Linear perspective in drawing for children. Video for the mood

Hello! In this article I will talk about the main laws of linear and aerial perspective. As a rule, these laws are most often applied when painting landscapes. The application of the laws of linear and aerial perspective allows us to most truthfully convey the depicted space in the landscape. And in order not to be unfounded and not to write an article for the sake of an article about the theory of linear and aerial perspective, let’s consider these laws using a specific practical example. Let's draw a simple landscape. And at the same time, we will analyze each rule sequentially.

As tools, I suggest taking dry pastel, A4 pastel paper and kneading paper. I took gray paper, but you can use white. First, as always, let's make a sketch. I decided to sketch it out of my head as my hand took it. But before that, let's remember rules of linear perspective:

1. parallel lines moving away from the observer into the distance come closer and converge at one point on the horizon line (remember a road or rails going into the distance)
2. identical objects and objects seem smaller when moving away from the observer and converge at one point on the horizon (remember the pillars along the road)

This means we need to mark the horizon and sketch out objects that will satisfy the rules above. This is what I came up with when sketching with a simple pencil:

I decided to cover the horizon with hills so that it wouldn’t look like a boring straight line. On the left side I showed trees that decrease in size as they move away (2nd rule of linear perspective). And in the center of the landscape, there is a road stretching into the distance, which tends to one point on the horizon (1st rule of linear perspective). For added interest, let part of the road get lost behind the hills.

We've dealt with linear perspective. Now let's get busy laws of aerial perspective and open the box of pastels. Let's paint the sky blue, slightly decreasing the color towards the horizon. Let's add a couple of clouds. Let the sun be on our left side.

Reading first law aerial perspective - Using purple and blue crayons we will walk along the farthest hill. We'll paint the forest in the distance on the left with dark green and blue, but also mix in a little white so that the color looks pale and gets lost in the distance of the purple hill.

Second Law aerial perspective - We paint the fields on the left and right so that the dark green color close up smoothly turns into light or yellow-green in the distance. The path, on the contrary, near it will have light shades of ocher, and in the distance we will add a little brown. We shade the whole thing with our fingers, giving the picture a uniform tone and smooth color transitions.

Third Law aerial perspective - We will do this with the trees on the left side of the path. First, we will paint the forest behind the birches with dark green. It will highlight the hilly terrain. Against its background we will show a separate tree, which looks very small and creates the effect of remoteness in space. Let's add a barely noticeable gray shadow to it. Next, using different shades of green, draw the foliage with short strokes of chalk. We put light colors on the left, dark ones on the right side of the trees. Because We are drawing birch trees, then we will outline the trunks with white and lightly show the spots with dark gray. Don't go into detail. We only make hints, like a light sketch. The viewer’s imagination will already understand that these are birch trees. And excessive detail will contradict the following law.

Fourth Law aerial perspective - We actually started to follow it when we started drawing birches that were more detailed compared to the background. Let's continue on the right side of the path. First, let's draw a birch tree.

Then the oak trees in the background. At the same time, oaks will have even more details compared to birches (of course, as far as the paper with its texture allows). Don’t forget to add a green-blue shadow mixed with dark gray or black under the oak trees.

Let's consolidate the fourth law and draw grass nearby using the sharp edge of the pastel with vertical strokes. On the path on the left we will add a little shadow in blue. Just don’t forget that the shadow will become lighter as it moves away from us. You can even add a few flowers for decoration)

Well, the last one, fifth law aerial perspective- To remember this law, highlight the shadow of the path on the left with a dark brown color. But only about half. The rest of the path is softly blurred earlier. Let's add some details to the track in the form of horizontal brown stripes. The closer to us, the sharper the strokes. Let's draw a couple of stones. The one in the distance, we simply outline the main shape and emphasize the shadow. If necessary, shade it a little. We clearly highlight the contours and shadows of the nearby stones. Thus, those objects that are closer to us appear sharper than those that are farther from us.

That's all, you can sign. Of course, the result is not a hyper-realistic landscape, but I hope you have learned and remembered the main rules of linear and aerial perspective.

So let's say it again laws of aerial perspective:

First law: Objects distant from the observer appear blue, indigo, violet, or whitish depending on the density of air between the observer and the object. Second law: Light objects in the distance become darker, and dark objects become lighter. Third law: Near objects are depicted three-dimensionally and in different colors, distant objects are depicted flat and of the same tone. Fourth Law: Near objects are depicted in detail, while distant objects are depicted in general terms. Fifth Law: The contours of near objects should be sharp, and those of distant objects should be soft.

Applying the considered laws of linear and aerial perspective, your work will be an order of magnitude different for the better from the work of artists who ignore these laws. Therefore, always keep them in mind when drawing your paintings.

City in perspective, drawing

Even though we live in a three-dimensional world, we only have two dimensions to depict objects on paper. The third dimension, the one that gives depth to a painting, drawing, sketch, or anything else, is created using the rules of perspective. Even if you only paint still lifes on a table, you need to understand and master the principles of perspective.

Basics of perspective in drawing

Here are the basic concepts used in the theory:

• vanishing point;
• main line of sight;
• skyline;
• object plane;
• picture plane;
• vision angle.

Before we start figuring out what all this means, let's digress a little and remember, for example, grammar. No one, except perhaps specialists, is particularly interested in grammar. We recognize that it helps us express ourselves better (as long as we don't have to reach for the textbook before we dare open our mouths). We conjugate verbs and construct sentences completely automatically, without thinking about it. We can do this because we have heard the same grammatical structures literally thousands of times.

It's the same with perspective. The science of perspective itself is of little interest to most of us. We are interested in it only to the extent that it can help us draw better. In other words, there are two ways to approach perspective: the scientific or theoretical way and the practical way. With a theoretical approach, you learn a set of abstract rules, and you can be sure that you will get bored of it very quickly.

Therefore, it makes sense to approach the issue of artistic perspective from a practical point of view.

Of course, it would be possible to do without perspective entirely, but this would not be entirely true. Perspective is the most powerful way to add realism and depth to your drawings, making them appear more alive and natural. Without it, the artistic tools at your disposal (and therefore your results) will be limited, and here's why.

Perspective is a hidden but vital element of a landscape, subject or portrait. It's actually an optical illusion that applies to everything you see. Remember that drawing is not the same as sculpture. You are faced with the task of reproducing on a flat piece of paper something that actually has a third dimension: depth. So perspective is just an optical illusion applied to whatever you look at. That's why we need to know a little about how our brain constructs a picture.

Historically, it took artists some time before they agreed on perspective. Many medieval works of art are very beautiful, but they show things as they are, not as the eye sees them.

Look at this illustration, for example. The chessboard is visible without relief, but the pieces on the board are depicted in profile and turned in the direction in which they are installed on the board. The columns are turned at some strange angle. And the women are quite curiously disposed. In other words, there are several different “points of view” in one picture, and this is rather off-putting.

This Persian medieval miniature is another example of a partial lack of perspective. Here several different points of view are combined into one picture. And we notice that the people and horses in the background are just as big as those closer to us. In the future they will, of course, be smaller.

And in this photo, the road seems to get smaller and smaller as it moves away from our view. In reality, of course, the width is always the same - otherwise there would not be enough space for cars!

Looking at this photo it looks like the two rails ended up being joined together. Visually speaking, this is true, but only visually. The mind and the eye are in constant conflict: the mind tells the brain: “these rails are parallel and horizontal.” The eye replies: “as you can see, the rails rise towards the sky and become thinner towards the top.” The brain says: “the rails are always parallel, otherwise the trains would derail.”

But if we want to learn to draw well, we need to stop “thinking about the world” and instead start listening to what our eyes are telling us. As you will see, it is always difficult to forget our knowledge of things when we try to decipher them. Yet we must learn to concentrate solely on visual perception. You are faced with a landscape stretching before your eyes towards the horizon. Your brain registers depth as it moves from the foreground into the distance. You have no problem with placement, determining what you see on the left and right on the corresponding sides of the piece of paper. But how are you going to visualize depth?

Rules of perspective in drawing

Here are three basic principles that can be used separately or together.

• The trees closest to us need to be drawn in front of those that are further away - this will have the effect of partially overlapping them.
• The trees farthest from us need to be painted lighter, with less pressure, this will create the illusion of airy space.
• Draw the trees in the background smaller in size than those in the foreground - this will give us the effect of distance.

Let's now look at this interior drawing. Perspective, which creates the impression of depth, represents the room not as it actually is, but as the eye perceives it. Perspective drawing is essentially the art of drawing "wrong" in such a way that the end result appears "right." Or, to put it another way, it is the art of closing one eye to see better.

First of all, let's take another look at the picture. You can observe the same thing if you look around the room you are in. The walls are at right angles to each other, there is a window with blinds and parquet flooring. Look at the lines formed by the edges of objects and the corners of walls. The lines are mostly vertical or horizontal and perpendicular to each other. This is completely natural since the architect designed everything at right angles and the builder used the plumb line, given area and technical drawings to bring the architect's plan to life.

Understanding the idea of ​​perspective

Try to imagine the problem from the point of view of a blind person. He will not be able to appreciate the depth of a place until he has had the opportunity to walk within that space. Unlike those of us with vision, he does not have the ability to “travel with the eye.” If someone who was blind from birth were suddenly able to see, he would have the terrible impression that everything was staring him in the face. But at that time, if a blind person cannot drive a car, then a one-eyed man or woman certainly can. In other words, having only one eye does not interfere with assessing the depth of a place or the distance separating, for example, two cars. 3D vision is not the only way to obtain depth information. We could say that a one-eyed person driving a car "reads" depth in perspective, whereas when you draw, you "write" that perspective to create the illusion of depth. The procedure is almost the opposite.

The image passes through an incredibly complex piece of photographic technology - your eye. You can connect a printer to this wonderful camera, which consists of a piece of paper, a pencil and your hand. Everything is pre-installed, all you have to do is learn how to use it!

How to give the impression of depth

In fine art, various tricks are used to create an optical illusion, such as superimposing two drawings, using shadow, relief and, of course, perspective. It is also possible to combine several methods. The two most commonly chosen by artists are relief and perspective. When used together, they give an amazing sense of realism to the drawing.

Wherever you look, you "throw" a visual beam in that direction. The beam moves in a straight line from your eye to the center of the image, which it perceives and moves with your eyes. Aim at a target with an imaginary rifle. The main line of sight (your visual beam) corresponds to the bullet's flight path. The point at which the bullet hits the target is called the vanishing point.

Our vision is more or less conical. That is, when we look in a certain direction, the width of our vision is about 20 centimeters in the foreground and several hundred meters in the background. The further you look, the wider the field around the vanishing point. Depending on the orientation of our visual ray, objects appear distorted to our eyes, obeying the laws of optics and perspective.

Therefore, when you start drawing, it is important to determine the height and orientation of your visual ray and maintain it. This means choosing a single point of view. If you miss this point and combine multiple points of view, your objects and figures will appear very unrealistic and the drawing will begin to fall apart.

Imagine a horizontal disk placed around your head at eye level and extending to infinity. This disc gives an idea of ​​the main element of perspective: the horizon plane.

The horizon plane is an imaginary line located at eye level and going to infinity. Of course, you will only see part of it - a horizontal line located at 360°. This line is called the horizon line. Now suppose that you move yourself and your imaginary disk towards the shoreline. This is what you will see. It can be seen that the line precisely divides the landscape between sky and water, merging with what we usually call the horizon.

Now imagine that you climbed the tallest coconut tree on the island and see if the natural horizon passed below the disk that you held at eye level. You will notice that this is not the case. The horizon, the horizontal plane, the horizon line, and your eye rise and fall together. It is important to remember that the horizon line is always at eye level.

It's the same with photography. The horizon rises with the camera.

The plane of the artist's horizon, related to his point of view, determines the height of the natural horizon. When you choose the height of the horizon in a painting, you determine that point of view for anyone looking at the painting. Your choice will determine whether the viewer is in a dominant situation in relation to the subject.

If you look down at the depicted figure, then you seem to dominate it.

A centered, mid-height horizon line gives the image a symmetry that removes the human aspect.

If the point of view is from below, what is depicted dominates you. It seems to have acquired a certain dominance, and you, in a sense, are at its mercy.

Thus, perspective in drawing is not just a tool for accurately representing something, it is also a means for expanding your artistic vocabulary. But don't confuse point of view with composition. The same scene, viewed from the same place, can be drawn in different ways; it is a matter of aesthetic choice. Point of view determines the perspective, while composition “sets the frame.”

Frontal perspective

The simplest type of spatial image is with one vanishing point. Perspective is called frontal (one-point) if the object is depicted in a frontal position (“full face”), that is, part of its faces are parallel to the picture plane.

Note that all lines parallel to the line of sight converge at the main point - the vanishing point. All other vertical and horizontal lines perpendicular to the line of sight remain vertical or horizontal after being placed in perspective.

Angular perspective

If the depicted objects are at an angle to the viewer, then this perspective is called. Its key feature is the presence of two vanishing points.

This means perspective, in which we look at an object from an angle. As an example of a perspective with two vanishing points, for clarity, we again present an image of a cube. Its ribs run along the vanishing lines. Some edges of the object in this perspective remain parallel to the picture plane (in our case, these are the side edges). This is the most common type of perspective image, since most objects in the real world are located at an angle relative to us.

Three vanishing point perspective

The third way to draw perspective is, it is also called vertical or oblique. In perspective with three vanishing points, you need to additionally draw upward distortion in angular perspective. This method of visual illustration is often used for architectural drawings. Using this method you can draw skyscrapers very effectively.

We resort to such a perspective when, for example, we look at a tall building from the bottom up, as well as in cases where none of the faces of the depicted object are parallel to the picture plane. The third vanishing point above the horizon is called zenith. The one below - nadir.

In the picture below you can see how the vertical edges of the cube are distorted into perspective by the third vanishing point.

Fortunately, the ability to correctly depict space and the objects that fill it is an acquired skill. Perspective in drawing is studied using theories and formulas; Just as everyone at school once learned to write and count correctly, you can also learn to draw and paint pictures correctly.

Concept of perspective

Perspective doesn't just apply to drawing and other visual arts. Essentially, this is a technique for correctly conveying spatial volume in a plane. Applicable to fine arts, perspective in drawing and painting is the artistic distortion of the proportions of objects and bodies in accordance with their visual perception.

For the first time, artists thought about a more realistic representation of reality in drawing in the era of the Proto-Renaissance, and by the end of the High Renaissance, developed theories, types and rules of perspective already existed. They focused not only on the shape of objects, but also on their color scheme and level of detail.

Types of perspective

Before airy and straight linear perspective in drawing became the norm, paintings that were mostly icons were painted according to standard rules with a huge number of conventions in the image. Very often reverse perspective was used, which made the images distorted and “flat”.

After the basic rules for linear and aerial perspective were established in art, the need arose for more complex and complex images, which required changing the object in accordance with other conditions. Thus, the concept of perspective received a more complex definition, which was no longer easy to divide into linear and aerial.

In modern art, there are several types of perspective - some of them relate to changing the shape of the depicted object, others - to distortion of the color palette.

Changing the shape of objects

Depending on the distance, angle of view and surface on which objects are depicted, different types of perspective are used, among them:

1. Linear perspective is a geometric way of constructing spatial objects on a plane using straight lines. For linear perspective, the center is important - a fixed point (or several) at which lines passing along objects moving away from the foreground converge.

There are several types of linear perspective:

• Straight line - the center of perspective is on the horizon line, which coincides with the eye level of the viewer. All lines laid through objects evenly moving away from the foreground converge at this point.
• Reverse - the center of perspective is at the eyes of the beholder, so it seems that objects become larger and wider as they move away. Reverse perspective was used in Byzantine and Russian icon painting and is designed to create a symbolic image of the “insignificance” of the beholder compared to the depicted reality. When using reverse perspective, there may be more than one horizon line, as well as multiple fixed points of view.
• Angular - used to convey a spatial image of an object standing at an angle to the viewer. The geometric construction of angular perspective is much more complex than direct or reverse.

2. Panoramic perspective - used to construct images on a cylindrical or spherical surface. When using panoramic perspective, the point of view is located at the very center of the circle, while the horizon line is determined by the immediate or desired eye level of the viewer.

3. Spherical perspective is a distortion of real space, in which the center of perspective is always at the eye level of the beholder and in the very center of the image. The only straight lines in spherical perspective are the main vertical, horizon and depth lines. All straight lines converge at a central point, and lines that do not pass through it have a curved shape, and the closer to the edge of the image, the stronger the bend.

Changing the color of objects

When an object moves away, approaches, is angled or curved, not only its shape changes, but also the palette of its color image. Two types of perspective are responsible for tonal, textural, textural and color distortions - tonal and airy.

Tonal perspective considers the change in tonality of an object's surface. Tonality refers to the shades, texture, texture, clarity and contrast of the image. Tonal perspective is used in painting and photography; in drawing, especially landscape painting, the rules of aerial perspective are used. In fact, the rules also include the rules of tonal tone, so novice artists are advised to focus on it.

Aerial perspective in drawing and painting considers the color and tonal distortion of objects as they move away from the eye of the beholder. The rules also consider the vagueness and indistinctness of the shapes of distant objects and changes in their contours.

Linear perspective in drawing

In drawing, there is the concept of frontal linear perspective, which includes forward and backward, as well as angular perspective, which is constructed using straight lines, but according to different rules. Reverse perspective is very rarely used in drawing and painting, so its rules are studied only with deep familiarity with the subject.

When constructing direct linear perspective, two basic rules apply:

1. Objects decrease in size as they move away from the point of view. From this rule it follows that an object located in the foreground of the picture will be significantly larger than the same object depicted in the background.
2. Parallel lines moving away from the observer's eyes into the distance are connected at the “intersection point”, which is located on the horizon line.

Rule one

The main feature of the first rule of linear perspective is that objects become uniformly smaller as they move away from the eye of the beholder. Based on this rule, artists build a composition of a drawing, for example, the perspective of a street - the drawing can contain only part of it (literally several houses), a long segment or the entire street.

The choice of composition determines how many objects will be depicted. How realistic and three-dimensional the image will look depends on how the street perspective is constructed. A drawing can gain or lose from the number of objects chosen, and it all depends on perspective.

For the first rule, it is important to correctly select the point of view, that is, the position from which the artist paints the picture, as well as the eye level of the author of the drawing and how the image should be perceived by the viewer. The perspective and field of view depend on the point of view, which, in turn, determine the perspective of the drawing.

Rule two

Linear perspective is constructed using exclusively straight lines. In this case, not only parallel lines converge at a certain point on the horizon line, but also all lines having a horizontal direction. If you draw straight lines through all the main objects of the drawing, directing them horizontally into the distance, then they all connect at one point.

For the second rule of linear perspective, the horizon line is of particular importance. It is correct to build it at the eye level of the artist, if this is a drawing from life, or at the eye level of the “beholder” - a fictional character through whose eyes what is happening is observed. A sketch of the sea, made while lying on the sand, and a bird's eye view of the city - a landscape in perspective. The drawing, however, is performed from radically different points of view, and therefore the level of the horizon line and, accordingly, the construction of perspective are different.

Constructing angular perspective

Angular perspective is a type of linear geometric construction that requires a horizon line and two points on it. When constructing an angular perspective, it is important to be able to extend the horizon far beyond the boundaries of the drawing.

In one drawing, objects can be positioned either frontally or at an angle to the viewer, so it is important to know how angular perspective works. To construct it correctly, you need a long horizon line protruding beyond both vertical frames of the picture. It is not necessary to lay a physically existing line; it is enough to be able to clearly imagine it.

Several straight lines must be drawn through all visible edges of the corner object. For example, you need a corner house in perspective, the drawing depicts not only this house, but also a street, or part of the city landscape. Typically, a house located at an angle will have two sides visible; straight lines are drawn along each horizontal surface of both faces: doors, windows, cornices, roof and others. With the correct projection of a corner object, all lines passing through its right edge will intersect at one point on the horizon line; this point is usually located outside the drawing. The same will happen with straight lines intersecting the left edge of the object.

Aerial perspective in drawing

The basic rules of aerial perspective allow you to correctly design the tonality of the drawing and convey volume. Among the rules of aerial and tonal perspective that are important for every artist, there are several fundamental ones, without knowledge of which it is impossible to correctly depict space in a drawing.

These rules are as follows:

1. The shade of the depicted object changes as it moves away from the foreground. Dark objects in the distance appear lighter, and light objects appear darker.

2. Depending on air density, time of day and light brightness, distant objects are depicted with the addition of shades of white, gray, blue or purple. This is due to the fact that the air is never transparent, and if near density does not affect the color gamut, then objects in the background pass through the prism of various impurities.

3. The law of contours - even Leonardo da Vinci said that distant objects cannot have the same clear contours as those in the foreground. Consequently, objects depicted in the foreground are outlined with a sharp, clear outline, objects in the background are softer, and the background is drawn with completely blurred contours.

4. The law of details - the human eye is not able to distinguish small features of objects at a great distance, therefore the nearest objects in the picture should be more detailed than distant ones; the distant plan is depicted with a minimum number of them.

5. The law of volume - objects closest to the viewer’s eye should be depicted three-dimensionally, and objects distant - flat.

6. Law of color tone - the palette of the foreground of the picture is richer and more detailed than the palette of the second and distant plans. For single-color images (lithographs, engravings, pencil drawings), the perspective of color tone focuses on the play of light and shadow.

To summarize, a street drawing or cityscape will look unrealistic if each object is depicted with its own tonal nuances and correct form. Linear and aerial perspective, drawings and paintings, made according to the rules, make it possible to convey three-dimensional reality onto a horizontal sheet of paper so that the image does not lose the sense of space inherent in the landscape.

When starting to learn drawing, each student is faced with a new concept - perspective. Perspective is the most effective way to recreate the volume and depth of three-dimensional space on a plane. There are several ways to create the illusion of reality on a two-dimensional surface. The rules of linear and aerial perspective are most often used to depict space. Another common option is angular perspective in a drawing. Each of these methods has its own characteristics.

The history of frontal linear perspective

First, let's look at the concept of linear perspective. It is also called frontal. During the early Renaissance in 1420 in Florence, the great architect, engineer and sculptor Filippo Brunelleschi discovered this option for modeling three-dimensional space on a plane. According to tradition, he went to Rome to study the ruins, and in order to sketch them more accurately, Brunelleschi created this system. He then presented his discovery in Florence.

15 years later, in 1435, another representative of the Renaissance, Alberti, finally approved the architect’s theory and explained it to artists in his treatise “On Painting.” But even before the discovery, artists were able to create realistic images using the laws of perspective intuitively. Linear and aerial perspective existed in painting, but were not described by theorists. Already on a subconscious level, it was obvious to the attentive master that if we continue the lines of the walls and floors of the house, they will definitely converge at some point. Back in the 13th century, the artist Duccio di Buoninsegna tried to convey volume and space in his works, going beyond the boundaries of painting. But the laws of linear and aerial perspective themselves appeared later.

Concept of vanishing point and horizon line

Let's look at a specific example of what perspective is. If you look at rails or other parallel straight lines into the distance, you will notice that they gradually come closer and connect at one point, which is located on a horizontal line where the sky meets the ground. This place is called the horizon line. It is located at the observer's eye level and is located in the distance in front. The easiest way to find it is by following the direction in which the straight lines in the figure are located. They will all strive to converge in one place. The point to which all parallel lines are directed is called the vanishing point or point of view. Aerial and linear perspective are similar in that they usually have a horizon line.

These two concepts are very important for understanding and correctly constructing lines in a drawing. There is one important rule - when moving away, objects visually become smaller, and the distance between them decreases. Using vanishing points, you can determine the height of an object at any distance from them. Due to the fact that they can be moved along the horizon, the frontal perspective can be quite varied. With a central location, the composition will be balanced and symmetrical. If you shift the vanishing point, dynamics and interesting asymmetry appear.

Methods for constructing frontal linear perspective

Frontal linear perspective is also sometimes called scientific perspective. For a very long time this option was considered the only possible one. It consists of three main elements:

• vanishing points;
• horizon lines;
• perpendiculars.

Let's start looking at the construction of this type of perspective from the canvas. Let's mark a rectangle on it - it will be the working plane. Then you need to determine the location of the vanishing point. It can be in the center of the canvas or shifted to the side. Then we mark the horizon line and begin to connect the points on the sides of the rectangle with the vanishing point. You can depict a room by drawing the plank floor, walls and windows. But the problem arises when you have to depict more complex objects, for example, a tile floor. Here you cannot do without finding the measuring point.

Building complex objects

It will be intuitively clear that as you move away, objects will become smaller and narrower, and the horizontal lines will close together. The difficulty is to correctly determine how tightly they will fit together and calculate the proportions. In his treatise “On Painting,” Alberti proposes creating another point outside the picture at eye level, that is, on the horizon line. Now through it and the lines on the “floor of the room” you can draw straight lines that will show promising contractions. Through them, in turn, it will be possible to draw parallel lines and complete the drawing of the objects we need. Two vanishing point perspective is used to depict objects from a corner position where two sides are visible and is called angular perspective. Their surfaces in the picture seem to be compressed, which creates the illusion of extension in space.

Object scale

To correctly construct objects and correctly convey the geometry of space, it is important to determine the scale in advance. For example, when depicting a room, you will need its parameters in meters. You can take any unit of measurement, for example, 2 cm, as a meter, and build objects based on it. The scale bar is applied to the horizon line and vertical parts of the frame. It is easy to draw construction lines through the vanishing point and a point on the ruler, since only two points are needed for a straight line. This makes it easier to create projections.

Determining the measuring point

Then you need to find the measuring point. Before this, the location of the observer is determined. Let's say it is 6 meters from the opposite wall of the room. If the vanishing point is shifted, on the horizon line you need to mark 6+1 meters on a scale using a ruler, moving from that part of the picture that is closer. If we take 2 cm to be 1 meter, therefore, 14 cm is set aside. This is how we get the measuring point. Now you can draw straight lines through it and the serifs to get points on the opposite part of the picture. Then, to create a grid, all that remains is to connect them to the vanishing point, and then draw straight lines parallel to the horizon line through these points.

Reverse linear perspective

Another version of perspective, which was used in examples of Byzantine and Old Russian painting, is called reverse linear perspective. In this case, objects are depicted as if they are increasing as they move away from the viewer. The creation of such a drawing, in contrast to aerial and linear perspective, has some features: the image in this case will have several horizons, points of view and some other nuances in construction.

As they move away from the observer's eyes, the objects in the picture in reverse perspective become wider, as if the vanishing point is located in the place of the beholder. In this case, a holistic space is formed, which is oriented towards the observer. Unlike aerial and linear, reverse perspective is most often used to create sacred images. It helps to embody the space of symbols, to make visible a spiritual connection that is devoid of a specific material form. It has a strict geometric description, in which it is similar to linear. Reverse perspective arose in the Middle Ages and was used to create icons, frescoes, and mosaics. Interest in it returned again in the 20th century, when the heritage of the Middle Ages became popular again.

Aerial perspective

Along with frontal linear perspective, there is the concept of aerial perspective. Its construction method is that distant objects are depicted as if in a haze, behind a layer of air and with a minimum amount of detail. Close ones are clearer and brighter. The more air, the more blurred the object. The combination of two types of perspective, aerial linear and frontal, allows you to create canvases that are indistinguishable from real ones. If the painting depicts additional impurities in the form of rain, sand or fog, the edges of distant images are practically erased. The great artist Leonardo da Vinci was the first to describe this concept. Following the rules of linear and aerial perspective is very important to create a realistic drawing. But they are not used to create all paintings.

Landscape with linear and aerial perspective

When creating a long-range sketch, it is usually written in a desaturated manner, using white with the addition of gray. Therefore, in the picture the background is lighter and blurrier than the first. But much here depends on the artist’s goals. The rules of linear and aerial perspective are not always used in graphic sketching. For landscapes in red-orange colors, for example, for a sunset or a scene using fire, the background is painted using warm shades - red or yellow. In this case, aerial and linear perspective complement each other. The overall tone of the background should be softer and lighter. It is usually recommended to use warm tones for the foreground and cool tones for the background.

Aerial and linear perspective have their own laws of design. Thus, in aerial perspective there is a rule of detail: what is in the distance cannot be discerned by the human eye, so it is depicted as blurry. A similar rule is the rule of contours, according to which the outlines of distant objects should also not be too clear. Aerial and linear perspectives allow you to create canvases that accurately convey the volume of objects and imitate the illusion of additional reality.

I offer a brief overview of one of the central themes in the visual arts since ancient times.

Perspective (fr. perspective from lat. perspicere — look through, penetrate with one's gaze) - a technique for depicting spatial objects on a plane or any surface in accordance with those apparent reductions in their sizes, changes in outline, shape and light-and-shadow relationships that are observed in nature.

In the visual arts, perspective can be used in various ways, which is used as one of the artistic means that enhances the expressiveness of images.

1. Fine distortion of the proportions and shapes of real bodies during their visual perception. For example, two parallel rails appear to converge to a point on the horizon.

2. A method of depicting volumetric bodies that conveys their own spatial structure and location in space.

Depending on the purpose of the image being created and the author’s vision of the object, there are several main types of perspective.

Direct linear perspective

It is designed for a fixed point of view and assumes a single vanishing point on the horizon line (objects proportionally decrease in size as they move away from the foreground).

Direct perspective has long been recognized as the only true reflection of the world in the picture plane.

Taking into account the fact that linear perspective is an image built on a plane, the plane can be positioned vertically, obliquely and horizontally, depending on the purpose of the perspective images.

The vertical plane on which images are constructed using linear perspective is used when creating paintings (easel painting) and wall panels (on the wall indoors or outside the house).

I.I. Shishkin. Kama near Yelabuga

The construction of perspective images on inclined planes is used in monumental painting - painting on inclined friezes inside palace buildings and cathedrals. On an inclined picture in easel painting, perspective images of tall buildings from a close distance or architectural objects of the city landscape from a bird's eye view are constructed.

The construction of perspective images on a horizontal plane is used when painting ceilings (plafonds). For example, mosaic images on the oval lampshades of the Mayakovskaya metro station by artist A.A. are known. Deineki. Images constructed in perspective on the horizontal plane of the ceiling are called ceiling perspective.

Nowadays the dominant use is direct linear perspective largely due to the greater “realism” of such an image, in particular due to the use of this type of projection in 3D games.

In photography, to obtain a linear perspective in a photograph, lenses with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the frame are used. To enhance the effect of linear perspective, wide-angle lenses are used, which make the foreground more convex, and to soften it, long-focus lenses are used, which equalize the difference in the sizes of distant and close objects.

Reverse linear perspective

This is a type of perspective, used, for example, in Byzantine and Old Russian painting, when objects appear to increase in size as they move away from the viewer. The created image has several horizons, points of view and other features.

When depicted in reverse perspective, objects expand as they move away from the eyes, as if the center of convergence of the lines is not on the horizon, but inside the observer himself. Reverse perspective forms a holistic symbolic space, oriented towards the viewer and suggesting his spiritual connection with the world of symbolic images. The reverse perspective meets the task of embodying supersensible sacred content in a visible, but devoid of material concreteness, form.

Reverse perspective has a strict description; mathematically it is equivalent to forward perspective. Reverse perspective arose in late antique and medieval art (miniatures, icons, frescoes, mosaics) in both Western European and Byzantine circles of countries. Interest in reverse perspective increased in the 20th century due to the revival of interest in symbolism and the medieval artistic heritage.

Andrey Rublev. Trinity

Panoramic perspective

This is an image built on an internal cylindrical (sometimes spherical) surface. The word “panorama” literally means “I see everything,” that is, it is a perspective image in the picture of everything that the viewer sees around him.

When drawing, the point of view is placed on the axis of the cylinder (or in the center of the ball), and the horizon line is placed on a circle located at the height of the viewer’s eyes. Therefore, when viewing panoramas, the viewer should be in the center of the round room, where, as a rule, an observation deck is located. Perspective images in a panorama are combined with the foreground, that is, with the real objects in front of it.

The panoramas “Defense of Sevastopol”, “Battle of Borodino”, “Battle of Stalingrad” are well known.

The part of the panorama with real objects lying between the cylindrical surface and the viewer is called diorama. Dioramas often use backlighting to create a lighting effect.

The rules of panoramic perspective are used when drawing paintings and frescoes on barrel vaults and ceilings, in niches, on the outer surface of cylindrical vases and vessels, as well as when creating cylindrical and spherical photo panoramas.

Axonometry

Axonometry (from ancient Greek ἄξων “axis” + μετρέω “I measure”) is one of the types of perspective, based on the method of projection (obtaining a projection of an object on a plane), with the help of which spatial bodies are visually depicted on the plane of paper.

Axonometry, like reverse perspective, was considered imperfect for a long time and, therefore, axonometric images were perceived as a handicraft method of depiction that was forgivable in distant eras and did not have a serious scientific basis. However, when conveying the visible appearance of small objects located nearby, the most natural image is obtained precisely when turning to axonometry.

Axonometry is divided into three types:

1. Isometric (measurement along all three coordinate axes is the same);

2. Dimetry (the measurement along two coordinate axes is the same, and along the third - different);

3. Trimetry (measurement on all three axes is different).

In each of these types, the projection can be rectangular or oblique. Axonometry is widely used in technical literature and popular science books due to its clarity.

Spherical perspective

Spherical distortions can be observed on spherical mirror surfaces. In this case, the viewer's eyes are always in the center of the reflection on the ball. This is the position main point, which is not really tied to either the horizon level or the main vertical.

When depicting objects in spherical perspective, all depth lines will have a convergence point at the main point and will remain strictly straight. The main vertical and the horizon line will also be strictly straight. All other lines will bend more and more as they move away from the main point, transforming into a circle. Each line that does not pass through the center, being extended, is a semi-ellipse.

K.S. Petrov-Vodkin. Bathing the red horse

Aerial (tonal) perspective

Aerial perspective is characterized by the disappearance of clarity and clarity of the outlines of objects as they move away from the observer’s eyes. At the same time, the background is characterized by a decrease in color saturation (the color loses its brightness, the chiaroscuro contrasts are softened), so the depth appears lighter than the foreground.

Aerial perspective is associated with changes in tones, which is why it can also be called tonal perspective. The first studies of the patterns of aerial perspective are found in Leonardo da Vinci.

“Things at a distance,” he wrote, “seem ambiguous and doubtful to you; do them with the same vagueness, otherwise they will appear at the same distance in your picture. Do not limit things that are distant from the eye, for at a distance not only these boundaries, but also parts of bodies are imperceptible.”

The great artist noted that the distance of an object from the observer’s eye is associated with a change in the color of the object. Therefore, to convey the depth of space in a painting, the closest objects must be depicted by the artist in their own colors, the distant ones acquire a bluish tint, “... and the very last objects visible in it, such as mountains due to the large amount of air located between your eye and the mountain , seem blue, almost the color of air...”

Aerial perspective depends on the humidity and dustiness of the air, and especially during fog, at dawn over a body of water, mountains, in the desert or steppe during windy and dusty weather.

*(If anyone knows, friends, please tell me the author and title of the painting)*

Perceptual perspective

Academician B.V. Rauschenbach studied how a person perceives the depth of an observed object in connection with binocular vision, the mobility of the observation point and the constancy of the shape of the object in the subconscious. He came to the conclusion that a close-up view is perceived in reverse perspective, a shallow, distant view is perceived in an axonometric perspective, and a long-range view is perceived in a direct linear perspective.

D. Canaletto. View of the Grand Canal (Venice)

This general perspective, which combines backward, axonometric and forward linear perspective, is called perceptual.

Sources:
en.wikipedia.org
scilib.narod.ru
myshared.ru
Yandex.Pictures

Everyone - have a nice day and beautiful impressions!