stanislavsky and his entire group with the incomparable Kachalov at the head. In this series, we must mention the great genius of Chaliapin, who was not only a singer, but also a wonderful dramatic artist.

The art of dance is also highly characteristic of the Russian people. Tolstoy in “War and Peace” talks about the musicality of the Russian people and how Natasha Rostova, listening to her uncle play the guitar, began to dance: “Where, how, when this countess sucked into herself from the Russian air that she breathed , raised by a French immigrant, this spirit? Where did she get these techniques that pas de châ le should have been forced out long ago? But these spirits and techniques were the very same, inimitable, unstudied, Russian ones that her uncle expected from her.” *)

The high merits of Russian ballet are known throughout the world. It is enough to mention the names of Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Nijinsky or recall Fokin’s production of Polovtsian dances in the opera “Prince Igor”. Thanks to the organizational activity and energy of Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev (died in 1936), Russian ballet, opera (Swan Lake, Prince Igor, Firebird, etc.) and theatrical painting became known throughout the world and influenced European art.

4. Painting. Architecture.

Before Peter the Great, who introduced Russia to Western European culture, the Russian people had almost exclusively religious painting. Its heyday dates back to the end of the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The beauty of this icon painting serves as a good expression of the high spirit of Russian religiosity: it has no

*) War and world, part IV, chapter VII.

character of earthly prettiness, but lifts the spirit into the sphere of super-earthly existence. The most talented representative of this painting was Andrei Rublev and his most perfect creation, the icon “St. Trinity", currently located in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. The historian of Russian art V.A. Nikolsky writes about it: “The Rublevskaya Trinity, first of all, amazes with the special artistry of its range of colors, its main shimmering tone of pale gold or ripe rye. Yellowish-fawn, bluish, lilac-purple tones are skillfully brought into melodious harmony with blue and soft green. . . The compositional structure of the icon is no less exceptional than its coloring. A group of angels is inscribed in the infinity symbol - a ring. The strict balance of the composition of the icon fully corresponds to its inner world, the main intention of its creator. It was the great calm, the great balance of the spirit, completely immersed in religious contemplation, that the painter wanted to embody in this icon. Everything is traditional in the Rublev icon, but there is some special enlightenment in it, some special vigilance of vision, a special keenness of the sense of beauty, irresistibly attracting even people completely alien to mysticism and religiosity to this world masterpiece of painting, even those unable to understand and share the artist’s intentions " *)

There were also frescoes in churches, for example, in the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir, frescoes of the 12th century. Reproductions of this wealth of religious painting have become available in our time to the whole world, especially thanks to the works of the Kondakov Seminary(Seminarium Kondakovianum), which was founded in Prague by students of art historian Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov. **)

The religious and philosophical meaning of Russian icon painting was explained by the book. E. Trubetskoy in his two brochures - “Two Worlds in Ancient Russian Painting” and “Speculation in Colors”. The originals of excellent ancient icons can be seen in Moscow in the Tretyakov Gallery.

After the reform of Peter the Great, such significant artists as Levitsky (1735-1822), Rokotov (died 1812), Borovikovsky (1757-1826) appeared already in the 18th century, and in the first half of the 19th century - Kiprensky (from the serfs), Tropinin (from the fortress

*) I take the quote from the book by V. A. Ryazanovsky “Review of Russian Culture,” Vol. I. This book contains a valuable overview of Russian icon painting based on modern research, pp. 554-608.

**) N. Kondakov. Russian icon. See also book— Leonid Ouspensky and Vladimir Lossky. „Der Sinn der Ikonen“, Graf-Verlag, Bern 1952. Igor Grabar. “Die Freskomalerei der Dimitris Kathedrale in Vladimir”. Petropolis-Verlag. Berlin.

homely peasants) and the wonderful artist Alexander Ivanov (1 -1858).

After the death of Nicholas I and especially since the time of the great reforms of Alexander II, the interests of the Russian intelligentsia focused extremely one-sidedly on the issue of limiting autocracy and on the search for social justice, which to many seemed achievable only through the implementation of socialism. Populist literature began to circulate among the people, and populist literature appeared in painting. on The activities of the “Itinerant” artists began, who founded “traveling exhibitions” in 1870. The paintings of the Wanderers were on family journalism in colors and lines: the theme of their works was the life of the people, their needs, oppression by the authorities, the injustice of social inequality. The artistic value of this art was not high, although there were talented artists among the Wanderers, for example, Perov, Kramskoy, Yaroshenko, Vereshchagin. In the last decade of the 19th century, a movement began against the one-sidedness of the Wanderers. Artists appeared who understood that, in addition to “civic motives,” all other aspects of existence can be the content of artistic creativity; carried away by the beauty of lines and lines, caring about the artistic style of their works and valuing the individuality of the creator in the field of art, they laid the foundation for the extraordinary flourishing of Russian painting. In 1898, he founded the magazine “World of Art” and began organizing his own painting exhibitions. The artists whose names I will mention represent extremely different styles; some of them started out as Wanderers and subsequently left this camp. The rough but powerful talent of Repin is known not only in Russia, but also outside it. Surikov, the exponent of the mighty strength of the Russian people, was said in the chapter “Feeling and Will.” Levitan is one of those Jews who made an invaluable contribution to Russian culture. He passionately fell in love with and understood the modest beauty of Russian nature and expressed its soul in his paintings (for example, “Above Eternal Peace”, “Evening Bells”). In one of his letters, he says that he feels “a Divine something diffused in everything, but which not everyone sees, which cannot even be named, since it does not lend itself to reason, analysis, but is comprehended by love.” M.P. Chekhova, the writer’s sister, says that Levitan loved evening services somewhere in a village church. Her quiet charm was closer to this Jew than to many Orthodox. *) Religious painting was enriched with original works by Viktor Vasnetsov, Neverov (“The Hermit”, “The Youth Bartholomew”, “Great tonsure”), Vru-

*) Sergey Glagol and Igor Grabar. Isaac Ilyich Levitan, pp. 43, 53.

Bel (painting of the church of the Kirillovsky Monastery near Kyiv). Many artists were significantly influenced by such sophisticated aesthetes as the “artist of Versailles” Alexander Benois and Konstantin Somov. The diversity of talents and themes in the work of artists of the pre-revolutionary period becomes clear when comparing the following names: Roerich, Bilibin, Ostroumova-Lebedeva, Dobuzhinsky, Lukomsky, Kustodiev, Malyavin, Petrov-Vodkin. The theatrical art of scenery and costumes, which influenced Western Europe, deserves special mention; Benois, Konstantin Korovin, Vrubel, Roerich, Dobuzhinsky worked in this area.

Alexander Benois's book “The Russian School of Painting” contains the history of Russian painting since the time of Peter the Great. It gives an idea of ​​the flowering of this art at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Therefore, the following words of Christian Brinton, who wrote the preface to the English translation of this book, are understandable: “The Russian everywhere shows the power of direct concrete observation and the ability to grasp the vital aspects of a given scene or situation and achieve convincing effectiveness in depicting them.” “I rejoice at the opportunity to acknowledge, even in some small way, the debt I owe to your complex and inspiring country.” A talented lively sketch of the heyday of Russian painting was given by S. Makovsky in the book “Silhouettes of Russian Artists”, Prague 1922.

Handicraft folk art also contains quite a few manifestations of the talent of the Russian people. Along with handicraft works, there is also genuine creativity in the works, for example, of the icon painters of the village of Palekh or the village of Kholui, Vladimir province. During the heyday of Russian painting, the intelligentsia paid attention to handicraft art and became familiar with it mainly in the wonderful workshops of the Talashkino estate of Princess Tenisheva in the Smolensk province and in the village of Abramtsevo Mamontov. *)

In the field of architecture, the Russian people throughout their history have shown interest and ability in temple architecture. Information about this art can be obtained in the magnificent “History of Russian Art,” twenty-two issues of which were published under the editorship of Igor Grabar. This valuable work was not completed, because during the First World War the Moscow mob, who carried out a German pogrom, attacked Knebel's publishing house and destroyed the cliches prepared for the continuation of this history of art.

*) Serge Makovsky. Talachkino. L'art décorative des ateliers de la princesse Tenichef. N. Roerich. Souvenir d'un voyage à Talachkino. St. Petersburg,1906.

The Russian people showed a talent for architecture from the very beginning of their cultural life. It manifested itself until the 18th century mainly in temple architecture. The first churches were built by Byzantine craftsmen; Russian masters began to introduce new features into them according to their taste, and churches appeared in the Vladimir-Suzdal region that were the result of original Russian creativity, for example, the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir on Klyazma, followed by churches in Moscow and its environs; The temples of Novgorod and Pskov and the wonderful wooden churches in northern Russia are also valuable. A vivid idea of ​​this church architecture and its merits is given by articles in the “History of Russian Art” by Igor Grabar.

Tamara Talbot Rice in the book„Russian Art“ gives the following assessment of the architecture of Russian churches: “The main character of Russian architecture as a whole can be defined as a brilliant understanding of composition, attracting attention with its impressive scope, decorative form or charming intimacy. Russian architects have an unerring eye for beautiful, sometimes unexpected proportions and a preference for effects depending mainly on form, but sometimes also supported by decorative embellishments. *)

Secular architecture was predominantly wooden. Rich boyars built intricate mansions for themselves. An example of them can be the palace of Tsarevich Dimitri in Uglich and the especially complex royal palace in the village of Kolomenskoye, a model of which is kept in Moscow.

In the 18th century, Peter the Great invited the sculptor Rastrelli from Italy, who, having settled in Russia, brought his sixteen-year-old son to St. Petersburg in 1716. The young man deeply assimilated the originality of Russian architecture, especially Moscow, studied the architecture of France and Italy and became a great original architect who combined Western European and Russian art in his creations. He owns many valuable buildings, for example, the Smolny Monastery, the Tsarskoye Selo Palace, the Cathedral of the Sergius Hermitage near Strelna, etc. Under the leadership of Rastrelli (died in 1771), a whole school of Russian architects of the 18th century was educated. Prince Ukhtomsky, Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov belong to it. At the beginning of the 19th century, it is worth noting the activities of Zakharov, the builder of the Admiralty, and Voronikhin, the builder of the Kazan Cathedral.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, a particularly multifaceted, lush flowering of Russian culture arose. And in the field of architecture there appeared

*) Tamara Talbot Rice. "Russian Art", 1949.

New promising talents arose, but they did not have time to express themselves in their entirety, because the Bolshevik revolution interrupted the healthy development of Russian spiritual life.

105

We are Russians...
What a delight!
A.V. Suvorov

Reflections on the character of the Russian people lead us to the conclusion that the character of the people and the character of an individual do not have a direct correlation. The people are a conciliar, symphonic personality, therefore it is hardly possible to detect in every Russian person all the features and properties of the Russian national character. In general, in the Russian character one can see the qualities of Peter the Great, Prince Myshkin, Oblomov and Khlestakov, i.e. both positive and negative properties. There are no peoples on earth who have only positive or only negative character traits. In reality, there is a known relationship between both. Only in the assessment of some peoples by others does a false idea arise, giving rise to stereotypes and myths, that another (not our) people has mainly negative character traits. And, on the contrary, there is a desire to attribute all sorts of positive characteristics to the superlative degree to one’s own people.

In the character of the Russian people, such properties as patience, national fortitude, conciliarity, generosity, immensity (breadth of soul), and talent are often noted. BUT. Lossky, in his book “The Character of the Russian People,” begins his study with such a trait of the Russian character as religiosity. “The main, deepest character trait of the Russian people is their religiosity, and the search for absolute good associated with it... which is feasible only in the Kingdom of God,” he writes. “Perfect good without any admixture of evil and imperfections exists in the Kingdom of God because it consists of individuals who fully implement in their behavior the two commandments of Jesus Christ: to love God more than yourself, and your neighbor as yourself. Members of the Kingdom of God are completely free from selfishness and therefore they create only absolute values ​​- moral goodness, beauty, knowledge of truth, benefits that are indivisible and indestructible, serving the whole world" [ 1 ].

Lossky puts emphasis on the word “search” for absolute good, thereby he does not absolutize the properties of the Russian people, but seeks to designate their spiritual aspirations. Therefore, in the history of Russia, thanks to the influence of the great holy ascetics, the ideal of the people became not powerful, not rich, but “Holy Rus'”. Lossky cites the insightful remark of I.V. Kireevsky, that in comparison with the businesslike, almost theatrical behavior of Europeans, one is surprised by the humility, calmness, restraint, dignity and inner harmony of people who grew up in the traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church. Even many generations of Russian atheists, instead of Christian religiosity, showed formal religiosity, a fanatical desire to realize on earth a kind of kingdom of God without God, on the basis of scientific knowledge and universal equality. “Considering that the main property of the Russian people is Christian religiosity and the search for absolute good associated with it,” wrote Lossky, “in the following chapters I will try to explain some other properties of the Russian people in connection with this essential feature of their character” [ 2 ].

Lossky calls such derived traits of the Russian character the ability to higher forms of experience, feeling and will (powerful willpower, passion, maximalism), love of freedom, kindness, giftedness, messianism and missionism. At the same time, he also names negative traits associated with the lack of the middle area of ​​culture - fanaticism, extremism, which manifested themselves in the Old Believers, nihilism and hooliganism. It should be noted that Lossky, when analyzing the features of the Russian national character, has in mind the thousand-year experience of the existence of the Russian people and in fact does not give assessments related to the trends characteristic of the Russian character in the 20th century. For us, what is important in Lossky’s works is the basic feature of the national character, the dominant that determines all other properties and sets the vector for the analysis of the problem posed.

Modern researchers of this topic take more into account the trends in the development of the Russian national character of the 20th century, without denying the tradition that, over the course of the thousand-year history of Russia and the Russian people, has shaped these properties. So, V.K. Trofimov in the book “The Soul of the Russian People” writes: “Acquaintance with the national-physical and spiritual determinants of the psychological properties of the Russian people allows us to identify the fundamental internal qualities of national psychology. These fundamental qualities, which constitute the essence of national psychology and the national character of the Russian people, can be designated as the essential forces of the Russian souls" [ 3 ].

Among the essential forces he considers the paradoxical nature of mental manifestations (the inconsistency of the Russian soul), contemplation with the heart (the primacy of feeling and contemplation over reason and reason), the immensity of life's impulse (the breadth of the Russian soul), the religious desire for the absolute, national resilience, “We-psychology” and love of freedom. “The essential forces inherent in the deep foundations of the Russian soul are extremely contradictory in the possible consequences of their practical implementation. They can become a source of creation in economics, politics and culture. In the hands of a wise national elite, for centuries the emerging features of national psychology served prosperity, strengthening of power and Russia's authority in the world" [ 4 ].

F.M. Dostoevsky, long before Berdyaev and Lossky, showed how the character of the Russian people combines the base and the sublime, the holy and the sinful, the “ideal of Madonna” and the “ideal of Sodom,” and the battlefield of these principles is the human heart. In Dmitry Karamazov’s monologue, the extremes and boundless breadth of the Russian soul are expressed with exceptional force: “Moreover, I cannot bear that another person, even higher in heart and with a lofty mind, begins with the ideal of the Madonna, and ends with the ideal of Sodom. It is even more terrible who is already with "The ideal of Sodom in his soul does not deny the ideal of the Madonna, and his heart burns from it and truly, truly burns, as in his young, blameless years. No, the man is broad, too broad, I would narrow it" [ 5 ].

The consciousness of their sinfulness gives the Russian people the ideal of spiritual ascent. Characterizing Russian literature, Dostoevsky emphasizes that all the timeless and beautiful images in the works of Pushkin, Goncharov and Turgenev were borrowed from the Russian people. They took from him simplicity, purity, meekness, intelligence and gentleness, in contrast to everything that was broken, false, superficial and slavishly borrowed. And this contact with the people gave them extraordinary strength.

Dostoevsky highlights another fundamental need of the Russian people - the need for constant and insatiable suffering, everywhere and in everything. He has been infected with this thirst for suffering from time immemorial; a stream of suffering runs through its entire history, not only from external misfortunes and disasters, but wells up from the very heart of the people. For the Russian people, even in happiness there is certainly a part of suffering, otherwise happiness for them is incomplete. Never, even in the most solemn moments of his history, does he have a proud and triumphant look, but only a look of tenderness to the point of suffering; he sighs and lifts up his glory to the mercy of the Lord. This idea of ​​Dostoevsky found clear expression in his formula: “Whoever does not understand Orthodoxy will never understand Russia.”

Truly, our shortcomings are a continuation of our strengths. The polarities of the Russian national character can be represented as a whole series of antinomies expressing positive and negative properties.

1. breadth of soul - absence of form;
2. generosity - wastefulness;
3. love of freedom - weak discipline (anarchism);
4. prowess - revelry;
5. patriotism - national egoism.

These parallels can be increased many times over. I.A. Bunin gives a significant parable in “Cursed Days”. The peasant says: the people are like wood, from it you can make both an icon and a club, depending on who processes this wood - Sergius of Radonezh or Emelka Pugachev [ 6 ].

Many Russian poets sought to express the total immensity of the Russian national character, but A.K. succeeded especially fully in this. Tolstoy:

If you love, so without reason,
If you threaten, it’s not a joke,
If you scold, so rashly,
If you chop, it’s too bad!

If it's too bold to argue,
If you punish, that's the point,
If you forgive, then with all your heart,
If there is a feast, then there is a feast!

I.A. Ilyin draws attention to the fact that immensity for a Russian person is a living concrete reality, his object, his starting point, his task. “Such is the Russian soul: it is given passion and power; form, character and transformation are its historically vital tasks.” Among Western analysts of the Russian national character, these features were most successfully expressed by the German thinker W. Schubart. The greatest interest in contrasting two diametrically opposed types of worldview - Western (Promethean) and Russian (Johnnian) - is a number of positions proposed by Schubart for comparison, which are saturated with diverse specific material. Let's reproduce one of them. The culture of the middle and the culture of the end. Western culture is the culture of the middle. Socially it rests on the middle class, psychologically on the mental state of the middle, balance. Her virtues are self-control, good manners, efficiency, discipline. “The European is a decent and diligent, skilled worker, a flawlessly functioning cog in a large mechanism. Outside his profession, he is hardly taken into account. He prefers the path of the golden mean, and this is usually the path to gold.” Materialism and philistinism are the goal and result of Western culture.

The Russian moves within the framework of a peripheral culture. Hence the breadth and immensity of the Russian soul, the feeling of freedom right up to anarchism and nihilism; feelings of guilt and sinfulness; an apocalyptic worldview and, finally, sacrifice as the central idea of ​​Russian religious morality. “Foreigners who came to Russia for the first time,” wrote Schubart, “could not get rid of the impression that they found themselves in a sacred place, set foot on holy land... The expression “Holy Russia” is not an empty phrase. A traveler in Europe is immediately carried away by the noisy rhythm its active forces; the high melody of labor reaches his ears, but this - with all its greatness and power - is a song about the earth" [ 7 ].

However, a simple listing of certain qualities of the Russian national character will be very incomplete or haphazardly redundant. Therefore, in further analysis, one should take a different path: to determine sufficient grounds (criteria) according to which it is possible to summarize the characteristics of the Russian character. In modern scientific literature, there has long been a discussion about what is the determining principle in the study of national identity: “blood and soil”, or “language and culture”. And, although most researchers pay attention to language and culture, nevertheless, the national genotype and natural and climatic conditions are directly related to the formation of the qualities and properties of the national character.

In my opinion, the following basic factors should be considered as the initial formative foundations of the Russian national character:

1. Nature and climate;
2. Ethnic origins;
3. The historical existence of the people and the geopolitical position of Russia;
4. Social factors (monarchy, community, multi-ethnicity);
5. Russian language and Russian culture;
6. Orthodoxy.

This order is not at all accidental. The analysis of factors should begin with external, material, physical and climatic ones, and end with spiritual, deep ones, defining the dominant character of the national character. It is the religiosity of the Russian people (N.O. Lossky), rooted in Orthodox Christianity, that most researchers of this issue consider as the deep basis of the Russian character. Consequently, the order of importance of these factors is arranged in an ascending line.

Threats and challenges to the existence of national identity and Russian character undoubtedly exist. As a rule, they have objective and subjective content and greatly increase their negative impact during periods of unrest, revolutions, social breakdowns and crisis situations. The first objective trend leading to a threat to the existence of Russian national identity is associated with the collapse of the USSR (historical Russia) at the end of the 20th century; it was this tendency that called into question the very existence of the Russian people, and, consequently, their national identity. The second objective trend is associated with the “reform” of the economy, which, in fact, was a complete collapse of the economy of the entire country, the destruction of the military-industrial complex, a huge number of research institutes that had been providing priority directions for the country’s development for a number of decades. As a result, the economy of post-Soviet Russia has acquired an ugly, one-sided character - it is entirely based on the production and export of hydrocarbons (oil and gas), as well as on the export of other types of raw materials - ferrous and non-ferrous metals, wood, etc.

The third objective trend is the depopulation of the Russian people, associated with a low birth rate, a high number of abortions, low life expectancy, high mortality from road accidents, alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide and other accidents. Over the past 15 years, the population of Russia has been declining by 700-800 thousand people annually. The depopulation of the Russian people is a consequence of the above objective trends and leads to a sharp increase in migration flows, often uncontrolled, from the Caucasus, Central Asia and China. Already today, 12.5% ​​of students in Moscow schools are Azerbaijanis. If migration policy is not strictly controlled, then in the future this process will lead to the replacement of the Russian people by migrants, to the displacement and extinction of Russian national identity. Depopulation is largely a consequence of the crisis processes of the 90s. XX century.

Subjective tendencies leading to threats to the existence of Russian national identity can be summed up as a loss of identity. However, this provision requires decoding and detailing. The loss of identity is associated with the invasion of the world of Russian national self-awareness by external influences alien to the Russian person, aimed at transforming national self-awareness and Russian character according to the Western model: in the field of education - accession to the Bologna Charter; in the field of culture - replacing traditional examples of Russian culture with pop culture, pseudoculture; in the field of religion - the introduction of various sectarian movements associated with Protestantism, occult and other anti-Christian sects; in the field of art - the invasion of various avant-garde movements, emasculating the content of art; in the field of philosophy - the frontal offensive of postmodernism, which denies the originality and specificity of national thinking and tradition.

We see how diverse the ways of denying national identity are every day in various media programs. The most dangerous among them is Russophobia - denial and contempt for Russian culture, national identity and the Russian people themselves. It can be assumed that if the Russian national identity is replaced by the Western mentality that has been implanted in us for a decade and a half, then the Russian people will turn into a “population”, into ethnographic material, and the Russian language and Russian culture, in the future, may share the fate of dead languages ​​( ancient Greek and Latin). The denationalization of culture, the suppression of national consciousness, its transformation into a comic-clip consciousness, the distortion of Russian history, the desecration of our Victory, the lulling of defense consciousness is becoming an everyday phenomenon.

The country's unfavorable economic situation, the permanent political crisis of the late 20th century, and the crime situation led to a "brain drain" - the mass emigration of scientists to other, more prosperous countries. Scientists who went abroad filled research centers and universities in the USA, Canada, Germany and other Western countries. According to the Russian Academy of Sciences, over 15 years, about 200 thousand scientists have left the country, including 130 thousand candidates of science and about 20 thousand doctors of science. In fact, this is a disaster, an almost complete loss of the country's intellectual property. Talented graduates of the best universities in Russia tend to go to rich business corporations or go abroad. This led to the loss of the middle-aged level of RAS research workers. Today, the average age of doctors of science at the Russian Academy of Sciences is 61 years. There is a “brain drain”, the steady aging and impossibility of replenishing scientific personnel, the disappearance of a number of leading scientific schools, and the degradation of scientific research topics [ 8 ].

How can we counteract these negative trends leading to the erosion of Russian national identity?

Firstly, we need a balanced program (ideology) for a long-term historical perspective, which must correspond to the national interests of Russia, take into account the limits of national security in the development of Russian culture, school and university education, science, and the protection of the moral, religious, and ethnic values ​​of the people. At the same time, such an ideological program should outline the prospects for the development of the economy, agriculture, military-industrial complex and other spheres of production that could ensure the independence of our country at the proper level. The so-called “national projects” developed and implemented by the administration of President D.A. Medvedev, are very fragmented and do not have the character of a universal national program. As I.A. wrote Ilyin, Russia does not need class hatred or party struggle, tearing apart its single body, it needs a responsible idea for the long term. Moreover, the idea is not destructive, but positive, state-owned. This is the idea of ​​cultivating a national spiritual character in the Russian people. “This idea must be state-historical, state-national, state-patriotic, state-religious. This idea must come from the very fabric of the Russian soul and Russian history, from their spiritual integrity. This idea must speak about the main thing in Russian destinies - and past and future; it should shine for entire generations of Russian people, making sense of their lives, pouring cheerfulness into them" [ 9 ]. Today there is already experience in developing such promising programs [ 10 ].

Secondly, it is necessary to educate the Russian national elite, whose aspirations would correspond to the national interests of Russia and the Russian people. The foreign and heterodox elite will always push the country either to another revolution (in essence, to a redistribution of power and property), or, in the words of F.M. Dostoevsky, will once every few decades “let go of a convulsion,” i.e. carry out the next crisis situation. As the experience of the tragic 90s for Russia shows. XX century, such an elite - the "Chicago boys" - was directed and controlled by external forces hostile to Russia, contrary to the national interests of the country.

Thirdly, it is necessary to educate new generations of Russian people in the spirit of love for the Motherland, in the spirit of patriotism, and this requires a fundamental restructuring of the entire system of education and upbringing. Only in this case can the negative consequences of modern national nihilism and Russophobia be overcome. “The Pepsi generation”, brought up under the motto - “Take everything from life!” is a social product of the destructive processes of the 90s.

Fourthly, it is necessary to fight the negative features of the Russian national character - anarchism and extremism, disorganization and “hoping for chance”, lack of formality and hooliganism, apathy and loss of the habit of systematic work, which was largely the result of the crisis of the last year and a half decades. This struggle should not be waged through “outbursts of revolutionary spirit,” but through the development of persistent self-discipline, continuous self-control, patience and endurance, spiritual sobriety and obedience. S.N. Bulgakov spoke about Christian asceticism, which is continuous self-control, the fight against the lower sinful sides of one’s self, asceticism of the spirit. Only on this path can the negative tendencies of the Russian national character be neutralized to some extent, which in an era of historical unrest lead to the destruction of the essential forces of the people, when the “underground of the human soul” comes to the fore. When a people is on the verge (and even beyond) of physical existence, it is difficult to demand adherence to highly moral behavior from them. This requires measures of a social, political, economic nature, but, above all, spiritual ones. Only in this case is there hope for a successful, positive result in the development of Russia, the Russian people and their national identity.

If the Russian people have sufficient national and social immunity, then they will again return to their own national identity. Historical experience gives us sufficient grounds for an optimistic scenario for the development of events. Russia and the Russian people overcame the most difficult situations and found a worthy Answer to the Challenge of History. Such an analysis of the Russian national character by Dostoevsky, who revealed the deepest contradictions, gives hope that the abyss of fall in which the Russian people find themselves today will sober them up, and they will overcome the stage of yet another self-destruction, going through repentance and suffering.

Here the question involuntarily arises: how did the Russian people, who have positive qualities along with negative ones, become seduced at the beginning of the 20th century? ideas of the revolutionary reorganization of Russia and atheism, which resulted in regicide, destruction of churches, renunciation of the faith of their ancestors and impoverishment of the people's soul. We find the answer to this question in Dostoevsky. For a Russian person, in his opinion, it is typical to forget every measure in everything. Whether it is love, wine, revelry, pride, envy - here some Russian people give themselves up almost selflessly, ready to break everything, renounce everything, family, custom, God. “This is the need to reach over the edge, the need for a frozen sensation, having reached the abyss, hanging halfway into it, looking into the very abyss and - in special cases, but very often - throwing yourself into it like a crazy person upside down.

This is the need for denial in a person, sometimes the most non-denying and reverent, the denial of everything, the most important shrine of his heart, the most complete ideal of his, the entire people's shrine in all its fullness, which now he was only in awe of and which suddenly seemed to have become unbearable to him somehow a burden, - this is how Dostoevsky characterizes the traits of self-denial and self-destruction characteristic of the Russian folk character. - But with the same strength, the same swiftness, with the same thirst for self-preservation and repentance, the Russian man, as well as the entire people, saves himself, and usually when he reaches the last line, that is, when there is nowhere else to go. But what is especially characteristic is that the reverse impulse, the impulse of self-restoration and self-salvation, is always more serious than the previous impulse - the impulse of self-denial and self-destruction. That is, it always happens on the account of petty cowardice; whereas the Russian person goes into restoration with the most enormous and serious effort, and looks at the negative previous movement with contempt for himself" [ 11 ].

In conclusion, let us once again turn to the listing of the main features of the Russian national character. The natural and climatic conditions of Russia have formed such traits in the character of the Russian people as patience, endurance, generous nature, and hard work. This is where the passionarity and “native” character of the people come from. The multi-ethnicity and multi-confessional nature of Russia have instilled in the Russian people brotherhood, patience (tolerance) towards other languages ​​and cultures, selflessness, and the absence of violence. The historical existence of the Russian people and the geopolitical position of Russia forged in its character such properties as national resilience, love of freedom, sacrifice, and patriotism. The social conditions of existence of the Russian people - the monarchy, the community - contributed to the formation of a monarchical sense of justice, conciliarity, collectivism, and mutual assistance. Orthodoxy, as the main dominant of Russian national identity, formed in the Russian people religiosity, the desire for absolute goodness, love for one’s neighbor (brotherhood), humility, meekness, awareness of one’s sinfulness and imperfection, sacrifice (readiness to give one’s life for one’s friends), conciliarity and patriotism. These qualities were formed in accordance with the gospel ideals of goodness, truth, mercy and compassion. In this we must see the religious source of Russian fortitude and patience, endurance and strength of sacrifice of the Russian people.

Every Russian person should clearly know the negative properties of his national character. The breadth and immensity of the Russian soul is often associated with maximalism - either everything or nothing. Weak discipline leads to revelry and anarchism; from here lies a dangerous path to extremism, rebellion, hooliganism, and terrorism. The immensity of the soul becomes the source of a daring test of values ​​- atheism, denial of tradition, national nihilism. The lack of ethnic solidarity in everyday life, the weakness of the “tribal instinct”, disunity in front of “outsiders” makes the Russian person defenseless in relation to migrants, who are characterized by cohesion, arrogance, and cruelty. Therefore, migrants in Russia today feel like masters to a greater extent than Russians. Lack of self-discipline often leads to the inability to work systematically and achieve your goal. The above-mentioned shortcomings increase many times during periods of unrest, revolutions and other crisis social phenomena. Gullibility, a tendency to temptation, makes the Russian people a toy in the hands of political adventurers and impostors of all stripes, leads to the loss of the immune forces of sovereignty, turns them into a mob, into an electorate, into a crowd led by a herd mentality. This is the root of all social unrest and disasters.

However, negative properties do not represent the fundamental, dominant traits of the Russian character, but rather are the flip side of positive qualities, their perversion. A clear vision of the weak traits of national character will allow every Russian person to fight them, eradicate or neutralize their influence in himself.

Today, the topic related to the study of Russian national character is extremely relevant. In the conditions of a permanent social crisis at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, when the Russian people are humiliated, slandered, and have largely lost their vital forces, they need confirmation of their merits, including at the level of research into the Russian national character. Only on this path can the connection of times be realized by turning to tradition, to the deeds of our great ancestors - heroes, leaders, prophets, scientists and thinkers, to our national shrines, values ​​and symbols. Turning to the national tradition is like touching a healing source from which everyone can draw faith, hope, love, willpower and an example for serving the Motherland - Holy Rus'.
Kopalov Vitaly Ilyich, Professor of the Department of Philosophy, IPPC at USU. A.M. Gorky, Doctor of Philosophy

Notes:

1 - Lossky N.O. The character of the Russian people. Sowing. 1957. Book. 1. P.5.
2 - Ibid. P.21.
3 - Trofimov V.K. The soul of the Russian people: Natural-historical conditioning and essential forces. - Ekaterinburg, 1998. P.90.
4 - Ibid. P.134-135.
5 - Dostoevsky F.M. Brothers Karamazov // Dostoevsky F.M. Full collection Op. In 30 volumes. T. XIV. - L., 1976. P.100.
6 - Bunin I.A. Damned days. - M., 1991. P.54.
7 - Schubart V. Europe and the soul of the East. - M., 1997. P.78.
8 - Fourteen knives in the body of Russia // Tomorrow. - 2007. - No. 18 (702).
9 - Ilyin I.A. Creative idea of ​​our future // Ilyin I.A. Collection Op. V. 10 vol. T. 7. - M., 1998. P.457-458.
10 - See: Russian Doctrine ("Sergius Project"). Under the general editorship. A.B. Kobyakov and V.V. Averyanova. - M., 2005. - 363 p.
11 - Dostoevsky F.M. Writer's Diary. Featured Pages. - M., 1989. P.60-61.